Sports Psychology Notes PDF

Chapter 1 - Welcome to Sport and Excercise Psychology Defining Sport and Excercise Psychology ○ Sport psychology is the scientific study of people and their behaviours in sports and exercise activities and the practical application of that knowledge ○ Two primary obje...

Chapter 1 - Welcome to Sport and Excercise Psychology Defining Sport and Excercise Psychology ○ Sport psychology is the scientific study of people and their behaviours in sports and exercise activities and the practical application of that knowledge ○ Two primary objectives: To understand how psychological factors affect an individual’s performance To understand how participation in sport and exercise affects a person’s psychological development, health and well-being How do these factors affect the performance. Chapter 4 - Motivation Sept 25 Identifying four theories of achievement motivation Achievement Goal theory Ego and task orientation ○ Ego orientation: We want to win Want to be better than others, that is winning. The main focus is winning over others and it is going to set the stage for failure ○ Task orientation: the focus is on being better than before. The goal is self-improvement and not winning Environmental demands Entity and incremental goal perspectives: ○ Adopt a goal focus and believe our ability is unchangeable ○ Incremental: task goal perspective where you believe ability can change through effort. When you think you can get better, Approach vs avoidance: ○ Approach: approach it, work towards it ○ Sometimes we set a goal that we can achieve, you are avoiding competence, staying in the safe zone. Motivational climate: ○ Coaches who are hesitant in praise and quick on criticism, athletes would avoid incompetence Competence Motivation Theory  Do you need to feel good about it?? Sometimes, we do something, don’t feel confident, and do the ‘fake it till make it its strategy. What do theories of achievement motivation tell us? : from the textbook. Developing achievement motivation and competitiveness Autonomous competence ○ Young children ○ Mastering Social comparison stage: ○ Who is better ○ When we start hearing about comparing with others Integrated stage ○ No set stage ○ Where we work towards mastery and social skills. ○ Compare ourselves to others Importance of distinguishing between stages Influencing stages of achievement motivation: The climate we (coaches, sports therapists?, and parents) create would have an impact on participants’ motivation Chapter 5 - Arousal, Stress, and Anxiety Defining Arousal and Anxiety Arousal A blend of physiological & psychological activity in the person Measure of intensity It's like a continuum. On one side there is no arousal (like a comatose, ex: sleeping), to the side where it's frenzied, activated. It isn't associated with good or bad, no judgment. It is just a spectrum of where we are at Anxiety It’s a negative state Consists of cognitive thoughts (negative) and somatic anxiety (bodily sensations) Fairly typical somatic anxiety for athletes and regular is a rapid heartbeat. But based on your cognitive thoughts, you would think it is because of physical activity or, a panic attack. State Anxiety The anxiety that changes from moment to moment It can be cognitive state to somatic state changes Trait Anxiety Disposition, part of a personality More likely to experience state anxiety Measuring Arousal and Anxiety Physiological measures: Heart rate, Psychological measures: Asking them, for questionnaires, and self-reports. It can be uni or multi-dimensional. Figure 5.2 pg.88 There is a direct relationship between state and trait anxiety, but it’s not perfect  ○ We would ask before and after the game but it’s going to be biased because of the outcome or their state of mind. ○ We won’t get the correct answer because…. Can be difficult to assess during competition. Defining Stress and Understanding the Stress Process Stress: ○ When not meeting the demand has important consequences. 1. Environmental demand When players have to meet the environmental demands physically and mentally 2. Perception of demand The perception would vary based on the individual ○ It is no longer a moment to shine, but not to screw up Trait anxiety will play a role because when there is a demand, we perceive it as a threat or a challenge they can overcome. 3. Stress response Physical and psychological reaction to demand. Some may see the response as ready and mentally saying this is me getting ready” while some may see it the opposite way. 4. Behavioral consequences The actual behaviour that is enacted and it feeds back to environmental demand. Figure 5.3, pg.89 Identifying sources of stress and anxiety Situational sources of stress ○ Event importance & situation criticality ○ Uncertainty Personal Sources of Stress ○ Trait anxiety Perceive competition as threatening and anxiety provoking. They will pick up on more threat-related cues than those with low traits of anxiety. ○ Self-esteem Low self-esteem is associated with a high perception of stress ○ Social physique anxiety Being anxious when others observe their physique such as look and physique. It is related to the body being evaluated. Has been seen in all levels of sports such as from casual recreational activities to pros. Connecting Arousal and Anxiety to Performance Drive Theory ○ The first theory that connects arousal and anxiety performance ○ As arousal/anxiety increases, so performs. ○ Direct linear relationship ○ Not currently believed to be the case, but related to social facilitation theory Inverted U-Hypothesis ○ At low or too high arousal, performance suffers, but as arousal increases to peak level, performance increases as well. ○ Not everyone has the peak point in the middle. Individualized zones of Optimal Functioning ○ People performing the best are in their zone of optimal functioning. Multidimensional Anxiety Theory ○ Our cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance ○ Somatic state anxiety (bodily) is related to performance in an inverted U relationship. Catastrophe Phenomenon ○ When athletes have low cognitive state anxiety, the physiological arousal is related to performance in an inverted U relationship ○ If the cognitive task is high, it increases in arousal tank post optimal arousal level. Reversal Theory ○ Really speaks on how our interpretation of arousal will determine the impact on performance. ○ Changing the mindset Anxiety Direction and Intensity ○ How much anxiety you will feel as an individual is the intensity. Some tram members feel it intensely while some don’t see it as intensity. ○ Perception is also a factor Is it a threat or a challenge? The threat is when you perceive it is out of your control. We would retreat, avoid, fight When it’s a challenge, we face it, we approach it. Direction is if we facilitate pr debilitative. Why does arousal Influence performance? ○ Muscle tension, fatigue and coordination difficulties This can lead to a deficit in performance  When playing basketball, muscle tension causes a deficit in performance making it a bad throw. Coordination, in hockey and football, when you are more aroused, the narrower the vision. For fatigue, it is seen in long-distance events. Can control them with practice and all. ○ Attention, concentration, and visual search change Task-relevant cues - the position of your teammates, paying a bit of attention to the coaches for their decisions and the position of the opposite team. ​ Task-irrelevant cues - the audience/spectators, individual stats, Arousal can lead to a decrease in environmental scanning. Chapter 6 - Competition and Cooperation Defining Competition and Cooperation Competition ○ a social process that occurs when rewards are given to people on the basis of how their performances compare with the performances of others doing the same task or participating on the same even ○ Success of one participant causes failure of others Cooperation ○ The reward is shared by the group regardless of the level of involvement/participation Most situations involve both competition and cooperation Viewing Competition as a process We look at the objective competition situation, then subjective which comes down to personality dispositions. Then we have the response which is the abilities and then the consequences which are motives and the consequences result in an objective competition situation which is caused by attitudes. Stage 1: Objective Competitive Situation ○ Competing against a known standard and at least one person knows it and can evaluate it ○ The person you are comparing could be yourself from the past. ○ The standard could be even their score, their previous performance or even another player. ○ The key is you are not self-evaluating it. Someone else is evaluating it. It could be your coach, or a judge who knows what you are trying to do. Stage 2: Subjective Competitive Situation ○ How the person perceives, accepts and appraises the objective competitive situation. ○ It really comes down to the individual factors. ○ Win orientation is winning even if beating other players?? ○ Goal Orientation is being the best you can be, and not winning-oriented Stage 3: Response ○ Approach or avoidance of task ○ Response can occur at behavioural, physiological, or psychological levels and these are influenced by internal and external factors. Ex: women boxing with a transgender woman. Stage 4: Consequences Evaluate as positive or negative  Will depend on appraisal where a loss is usually negative, but if athlete had great performance/improvement, may be a positive for them. Previewing Studies of Competition and Cooperation Triplets cyclist ○ Cyclists are faster when racing against or with another cyclist. When you are by yourself, you take your time Deutsch’s puzzle ○ A team works better cooperatively when they have a common goal and when all participants receive the same reward Reviewing Studies of Competition and Cooperation Competition and Aggression ○ Primary focus on winning can produce hostility and aggression ○ Athletes who go to a competition who solely think about winning and nothing else will produce hostility and aggression. Seen in old coaches who are only focused on winning at all costs. Effect of competition and cooperation on performance ○ Cooperation is typically more effective for better performance. We see it in sports and others ○ Individuals though, may perform better when competing against other than if performing the task alone ○ Overemphasis on winning is problematic because they get a little bit dicey?. However, competition itself is not because it helps us navigate ourselves if we are not in the mindset that we want to win all the time. Determining whether competition is good or bad Western culture teaches us that winning is the most important thing. ○ The problem is that it builds stress, shifts the focus to beating others rather than performing our best, contributes to insecurity and lower self-esteem and can create hostility and aggression Because if we focus only on winning and if we lose, we will have negative thoughts which lower self-esteem which also produces insecurity. ○ However, competition can lead us to strive harder and better, and learn from opponents to get better What are they doing that we are not that can help us? ○ Research suggests that it’s best to teach cooperation and competition. Enhancing Cooperation Component Structure of games  ○ Competitive means - Competitive ends Where the goal is to win, to beat everybody and win the competition ○ Cooperative means - Competitive Ends Where we are working with a team, but the end goal is to win and beat the other team ○ Individual Means - Individual ends One or more people are interested in individual skills. You are judged alone as you. ○ Cooperative means - Individual ends You are working with some, you are working cooperatively with others but in a competition, you would beat them if you are against them. ○ Cooperative means - Cooperative ends Players cooperate the whole time. See it more in practice than game situations. There are still going to be some individual end bits. ○ The end goals may be different but the emphasis is on the cooperative means which helps everyone. Philosophy of Cooperative Games ○ Versatile and adaptable We can make any situation adaptable ○ Learn to share, empathize and learn to work together Benefits of blending cooperation and competition ○ Cooperation enhances the enjoyment of the activity, communication and sharing of information ○ Team building activities can play a role. Cooperative games in the gymnasium and the playing field ○ Maximize participation ○ Maximize opportunities to learn skills ○ Do not keep scores ○ Give positive feedback ○ Provide opportunities to play positions. Chapter 7: Feedback, Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation Feedback is important because it helps us learn, make adjustments, hearing a new perspective of how to do something, positive (we feel encouraged) or negative (we probably won’t do it again or learn from it) - We like feedback and we need feedback Principles of Reinforcement Reinforcement is the use of rewards and punishments that increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response happening again (skinner) Two basic principles: ○ If doing something results in a good consequence, people will tend to repeat the behaviour to get additional positive consequences ○ If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence, people will tend to try not to repeat the behaviour to avoid additional negative consequences Things to remember ○ The Same reinforcer won’t have the same effect on all people ○ People cannot always repeat the reinforced behaviour Skinner may not be completely accurate (flow state) ○ Completing reinforcers/motives Hanging out with friends or attending a training session Approaches to Influencing Behaviour Positive ○ Focus on rewarding appropriate behaviour ○ Motivates people Negative ○ Focus on punishing undesirable behaviours ○ Draws attention to errors, criticism Predominant in SEP should be positive ○ 5:1 positive: negative for feedback (2:1 for pros) 5 positive things for 1 negative thing and 2 positive things for 1 negative thing in pros Guidelines for Using Positive Reinforcement Choose Effective Reinforcers: They need to meet the needs of the recipient ○ Social reinforcers: Coach gave us a high-five, material reinforcers: medalling- t-shirts etc. Activity reinforcers: if everything goes well we’ll play games or scrimmage at the end of practice. Special outings: team parties, going out as a team (depending on the age and strata of the team) ○ They distinguish between extrinsic: Come from an external source or intrinsic: Come from within  We want extrinsic at the beginning then we eventually want to have our motivation coming from intrinsic motivation Schedule reinforcements effectively ○ Continuous (after every appropriate behaviour) or intermittent (only sometimes) Continuous (& immediate) is best at the beginning/when learning a new skill Reward Appropriate Behaviours ○ Reward successful approximation Shaping ○ Reward performance is not the only outcome ○ Reward effort ○ Reward emotional and social skills We want to encourage sportsmanship Provide Performance Feedback ○ Feedback should be specific and linked to performance ○ Benefits of feedback: Motivational feedback, instructional feedback Motivational feedback can enhance mood (way to go, good effort, you were so close etc.) Instructional feedback can help athletes get better (next time just before you shoot don’t look up, use your body to create more) ○ Types of feedback: Knowledge of performance, knowledge of results Knowledge of performance: what sequence causes the action (where do we want to make athletes change sequence) Knowledge of results: How this feedback can make a difference Guidelines for Using Punishment Support of punishment for big things (like cheating) Criticisms of Punishment ○ Can be degrading, arouse a fear of failure, can reinforce the desire for attention can create an aversive learning environment Making Punishment Effective ○ Be consistent, punish the behaviour (not the person) and make sure it’s appropriate Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards Factors affecting intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: ○ Social Factors (success and failure, how it relates to competency) ○ Psychological factors (we need to feel competent, we want to do stuff on our own [autonomy], the need for relatedness) Do extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation? They can Cognitive Evaluation Theory Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Developed to explain variability in intrinsic motivation ○ Subtheory of self-determination theory Controlling Aspect of Rewards ○ Related to the locus of causality Informational Aspect of Rewards ○ After how competent a person feels Functional Significance of the Event ○ How the individual interprets the reward (ie. controlling or informational) Flow-A Special Case of Intrinsic Motivation Flow (coined by Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) increases intrinsic motivation Flow is like being in the zone or on autopilot Chapter 8: Diversity and Inclusion Everybody should have a place, where everybody gets safe, meets needs and all. It’s like where everybody is equal. One of the things sports should provide is space for everybody in sports but it’s been a problem as people make it hard for trans people and all. Definition of Culture, Diversity, Equity, Inclusion and Cultural Competence Diversity: Deals with the characteristics we use to differentiate people ○ Essentially the labels we assign to people ○ We all have biases - we need to become aware of them in order to become culturally competent. We need to be aware of what we are putting out there (what we are giving) and our biases Equity: giving everyone an equal opportunity to succeed or achieve their goals by ensuring they have what they need to do so ○ It isn’t giving everyone the same thing. It is ensuring that they give what they need to achieve their goal. ○ Often referred to as social justice ○ It looks different for different people based on their needs Inclusion: The degree to which people are free to express their individuality and feel connected to and have a sense of belonging to a group Culture: “Shared values, beliefs, and practices of an identifiable group of people, and thus it includes race, ethnicity, gender, language spirituality, sexuality, and physicality” (Gill, Williams, & Reifsteck, 2017, p. 63 of text ○ We are products of the cultures we live in This also plays a role in the power and privilege we may or may not have ○ Many of us are part of many groups and how do we work it? ○ Related terms: Enculturation How we learn to be part of a group Acculturation How we live in a culture that is different from our own Cultural Competence: deals with action and advocacy ○ Recognizing culturally based differences and interacting and working effectively with people from different cultures than you ○ Three components Cultural awareness Understanding our own values, beliefs and attitudes Cultural knowledge Understanding and learning about other people’s culture  Cultural skills The ability to communicate and interact culturally appropriate way Cultural Sport and Exercise Psychology Research Cultural sport psychology emphasizes the role of culture on an athlete/performer’s well-being Gender and Sexuality ○ Gender and sport and physical activity participation Sex = male or female (biological) Gender = whether one identifies as male-female or non-binary Men participate in sports and physical activity at higher rates than women Stereotypes can play a role (ex: a woman playing hockey is not feminine) Women and Sports Leadership In the states, Title IX (1972) increased the number of women playing sports, but leadership positions are still male-dominated Sexual Prejudice ○ Homonegativism is a problem Basically treating people badly, homophobia without the fears?? Disabilities ○ Traditionally, not a lot of opportunities, but this is changing ○ Sports for athletes with intellectual disabilities Special Olympics ○ Sports for people with physical disabilities Wounded Warrior programs, Paralympics Barriers exist on multiple levels. Weight Bias ○ Obese and overweight individuals are less likely to engage in physical activity, in part because of the weight bias of fitness professionals Race and ethnicity ○ While sport can be a vehicle for advancement for people of colour, it doesn’t always work out that way (ex: few pro careers, lower graduation rates) Shacarri-richardson-kamila-valieva-doping Updates Shacarri-richardson-world-title-100-meters-spt-intl Court-arbitration-sport-kamila-valieva-four-year-suspension-anti-d oping-rule-violation Acculturation of immigrant athletes and coaches ○ American players tend to be more individualistic, European more collectivist - when you have both types of players on a team, dynamics are impacted  ○ Acculturation is a process Benefits of Diversity and Inclusion More diversity in groups and teams can enhance performance ○ More perspectives, more options Diversity training is not enough - must continue to be supported Chapter 9: Introduction to Psychological Skills Training What Psychological Skills Training Needed Psychological Skills Training (PST): is a systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater self-satisfaction ○ Methods of PST come from general psychology Cognitive therapy, goal setting ○ Athletes spend a lot of time practicing physical skills but often neglect psychological ones. ○ Ex: you are stressed, and you try Yoga or meditation but it doesn't work because it needs to be practiced regularly, like a routine to get something out of it. Why PST is important Psychological factors account for many day-to-day fluctuations in performance Mental Toughness: athlete’s ability to focus rebound from failure, cope with pressure, and their determination to persist in the face of adversity ○ Seen related to athletic performance Most coaches view sports as 50% mental when competing against a similar able opponent ○ Sports like golf use more than 50% of mental where your mental state would determine how you are going to perform Why sport and exercise participants neglect PST Lack of knowledge Misunderstanding about Psychological Skills Lack of time Myths about PST Myth 1: PST is for “problem” athletes only Myth 2: PST is for elite training only Myth 3: PST provides “quick fix” solutions PST knowledge base Research on elite athletes ○ The General consensus is that more successful athletes differ from less successful ones in how developed their psychological skills are Experiences of athletes and coaches  ○ Elite/Olympic athletes and coaches endorse the use of psychological skills Three phases of PST programs Education phase ○ Participants learn about psychological skills and how they impact performance Acquisition phase ○ Participants learn strategies and techniques for the different skills Practice phase ○ Participants practice what they have learned ○ Three objectives: Automate skills through overlearning Teach people to systematically integrate psychological skills into performance situations Stimulate skills people will want to apply in actual competition. Self-regulation: The ultimate goal of PST The ultimate goal of PST is to have athletes incorporate what they have learned so that they don't need direction from their coach or sports psychologist ○ Essentially, self-regulation: is the ability to work toward one’s short and long-term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours Five stage model of Self-regulation Figure 12.1, pg.284 Stage 1: problem identification Stage 2: Commitment Stage 3: execution Stage 4: Environmental management Stage 5: generalization Who should conduct PST programs? In a perfect world, sports psychologist consultants should be conducting PST programs There are apps and websites for that When to implement a PST program The best time to start is the off-season or preseason ○ This gives athletes time to learn and practice before the season gets underway  ○ Yet, coaches will often request it in the middle of the season when they reach a point of desperation Common problems in implementing PST programs Lack of conviction Lack of time Lack of sport knowledge Lack of follow-up ○ Show up, check-in Chapter 13: Arousal Regulation Increasing Self-Awareness of Arousal The first step to being able to control arousal levels is to become more aware of them How you cope with anxiety is more important than how much anxiety you have Using Anxiety Reduction Techniques Somatic Anxiety Reduction Techniques Techniques work to reduce physiological arousal associated with somatic anxiety They are: ○ Progressive relation - progressive music relaxation techniques (video) Process of tensing muscles and relaxing ○ Breath control ○ Biofeedback Cognitive Anxiety Reduction Techniques The focus is on relaxing the mind (and the body will follow) ○ Relaxation response Essentially meditation without a spiritual element ○ Autogenic training Focusing on heaviness and warmth in the body ○ Systematic desensitization Combination of learning relaxation and creating an anxiety hierarchy Multimodal anxiety reduction packages Focus on somatic and cognitive anxiety together Cognitive-affective stress management training  ○ Teaches relaxation (coping skills) and cognitive components to control emotional arousal Stress inoculation training ○ Exposed to and learned to cope with stress in increasing amounts Pressure training ○ The idea is to make practice situations more similar to the competition including a sense of pressure ○ Demands of training Task stressors Performer stressors Environmental stressors ○ Consequences of training Forfeit stressors Reward stressors Judgement stressors ○ Stress Exposure Training (SET) is another possibility Hypnosis ○ An altered state of consciousness that can be induced and renders a person unusually relaxed and susceptible to suggestions ○ Can help with reducing anxiety, but somewhat controversial. Effectiveness of anxiety reduction techniques ○ Can improve performance Figure 13.1 (p.306) Exporing the matching hypothesis How to pick which anxiety reduction strategy to use? ○ If cognitive anxiety, cognitive technique ○ If somatic anxiety, somatic technique ○ If both or uncertain, multimodal Coping with Adversity Definition of coping ○ “a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984,p. 311 of text) Categories of coping ○ Problem-focused ○ Emotion-focused ○ Social support coping Using Arousal-Inducing Techniques Sometimes you need to get pumped too ○ Remember, first - become aware of your arousal level, then decide if it needs to go up or down. ○ Some strategies: Music Visualization Chapter 14: Imagery Defining Imagery Imagery: creating or re-creating an experience in the mind It is different from daydreaming because you are in control, and actively creating it Can help athletes A form of stimulation Should involve as many senses as possible ○ Visual ○ Auditory ○ Tactile ○ Olfactory  ○ Kinesthetic (how our body moves) Particular useful for athletes Mood can also be incorporated Could ue imagery as coping mechanism, Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What Where do athletes image? ○ Competition (more so than in training) When? ○ All the time Why? ○ Motivation - use imagery to visualize specific goals and goal-oriented behaviors ○ Cognition - use imagery to practice specific skills and strategies What? ○ Surroundings ○ Nature of imagery Positive or negative ○ Type of imagery Visual, kinesthetic, auditory, olfactory ○ Imagery perspective Internal imagery - first person perspective External imagery - outside observer perspective How Imagery Works? Psychoneuromuscular Theory ○ Ideomotor principle of imagery: imagery facilitates the learning of motor skills because of the nature of the neuromuscular activity patterns activated during imaging Imagery is like a blueprint for the motor skills. Symbolic learning theory ○ Imagery may function as a coding system to help people understand and acquire movement patterns Bioinformational model ○ Imagers are composed of stimulus propositions and response propositions. Functional equivalence theory ○ Idea that imagery and physical practice are functionally equivalent Triple code model ○ Three effects (ISM) are essential to imagery Image  Somatic response Meaning Psychological explanations ○ Attention-arousal set theory Imagery prepares us to reach an optimal level of arousal ○ The idea that imagery helps build psychological skills critical to performance enhancement Keys to Effective Imagery Vividness ○ The more detail the better Include as many senses as possible ○ Controllability You want an image to be of the performance you want to have - control errors When can we use imagery? Before and after the competition Off-season Training camp Recovered from injury Personal time (we can use it any time when we want) Chapter 15: Self Confidence Defining Self-Confidence Self-confidence: the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behaviour ○ State self-confidence Something you feel today unstable ○ Trait self-confidence Part of your personality stable ○ Self-fulfilling prophecy: Expecting something to happen helps cause it to happen Benefits of Self-Confidence ○ High expectancy of success Optimal Self-Confidence ○ Inverted U relationship for confidence and performance  Lack of Confidence ○ Self-doubt undermines performance Overconfidence ○ False confidence → Performance suffers Model of Sport Confidence Understanding How Expectations Influence Performance Self-Expectations and Performance ○ Believing you can do something often leads to you being able to do so Coaching expectations and Athlete’s Performance ○ Coaches form expectations ○ Coaches’ expectations influence their behaviours ○ Coaches’ behaviours affect athletes’ performances ○ Athletes’ performances confirm the coaches’ expectations Examining Self-Efficacy Theory Self-Efficacy: perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully ○ A situation-specific form of self-confidence  ○ Self-regulatory efficacy: focuses on one’s abilities to overcome obstacles or challenges to successful performance ○ Based on Bandura’s self-efficacy theory Sources of Self-Efficacy ○ Performance accomplishments ○ Vicarious experience ○ Verbal persuasion ○ Imaginal experiences ○ Physiological states ○ Emotional states Building Self-Confidence Focusing on Performance Accomplishment Acting Confident Responding with Confidence ○ To mistakes Thinking Confidently Using Imagery Using Goal Mapping Optimizing Physical Conditioning and Training Preparing Fostering Social Climate Building Team (collective) Efficacy Chapter 16: Goal Setting Definition of Goals Objective goals: specific goal in a set time frame ○ Lose 10 pounds by Christmas Subjective goals: general statements of intent ○ I want to be happy ○ I want to have good grade (it may differ based on the month and all) Types of Goals ○ Outcome goals ○ Performance goals ○ Process goals  Outcome, Performance, and Process Goals in Behavior Change ○ All three types of goals play a role in changing behaviour Effectiveness of Goal Setting Why Goal Setting Works ○ Indirect thought-process view Goals, lead to changes in psychological factors (ex: anxiety, confidence) which then influence performs ○ Direct mechanistic view Goals influence performance in one of four ways: Goals direct attention to important elements of the skill being performed Goals mobilize performer persistence Goals prolong performer efforts Goals foster the development of new learning strategies Principles of Goal Setting Set specific goals Set moderately difficult but realistic goals Set long and short-term goals Set performance, Process and Outcome goals Fig 16.1 ○ Set Mastery-Approach versus Performance - Avoidance Goals ○ Mastery - Approach: improve my time by 5 seconds ○ Mastery - Avoidance: don’t be slower than last time ○ Performance - Approach: finish in top 10  ○ Performance - avoidance: don’t finish last Set Practice and competition goals Record Goals Develop Goal Achievement Strategies Consider Participants’ Personalities, motivations and learning status Foster and individual goal commitment Provide goal support Provide evaluation of and feedback about goals ○ This is the step most often missed Design of a goal-setting system First stage: Planning and Preparation Second stage: Education and Acquisition Third stage: Implementation and Goal Follow-Up and Evaluation Common Problems in Goal Setting Convincing students. Athletes and exercisers to set goals Failing to set specific goals Setting too many goals too soon Failing to adjust goals Failing to recognize individual differences Not providing follow-up and evaluation Workshop: do you understand the concept of presenting it to someone else, Ex: the audience is trainers and it focuses on drugs. red flags, when should they contact the athletes, when should they contact the coaches and all. Paper: need to use articles, general Handout: follow along with the workshop, Chapter 17: Concentration Defining Concentration Concentration: “refers to a person’s ability to exert deliberate mental effort on what is most important in any given situation” (Moran, 2004, p.396) ○ Concentration typically has four parts Focusing on relevant cues in the environment (selective attention)  Maintaining that attentional focus over time Having awareness of the situation and performance errors Shifting attentional focus when necessary Terms attention and concentration are used synonymously throughout this chapter Explaining Attentional Focus: Three Processes Role of attention in performance explained with an information-processing approach ○ Three processes Attentional Selectivity The idea of attention as a spotlight The only important aspects are to attend to Attentional Capacity You can only process so much at a time Attentional Alertness Increases in arousal narrow the attentional field ○ Its like having a tunnel vision Identifying Types of Attentional Focus Two Dimensions ○ Width (broad or narrow) ○ Direction (internal or external) Broad attentional focus allows a person to perceive several occurrences simultaneously Narrow attentional focus A person responds to only one or two cues Ex: baseball. Ball stopper? players need to pay attention to all the things while outliers? only need to pay attention to the batter and the ball. External attentional focus Directs attention outward Internal attention focus Directs attention inward Which is thoughts and feelings Recognizing Attentional Problems Internal Distracters ○ Attending to past events ○ Attending to future events ○ Chocking under pressure ○ Overanalyzing body mechanics ○ Fatigue ○ Inadequate motivation If our attention is not adequate, our motivation will go down  External Distracters ○ Visual distracters Crowds, scoreboards, TV cameras ○ Auditory distracters Depends on the sport and their expectations. Ex: golf and tennis expect quiet audience participation while hockey, soccer, baseball and more have loud audience participation so for those sports, a quiet audience is a distracter. Using Self-Talk to Enhance Concentration Self-Talk: Any statement you make to yourself ○ Can be facilitative or debilitative Three types ○ Positive (motivational) What we are bad at ○ Instructional ○ Negative What we are best at, and the most common type of self-talk (why did you do that when you know you should do this) Self-talk and performance enhancement ○ Positive self-talk can enhance performance Techniques for improving self-talk ○ Thought stopping  Sounds easy but hard. Want to get ourselves to a point where we stop ourselves when we have negative self-talk ○ Changing negative self–talk to positive self-talk We move from negative to neutral and then positive self-talk. It takes effort Rational emotive behaviour therapy ○ The idea that events are neutral and our interpretation is either adaptive or maladaptive ○ Focus on irrational thoughts (like I’m worthless) and challenge it Improving Concentration On-Site Techniques ○ Use simulations in practice Training with distractions to make it similar to the game ○ Use cue words To trigger a response it could be emotional, instructional or motivational. ○ Use nonjudgmental thinking Really hard because we tend to categorize things as good or bad. Look for what we can change (instructional) ○ Establishing routines ○ Develop competition plans Knowing what to do and anticipating problems and solutions ○ Overlearn skills ○ Multiple object tracking ○ Thinking aloud FINALS: Go through lectures, class notes, thinking about the presentations, chapter summaries. Chapters on the quizzes Textbook on the unclear things 10 written questions 3 points each 30% All of them are applying questions