Sports Psychology Past Paper PDF

**Paper 2** **Sports Psychology** **\ ** **Teacher: Will Jenkins** **Name: Iona Thompson** **Topics / Contents:** 1. **Personality (Pages 3-7)\ ** 2. **Attitude (Pages 8-13)\ ** 3. **Arousal (Pages 14-18)\ ** 4. **Motivation (Pages 19-22)\ ** 5. **Anxiety & Stress (Pag...

**Paper 2** **Sports Psychology** **\ ** **Teacher: Will Jenkins** **Name: Iona Thompson** **Topics / Contents:** 1. **Personality (Pages 3-7)\ ** 2. **Attitude (Pages 8-13)\ ** 3. **Arousal (Pages 14-18)\ ** 4. **Motivation (Pages 19-22)\ ** 5. **Anxiety & Stress (Pages 23-35)\ ** 6. **Aggression (Pages 36-42)\ ** 7. **Social Facilitation / Inhibition (Pages 43-49)\ ** 8. **Self-confidence / self-efficacy (Pages 50-55)\ ** 9. **Group / Team Dynamics (Pages 56-64)\ ** 10. **Goal Setting (Pages 65-69)\ ** 11. **Leadership Styles (Pages 70-76)** 12. **Attribution (Pages 77-80)** Personality is defined as:\ **The patterns of thoughts and feelings and the way we interact with our environment and other people that make us a unique person** We split personalities into 2 types. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Type A** | **Type B** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Works fast | - Works slowly | | | | | - Likes control | | | | | | - Strong desire to succeed | - Doesn't like control | | | | | - Prone to stress | - Lack of desire to succeed | | | | | | - Less prone to stress | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Trait Theory:** States that we are born with our traits, which are innate / genetic and that they are consistent and will not change throughout our lives. **Personality Traits** **Description** **Practical Example** ------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Stable** Someone who is constant in their emotions (doesn't swing from one emotion to another).  Performer who is consistently calm under pressure. Could also be a player who is consistently aggressive. **Unstable** Someone who is highly anxious and has unpredictable emotions (swings from one emotion to another).  Performer changing from calm persona to aggressive. **Extroverts** A person who seeks social situations, likes excitement, but lacks concentration. **Introverts** A person who doesn't seek social situations, likes peace and quiet and is good at concentrating.  **\ Why do introverts avoid social situations while extroverts seek social situations?** - **Introvert**: Stimulated RAS, so high levels of internal arousal. - **Extrovert**: Unstimulated RAS, so low levels of internal arousal. **Social Learning Theory:** Bandura proposed this theory. Social Learning suggests that a person\'s personality derives from watching and copying someone or something in our situation / environment **(learning requires reinforcement).** It also believes that personality can be determined by the people around us. E.g. We are more likely to copy the personality of our role models / significant others. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **The Bobo Doll Experiment:** | | | | Summarise the experiment in this box... | | | | **This experiment should not have been carried out. The children in | | the video will now think violence is ok. Children copy everything | | they see as they think it is ok meaning parents bringing up their | | children must be very careful that their children will copy | | everything they do and their actions as they think it is ok.** | | | | **Relating to sport:** | | | | **If a child looks up to a role model in sport and they display | | aggressive behaviour the children will think it is ok as they look up | | to their role models and want to copy them** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Interactionist Theory:** **\ **This approach agrees that we have traits that remain consistent, **but** on occasion, our traits interact with the environment and affect our personality and behaviour.\ \ E.g. This explains how a player can be shy off the field, but during a game, can be loud and aggressive.\ \ **B = f (PE)        Behaviour = Function (Personality & Environment)\...**  **Evaluating the 3 theories of personality:** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Trait | **Social | **Interac | | | | | Theory** | Learning | tionist | | | | | | Theory** | Theory** | | | | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | **Advanta | **Disadva | **Advanta | **Disadva | **Advanta | **Disadva | | ges** | ntages** | ges** | ntages** | ges** | ntages** | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | If the | Personali | Bobo Doll | Too | More | Doesn't | | theory is | ty | experimen | simplisti | realistic | support | | correct, | is | t | c. | than | the fact | | we can | unlikely | supports | | trait as | that | | predict | to just | this | Personali | it | twins | | behaviour | be | theory.\ | ty | explains | that have | |. | innate. | \ | is | the | been | | | | There is | unlikely | influence | brought | | There is | Doesn't | some | to be | of the | up the | | some | account | evidence | just the | environme | same way, | | evidence | for how | to | environme | nt. | same age | | that | personali | suggest | ntally | | and have | | personali | ties | that | determine | Considers | the same | | ty | seem to | aspects | d. | both | environme | | is | change in | of | | traits | nt | | influence | different | personali | Twins | and | can be | | d | environme | ty | brought | environme | totally | | by | nts. | is | up in the | nt. | different | | genetics. | | learned | same | | | | | Identical | by | environme | Explains | | | | twins | watching | nt | why | | | | brought | and | can show | behaviour | | | | up in | copying | different | is often | | | | different | significa | personali | unpredict | | | | environme | nt | ties. | able. | | | | nts | others. | | | | | | do not | | If true, | Explains | | | | always | | we would | why | | | | have the | | have the | situation | | | | same | | same | s | | | | personali | | personali | determine | | | | ties. | | ty | personali | | | | | | as our | ty. | | | | | | role | | | | | | | models. | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ **Personality PPQ's:** **Type A personalities are said to be highly competitive, whereas Type B personalities are non-competitive. Give one other characteristic of both personality types (2 marks). \ Type A -- Works fast** **Type B -- Works slowly** **\ Describe a Type A Personality (2 marks).\ A type A personality is someone who has a high desire to succeed, works fast, likes to have control, is highly competitive and is prone to stress** **Define Personality (1 mark).\ **The patterns of thoughts and feelings and the way we interact with our environment and other people that make us a unique person**\ \ Describe the behaviour of a stable extrovert (2 marks).** A stable extrovert will have a constant emotion whether that be calm or aggression and will always seek a social situation to buzz the RAS part of their brain and stays consistent in that **\ Give 2 strengths of the Interactionist Theory (2 marks).** **Considers both traits and environment and explains why behaviour is often unpredictable** **Describe the Social Learning and Interactionist Theories of personality (4 marks).** Social learning: observe and imitate attitude of significant others; required vicarious reinforcement.\ Interactionist: interaction between traits and environment; behaviour changes depending on environmental demand. **Evaluate the Trait and Social Learning Theories of personality (4 marks).** Trait theory:\ Personality can be predicted; personality is innate (aggressive tendencies); BUT not accurate as not likely to just be genetic input that determines our personality; doesn\'t account for how personality seems to change in different environments if it is just based on traits; Identical twins who are brought up in different environments do not demonstrate the same personality therefore suggesting it\'s not just traits that determine personality.\ Social learning theory:\ Bobo doll experiment supports the idea; some aspects of personality are learned by watching and copying others; BUT too simplistic as it is not likely to be just our environment that determines our personality; twins brought up in the same way don\'t always display the same personality; if the theory was true we would all have the same personality. **Define the following terms in relation to Personality: Type A / Type B / Introvert / Extrovert (4 marks).** **Type A - A personality type that is often characterized by impatience, drive, and competitiveness. ** **Type B - A personality type that is often characterized by being more easy-going and tolerant than Type A personalities. ** **Introvert - A personality type that is characterized by being more reflective, reserved, and quiet. Introverts tend to gain energy from being alone and may feel the need to \"recharge\" after spending time with a large group of people. ** **Extrovert - A personality type that is characterized by being more outgoing, talkative, and energetic. Extroverts tend to gain energy from being around people and enjoy interacting with the outside world.** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ **Attitude is defined as... An emotional response that influences behaviour and brings about an individual's typical actions towards an attitude object** - Attitudes can be seen as both positive or negative... - Attitudes can be seen as part of someone's personality\... Attitudes are often directed towards a particular situation, person(s) or object(s)\... (a.k.a. An Attitude Object).\ \ E.g. Going to the gym / High school PE / Football / Referees / Rules / Tennis / Opposition players\... **The components of an attitude (The Triadic Model):** **Cognitive:** Our knowledge and beliefs (what we know) formed through significant others and past experiences. - E.g. You know that going running is good for your health and fitness. **Affective:** Our emotions (how we feel) based on past experiences. - E.g. You enjoyed running the last time you went making it a positive past experience, **Behavioural:** Our physical response based on our beliefs and emotions. - E.g. You know that going running is good for your health and fitness and you havd a positive past experience, therefore you keep going running. **COGNITIVE CONSONANCE**: All 3 elements of the Triadic Model align which means our behaviour matches our attitude. E.g. \- the belief that fitness training will keep you fit and improve body image (cognitive element) \- you enjoy fitness training and have fun being with others you train with (affective element) \- you go fitness training twice a week (behavioural element) **COGNITIVE DISSONANCE:** 2 or more elements of the Triadic Model conflict, meaning behaviour does not match our attitude. (The coach must introduce new information to change an attitude here). E.g. A teacher wants to promote gymnastics to a group of boys. Their attitudes are negative as they think it is an unmasculine activity (belief 1). The teacher introduces them to an older boy with a high muscle definition and the boys start to believe gymnastics is more 'masculine' now (belif 2). Belief 2 may cause many of the boys to experience dissonance ir disagreement with their own minds. **Attitude formation:** **\ ** **Education:** **Media:** **Religion:** **Past Experiences:** **Social Learning Theory:** **Changing attitudes:** We change attitudes through he use of... **Persuasive communication** This is where you explain the benefits or negative side effects of something to convince them to change their attitude. E.g. Explaining the long-term health benefits of going to the gym to make them start going. Persuasive communication is only effective if... - The person doing the persuading is of a high status/role model - The message is clear and understandable - The characteristics of who is been persuaded is accepting - The message must also make sense and be understanded **Stereotypes:** A belief held by a collection of people about traits shared by a certain category of person. E.g. "boys are no good at dance"  or "girls shouldn\'t play contact sports" etc\... Although these are not true, the fact that they exist affect the way in which people form their own attitudes and beliefs. **Questions** **Identify 5 factors that can affect the formation of a positive attitude (5 marks).** - **Gratitude**: Being mindful of what you\'re thankful for can help you react more positively to stressful situations.  - **Surrounding yourself with positive people**: Spending time with positive people can help create a positive mindset.  - **Challenging negative thoughts**: It\'s okay to have negative thoughts, but you can try to challenge negative thought patterns.  - **Practicing self-compassion**: Being kind to yourself is just as important as being kind to others.  - **Adopting a healthy lifestyle**: Exercising, eating a healthy diet, and getting enough sleep can positively affect your mood and reduce stress Using examples, explain **three** ways in which persuasive communication might change a sports performer 's attitude **(3 marks).** When the persuader is of high status e.g. a football coach trying to persuade a player to go to training. When the information within the message is clear and accurate e.g. going swimming will help you lose weight is a clear message. The recipient also needs to be open to persuasion e.g. a stubborn individual may provide a counter argument that running causes overuse injuries. Explain the term 'cognitive dissonance' in relation to changing an attitude in sport **(2 marks).** a psychological state that occurs when someone\'s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours are inconsistent. **Define the term attitude and identify 2 factors that form a person's attitude (3 marks).** Attitude is a person\'s evaluation of a person, object, issue, or situation, and is made up of a set of beliefs, emotions, and behaviours. Attitudes can be positive, negative, prejudicial, or impartial. Two factors that form a person\'s attitude are: **Life experiences -** A person\'s upbringing, education, and social influences shape their attitudes.  **Culture and social norms -** A person\'s attitudes can be formed by what they have been educated to believe. For example, boys are typically uncomfortable with dance, whereas girls are comfortable with it Using a practical sporting example, describe the 3 components of an attitude **(6 marks).** Cognitive: What we know and believe about the attitude object (beliefs).\ E.g. I believe that jogging is good for me and helps me keep fit.\ \ Affective: How we feel about the attitude object (emotions).\ E.g. I enjoy keeping fit and it makes me feel good.\ \ Behavioural: How we respond or intend to respond to the attitude object (behaviour).\ E.g. I go jogging three times a week. Using a practical sporting examples, explain how an attitude can be formed **(5 marks).** Attitudes can be formed in sports through a variety of factors, including: - **Direct experience**: A pleasant experience in a sport can lead to a positive attitude.  - **Social learning**: Observing and modelling the behaviour of more experienced athletes can lead to the formation of similar attitudes.  - **Environmental factors**: Players from similar backgrounds tend to have similar attitudes.  - **Emotional responses**: Affective and emotional responses can influence attitude formation.  Here are some examples of how attitudes can be developed in sports: - **Positive self-talk**: Athletes can use positive self-talk to counter negative thoughts. - **Visualization**: Athletes can use visualization to build confidence and prepare for success.  - **Goal setting**: Athletes can set achievable goals to stay motivated and maintain a positive mindset.  - **Embracing challenges**: Athletes can view challenges as opportunities for learning and growth.  - **Mindfulness**: Athletes can practice mindfulness techniques like meditation and deep breathing to stay focused and present.  - **Commitment**: Athletes can commit to achieving excellence in training and apply the same focus and determination to training as they do to competing.  - **Cheer on teammates**: Athletes can cheer on teammates with positive statements and avoid trash-talking the other team.  - **Acknowledge good plays**: Athletes can acknowledge and applaud good plays, even when the other team makes them.  Using examples from sport, explain how an individual may learn a new sporting skill according to Bandura's theory of observational learning.\ Discuss how observation of others has an impact on the formation of attitudes (10 marks). Observational learning states our behaviour is formed by copying others \ Copying is more likely to occur if a significant other is observed \ - Reinforcement makes copying more likely to occur \ - Theory derives from the \'Bobo doll\' experiment \ \ Bandura\'s theory/ processes \ - Attentions the first process \ - for an individual to be able to copy a demonstration they must pay attention to the demonstration. \ - They must focus on the important cues. E.g. If a coach is showing a netball player how to shoot, they player must watch the demonstration carefully to be able to copy it. \ E.g. the coach will highlight the cues and coaching points, and the player must listen carefully to be able to copy it. \ - The amount of attention paid to the demonstration will be influenced by how interested the performer is/ how motivated they are to be able to perform the skill/ perceived attractiveness of the model. \ - The status/importance of the model.E.g. if the model is of high status/ older then the learner may pay more attention, for example more attention may be paid to a county footballer doing a demonstration of shooting than one E.g. if the learner has a long attention span then they may be able to really pay attention to a hockey coach showing them some different ways to take a penalty shot \ - Incentives will also. E.g. if there is a reward for being able to copy the skill or by copying the skill it means the learner can score/ perform a trick/ get round a defender then they may be more motivated to watch the demonstration closely to copy it. \ - Retentionist the second process. Observer must be able to remember the model that is presented. \ - Needs to create a mental picture of the process. E.g. the learner must be able to remember the stages of the triple jump to be able to repeat it. \ - Repetition of the demonstration will help improve retention. E.g. The table tennis coach could repeat the serve several times to help the learner remember the key points\ - Mental rehearsal can improve retention. E.g. a basketball player may imagine themselves performing a free throw to remember/ rehearse the key coaching points. \ - Motor reproductions the third process. \ - The observer must be physically and mentally able to imitate the skill being observed. \ - Demonstrations need to be matched to the level of the learner. E.g. a learner must be physically able to perform the gymnastic tumbling routine to be able to replicate it.\ - Feedback is important to make sure the motor reproduction matches the model. \...E.g. a coach giving the swimming verbal feedback on their dive and how to improve it to make sure it matches the technical model of the demonstration. \ - Motivations the final process \ - The learner must be motivated if learning is to take place. E.g. a learner must want to practice the rugby tackle for them to be motivated to learn how to do it.\ - Extrinsic feedback/reinforcement of the model will increase a learner\'s motivation to imitate it. E.g. if supporters cheer a cricketer performing an overarm bowl successfully then the learner will be more motivated to learn and copy the skill **Motivation is related to the intensity and direction of your behaviour** **Arousal refers to the intensity aspect of motivation** **Arousal** is defined as... "The degree of physiological and psychological readiness"\  Reminder: - **Introvert**: Stimulated RAS, so high levels of internal arousal. - **Extrovert**: Unstimulated RAS, so low levels of internal arousal.  **Drive Theory** **AO1** - As arousal increases, so does performance. - If arousal decreases, performance will decrease. - Linear relationship. - Low arousal = low performance. - High arousal = high performance. - High arousal brings out more dominant\ responses (stored as motor programmes). **AO2** - As the rugby players arousal increases, the higher the performance level will be. **AO3** - Better for autonomous learners, who have developed motor programmes. - Bad for cognitive learners, who have no motor programmes. - Too simplistic. - Linear relationship is rare. - Doesn't account for personality / nature of the task / skill classification. **Inverted U Theory** **AO1** - As arousal increases, performance increases\ until we reach an **optimum** point (known as\ optimal arousal). - If arousal continues to increase, performance\ will decline. - The introvert would have a lower optimal arousal than the extrovert **AO2** - As the rugby players arousal increases, so does his performance until reaching his optimum arousal. If his arousal continues to increase, his performance will decline and more mistakes will be made. **AO3** - Accounts for personality type (Introverts & Extroverts). - Accounts for skill classification (Gross & Fine Skills). - Accounts for beginners & experts.  **Catastrophe Theory** - At low arousal, performance is low. - As arousal increases, performance increases\ until we reach an **optimum** point (known as\ optimal arousal). - If arousal continues to increase (due to high\ anxiety), performance will **dramatically** decline. - However, if **anxiety** / arousal can be\ controlled and reduced, we can start to\ increase performance again back up its\ optimum. - As the golfers arousal is too high, he has a dramatic drop in performance and misses an easy putt. He then uses imagery and breathing techniques to control and reduce his arousal, so he can increase performance again and make the next putt attempt. - Explains why performance can just dramatically decline. - Explains how performance can be regained after a decline if arousal is controlled / reduced. - Doesn't account for personality types / nature of the task / skill classification / stage of learning etc... - More realistic than drive theory. **Peak flow experience:**...is a phrase used by athletes who achieve optimum performance levels and associate this with an emotional response. It is referred to as being 'in the zone'.\ \ The main focus is on performing and they are not affected by anything else. **Questions** Explain how drive theory explains the performance of an expert in sport **(2 marks).** From the perspective of drive theory regarding sports performance, increased arousal would be correlated to optimal sports performance. The more excited a player is for an upcoming game, the more likely he will be to perform optimally. Define the term arousal **(1 mark).** a state in which you feel excited or very alert, for example as a result of fear, stress, or anger Describe catastrophe theory in relation to sports performance **(5 marks).** Catastrophe theory describes how arousal and anxiety levels interact to affect an athlete\'s performance. The theory states that when an athlete\'s cognitive anxiety levels are high, a sudden drop in performance can occur if arousal levels rise past the optimal point. This is known as a \"catastrophic\" response. Negative emotions like anxiety and stress can increase arousal levels to a point that\'s too high. This can cause athletes to take in too much irrelevant information, which can overload their working memory. The only way for an athlete to recover from a catastrophic response is to reduce their cognitive arousal. This can be done through calming techniques. However, even if an athlete returns to feeling calm, they won\'t immediately return to their previous level of performance. Catastrophe theory differs from the inverted U hypothesis by linking arousal and anxiety.  Describe the inverted-U theory of arousal. Identify one way in which it differs to drive theory **(5 marks).** **The inverted U theory of arousal, also known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law, describes the relationship between arousal and performance. The theory states that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, and that too little or too much arousal will result in decreased performance. Performance quality is low at low arousal levels, peaks at medium arousal levels, and deteriorates at high arousal levels. For example, in an exam, you want to be well-rested and motivated, but not so stressed that you can\'t concentrate. In sports, athletes should aim to find a balance between stress and anxiety. Drive theory posits a linear relationship between arousal and performance. However, evidence suggests that this theory is only relevant up to a point, after which performance decreases.** Draw and label a diagram to represent the catastrophe theory of arousal **(4 marks).** Explain how catastrophe theory could be seen as more realistic than drive and the inverted-u theory **(2 marks).** it accounts for the different effects of cognitive and somatic anxiety on performance Evaluate the 3 theories of arousal. Using examples, describe how different types of skill may require different levels of arousal for optimum performance (10 marks). DRIVE THEORY OF AROUSAL Increase in arousal = as arousal increases so does quality of performance\ e.g. Cricketer scores 6 runs when he is trying hard Dominant response is more likely to occur as arousal increases, quality of performance depends on how well the skills have been learned. Experts / well learned dominant response perform better as arousal levels increase / at high arousal. Beginners / unskilful DR perform worse with high levels of arousal / better with low levels of arousal\ e.g. A novice rounders player who is trying to impress his friends missed the ball STRENGTH OF DRIVE THEORY OF AROUSAL - Simple to understand OR clearly shows relationship between arousal and performance.  - Theory is made more reliable/accurate by relating arousal to dominant response. - More likely to be accurate for certain types of skills/gross/simple skills \ e.g. Performance should improve when arousal increases when sprinting/weightlifting - It helps teachers /coaches to understand effect of arousal on performance. WEAKNESSES OF DRIVE THOERY - Quality of performance does not always increase as levels of arousal increase.  - Too simplistic view of relationship between arousal and performance. - Doesn\'t consider individual differences/level of performer/personality/type of skill. - Doesn\'t explain decline in performance at high arousal.\ e.g. A high jumper hitting bar at low height in the Olympic Games   - Doesn\'t explain why some people/experts/extroverts perform well at low arousal \ e.g. scoring goal when you aren\'t trying hard in training INVERTED U THEORY OF AROUSAL \ As arousal increases so does the quality of performance or low arousal/under arousal causes poor performance. Best performance occurs when arousal is at a midway point/optimal point/threshold. After this point performer becomes over aroused and performance deteriorates.\ e.g. Footballer misses target when taking penalty in important shoot out as they are trying too hard\ STRENGTHS OF INVERTED U THEORY - Seen to be more realistic (than drive theory).  - True that there is certain optimum point of arousal/that above/below optimal arousal performance quality is lower. - True that most sports performers respond positively to arousal up to mid-way point. - Simple/easy to understand/apply. - Helps teachers/coaches to understand effect of arousal on performance. - Optimal point of arousal can shift higher/lower for different personalities/skill level/types of skill\ e.g. Expert basketballer scoring 3 pointers when under pressure in dying moments of game has a higher optimal arousal zone. WEAKNESSES OF INVERTED U THEORY - Still too simple/limited view of relationship between arousal and performance. - Doesn\'t consider effect of different types of arousal on performance.  - relationship may not be U shaped OR performance doesn\'t gradually drop if over aroused or performance can drastically drop if over aroused. - Doesn\'t say what happens after people under perform when over aroused CATASTROPHE THOERY\ Somatic arousal increases, quality of performance improves. Optimal performance will only be achieved if cognitive arousal is kept low. High cognitive arousal & high somatic arousal causes sudden dramatic drop in performance\ e.g. Footballer putting in dangerous tackle in first five minutes of an important cup game. After catastrophe if arousal continues to rise, performance drops more. STRENGTHS OF CATASTROPHE THEORY (A03)  - Gives realistic explanation for why performer \'goes to pieces\' in a big event.\ e.g. Sprinter false starts in Olympic final (AO2)  - Shows sudden decrease in performance, more likely than gradual/even decline.  - Considers relationship/effects of both cognitive and somatic types of arousal.  - Shows that performer can recover by lowering arousal resulting in performance improving again.  WEAKNESSES OF CATASTROPHE THEORY - Not all performers will have dramatic/sudden decline in performance when over aroused/don\'t often see \'catastrophes\' in sport \ e.g. Olympic final/World Cup etc. - Some performers cope well with cognitive arousal by using stress/anxiety management techniques. iii. Optimum arousal may not be at a mid-way point.  - Doesn\'t consider personality/level of performer/type of skill.  GROSS SKILLS may require higher levels of arousal e.g. Sprinting/shot-put/long jump/dive in swimming because they involve large muscle groups/they don\'t need so much small control.\ FINE SKILLS may require lower levels of arousal\ e.g. Archery/throwing a dart - They involve small muscle movements/more precise control\ SIMPLE SKILLS may require higher levels of arousal\ e.g. 100m sprint/racing start in swimming, there are less decisions/technically easy to perform/little info to process/ little perception required.\ COMPLEX SKILLS may require lower level of arousal\ e.g. Midfield hockey player making across the pitch pass. There are many decisions to make/ lots of info processing required\ Hard to simplify what type of skill will be performed best at different levels of arousal as a combination of factors will determine quality of performance Personality/ extrovert or introvert will also have a significant impact.\ Skill level / beginner or expert will also have an impact\ Their optimum level of arousal / IZOF may also vary and impact quality of performance. Using examples, outline the effects of arousal on sporting performance according to drive and inverted-u theory. Discuss the impact that global media coverage of sport has on arousal and performance (10 marks). Arousal refers to the state of alertness or mental and physical readiness that an individual experiences. In the context of sport, arousal can affect performance in different ways, and two key theories, Drive Theory and Inverted-U Theory, offer contrasting explanations for how arousal influences performance. Drive Theory suggests that as arousal increases, performance improves, particularly for simple or well-learned tasks. The theory suggests that heightened arousal leads to greater motivation and energy, which can boost an athlete's performance, especially when performing tasks that do not require much complex thinking or decision-making. Example 1: Weightlifting - In a weightlifting competition, an athlete might feel highly aroused and excited before a big lift. According to Drive Theory, the increased arousal would lead to better performance if the task is straightforward, like lifting a barbell. For a skilled lifter who has practiced the lift many times, arousal should enhance performance. Example 2: Sprinting - In a 100-meter sprint, a highly aroused athlete might perform better because the race is a relatively simple, explosive event. The increased drive (motivation and energy) could lead to a faster start and more powerful strides, improving performance. However, Drive Theory is often criticized because it assumes that increasing arousal always leads to better performance, which is not always the case, especially for complex tasks. The Inverted-U Theory suggests that performance improves with arousal to a certain point, after which further increases in arousal result in a decline in performance. This relationship forms an inverted \"U\" shape, where performance is optimal at a moderate level of arousal. This theory applies more broadly to complex or skill-based tasks, where too much arousal can cause anxiety or loss of concentration. Example 1: Tennis - A tennis player might perform optimally when they experience a moderate level of arousal---enough to feel focused and energized, but not so much that they become overly tense or anxious. If the player becomes too anxious (extremely high arousal), they might experience muscle tension or lose concentration, resulting in mistakes like missed serves or poor footwork. Global media coverage of sport has a significant impact on the arousal levels of athletes and, consequently, their performance. The extensive media attention can increase the psychological pressure on athletes, affecting their arousal levels in both positive and negative ways. 1\. Increased Pressure and Anxiety (Negative Impact) Example 1: Olympic Athletes - Athletes competing on the world stage, such as in the Olympics, experience heightened arousal due to the global media coverage. While some athletes may thrive under the spotlight, others may feel overwhelmed by the pressure to perform in front of millions of viewers. This can lead to anxiety, which may push their arousal levels beyond the optimal zone as described by the Inverted-U Theory, resulting in underperformance. For instance, an athlete who has never competed in front of a global audience may experience high anxiety, leading to mistakes or missed opportunities (e.g., a diver overthinking a dive and failing to execute it properly). Example 2: Football World Cup - During events like the FIFA World Cup, players often face intense media scrutiny. For example, a footballer who misses a penalty in a high-stakes match may experience heightened arousal from the media backlash, leading to a subsequent drop in performance. This is particularly true if the player's arousal exceeds the optimal level, leading to poor concentration or physical tension. 2\. Motivation and Energizing Effects (Positive Impact) Example 1: Serena Williams at Wimbledon - Serena Williams has often spoken about the motivating effect of large crowds and media coverage in her matches. The increased arousal from a global audience can enhance her performance, as she channels the energy from the media spotlight into focus and determination. In this case, the moderate arousal brought on by the occasion helps her reach optimal performance levels, allowing her to push through physical and mental barriers to win crucial points and matches. Example 2: Cristiano Ronaldo in Champions League Final - Ronaldo thrives in high-pressure environments, where the media exposure and global attention are at their peak. For athletes like him, the global media coverage can serve as a motivating factor, increasing arousal levels that enhance focus and drive, leading to peak performance. In contrast to athletes who crumble under pressure, players like Ronaldo may channel the arousal into positive performance. **Motivation is defined as...\ Internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour**\ **\ Why is motivation important?** Without it, we have no drive to achieve our goals or develop our ability. Without this, we will not achieve success.   **Intrinsic Motivation:** **\ Intrinsic:** "Internal drives to participate and / or to perform well". "Internal mechanisms which arouse and direct our behaviour". **Examples (AO2):** - Fun / enjoyment E.g. Skiing - Satisfaction E.g. Good assist in football - A love for the sport E.g. Professional playing for free - Personal accomplishment E.g. Scoring 20 goals in a season - Pride E.g. Playing for your hometown club **Extrinsic Motivation:** "External drive and comes in the form of rewards, as opposed to internal feelings".\ **Examples (AO2):** - Medals / badges / trophies E.g. Swimming medal - Prize money E.g. Winning Wimbledon - Salary / wage E.g. Ronaldo -- £500 a minute - Recognition E.g. Fans - To please a significant other E.g. Parents **Evaluating intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (AO3):** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Advantages** | **Disadvantages** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Intrinsic** | May be more valuable | Fun and enjoyment may | | | than extrinsic as you | disappear as | | | do it for yourself. | intrinsic motivation | | | | may no longer be | | | More likely to | enough to maintain | | | encourage lifelong | the motivation to | | | participation | participate. | | | | | | | It is self-sufficient | Not as useful with | | | (you don't need to | cognitive learners | | | rely on a coach/ | who may find a skill | | | external party). | / sport difficult to | | | | start with. Extrinsic | | | | motivation may be | | | | needed to make sure | | | | they persist with it. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Extrinsic** | Badges / rewards are | May undermine | | | more likely to get | intrinsic motivation | | | children into a | (may not be as | | | sport. | valuable). | | | | | | | Can improve | May not lead to long | | | confidence in the | term participation. | | | learner after | | | | receiving external | If rewards are | | | praise. | removed, or if you | | | | miss out on | | | May have more of a | qualifying for the | | | significant impact | reward, it may be | | | than intrinsic | demotivating or make | | | motivation. | you lose motivation. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Task:** Make links from the previous paper 2 topics below back to motivation. **Questions** Describe, using practical examples, both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation **(4 marks).\ **Intrinsic motivation comes from within an athlete, while extrinsic motivation comes from an external source. **Intrinsic motivation** - This is when an athlete participates in a sport for internal reasons, such as enjoyment, personal growth, or the feeling of accomplishment. For example, an athlete might train hard because they love the challenge and satisfaction of personal growth.  **Extrinsic motivation -** This is when an athlete participates in a sport for external reasons, such as material rewards, praise, or to win a medal. For example, an athlete might want to do well to earn more money or to hear the fans cheer their name.  Evaluate both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation **(6 marks).** **Intrinsic motivation** - **Pros**: Intrinsic motivation can lead to long-term positive effects on motivation, performance, and job satisfaction. It can also foster creativity and problem-solving skills and enhance overall well-being.  - **Cons**: Intrinsic motivation can take time to learn and build up. It can also be difficult to gauge, which can make appraisal complex. There\'s also a risk of overlooking external rewards, and intrinsic motivation alone may not be enough to get someone to learn about a new topic.  **Extrinsic motivation** - **Pros**: Extrinsic motivation can be effective when you need something done quickly. It can also help encourage positive behaviours in children.  - **Cons**: Extrinsic motivation can be less long-lasting than intrinsic motivation. It can also lead to people becoming preoccupied with rewards and social status, rather than doing the work. Extrinsic rewards can also narrow focus and reduce creativity.  Define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation **(2 marks).\ Intrinsic motivation - This is when someone is driven to accomplish a goal for personal fulfilment, such as enjoyment, a sense of achievement, or the desire for self-improvement.** **Extrinsic motivation - This is when someone is motivated to accomplish goals by what they may receive for completing them, such as money, recognition, promotions, or public recognition.** Circle the two below that represent extrinsic motivation **(2 marks).** ** ** **Coach Pressure** **Enjoyment** **   Self-Satisfaction** ** Trophies** **Anxiety is defined as...\ **The negative aspect of experiencing stress. It describes our feelings of feeling threatened E.g. A basketballer has a fear of failing and pressure from the crowd watching him leading to high anxiety. Some competitors can deal with anxiety, whereas other cannot and will become stressed. **Competitive Anxiety** is the worry experienced during competitive experiences.\ **\ Factors affecting competitive anxiety:\ Individual differences (Personality)\ **\ **Type A** Personalities are prone to stress so are more likely to be anxious in highly stressful situations **Introverts** are more likely to be stressed in front of a large crowd because the RAS is ordinarily highly stimulated therefore the additional external stimuli can be too much **\ Extroverts** are less likely to be stressed in front of a large crowd because the RAS is under stimulated, and they seek out social situations so they will thrive Infront of spectators **\ ** **Different types of anxiety** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Trait Anxiety** **State Anxiety** --------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Description (AO1)** **Performer has a predisposition to respond with apprehension** **Anxiety that is induced by specific situations** **\ A Netballer is anxious when playing, whether it is a training game or the World Cup Final A footballer only gets anxious when taking penalties, but not throughout the rest of the game. \ Practical Example (AO2)** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **\ Anxiety can cause you to lose confidence, motivation and your temper / composure.** **General or specific anxiety\ **Some performers are anxious in all situations **(general)**, whereas others may only be anxious in **specific** situations. E.g. A footballer is only anxious while playing their local rivals as they have an increased fear of failure. **The competition processes\ **The interaction between personality factors, competitive trait anxiety and the situation. This interaction will affect behaviour and may cause state anxiety. Tendency to view competitive situations as intimidating **Somatic & Cognitive Anxiety:** **The Sport Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT):** - A self-report questionnaire to assess the anxiety they felt during competition. - It measures competitive trait anxiety. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Advantages** | **Disadvantages** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Easy to complete | - Qualitative method | | | | | - Practical | - Inaccurate perception | | | | | - Easy to interpret | - Severity of anxiety | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+  **Zone of Optimum Functioning:** This is a phrase (a.k.a. 'Peak flow experience') where a performer achieves optimum performance levels. They feel 'in the zone'\... \[different for everyone\] **Introverts** (lower anxiety / arousal to achieve) / **Extroverts** (higher anxiety / arousal to achieve) How can this be achieved? - Be relaxed (balanced levels of arousal) - Be confident and focussed - Movements must be autonomous (trained motor programmes) - Have fun   **Stress is defined as...** **Natural response to a challenge that can affect both the body and the mind. It can be defined as a state of worry or mental tension caused by a difficult situation** Stress can be POSITIVE\ and NEGATIVE.\ (It can motivate you!!!)  **The physical response to stress:** - Stress causes a release of hormones in your body (e.g. adrenaline). This leads to... - Increased HR, BR - Provide a 'fight or flight' response. - If stress lasts too long, your body releases stress hormones, which causes health issues e.g. high blood pressure, stroke or heart attack. - Stress can reduce an athlete's readiness to perform and subsequent performance **Anxiety / Stress Management Techniques:** **Cognitive Anxiety / Stress Management Techniques:** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Technique** | **Description | **Example | **Evaluation | | | (AO1)** | (AO2)** | (AO3)** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | **Mental | Practicing / | **Mentally | - Allows you | | Rehearsal** | replaying a | thinking about | to replay / | | | mental image | the technique | remember | | | for a skill in | of a serve in | the | | | your mind | volleyball step | technique. | | | before | by step before | | | | physically | carrying the | - Might not | | | doing it. | skill out** | remember | | | | | the skill | | | | | correctly. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | somatic | | | | | stress. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | guarantee | | | | | success. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Imagery** | Performer | **Imagining | - Boosts | | | imagines | kicking a rugby | morale / | | | themselves | ball through | confidence | | | being | the rugby posts | before | | | successful in a | successfully | performing. | | | situation | before the | | | | before | action is | - Could | | | attempting it. | carried out** | recall bad | | | Or create | | past | | | pictures of an | | experience. | | | escape (happy | | Not always | | | place). | | going be | | | | | successful. | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | guarantee | | | | | success. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | somatic | | | | | stress. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Positive | Positive | **Before the | - Motivates / | | Self-Talk** | encouragement | football game | builds | | | to yourself. | sat in the | confidence. | | | Think about | locker room | | | | success / | thinking about | - Doesn't | | | winning. | a successful | control | | | | outcome gearing | somatic | | | | yourself up** | stress. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | guarantee | | | | | success. | | | | | | | | | | - Can be done | | | | | at all | | | | | times / | | | | | quickly. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Negative | Avoiding | **Only thinking | - Boosts | | Thought | negative | about the | morale / | | Stopping** | thoughts. | positive | confidence. | | | | factors from | | | | | previous games | - Doesn't | | | | and keeping | guarantee | | | | busy** | success. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | somatic | | | | | stress. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Goal | Setting | **Before a | - Can | | Setting** | yourself a | game, set | motivate. | | | target to give | personal | | | | you a focus. | targets not too | - Can build | | | | out of reach to | confidence | | | | achieve** | if met. | | | | | | | | | | - Loss of | | | | | confidence | | | | | / | | | | | motivation | | | | | if target | | | | | not met. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | guarantee | | | | | success. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Mindfulness** | A type of | **The morning | - Takes time | | | meditation to | of a game | to do / | | | focus and | performer | practice. | | | reflect on the | carries out | | | | present. | mindful | - Not all | | | | exercises to | people able | | | | control heart | to focus. | | | | rate and focus | | | | | the mind** | - Performer | | | | | may not | | | | | take it | | | | | seriously. | | | | | | | | | | - Can't be | | | | | done while | | | | | performing. | | | | | | | | | | - May not be | | | | | mature | | | | | enough.  | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Rational | Thinking about | **Setting | - Can | | Thinking** | what can / | realistic | motivate. | | | cannot be | smaller targets | | | | achieved based | that can be | - Can build | | | on past success | reached to | confidence. | | | and failures. | increase | | | | | motivation can | - Loss of | | | | help prevent | confidence | | | | rational | / | | | | thinking** | motivation | | | | | if thinking | | | | | back to | | | | | past | | | | | failures. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | guarantee | | | | | success. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | somatic | | | | | stress. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Somatic Anxiety / Stress Management Techniques:** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Technique** | **Description | **Example | **Evaluation | | | (AO1)** | (AO2)** | (AO3)** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | **Progressive | Being aware of | **Stretching | - Can lower | | Muscle | muscle tension | before a game | HR / | | Relaxation** | in your body. | to release | stress. | | | Muscle to mind | tension. | | | | connection | Tensing and | - Can be time | | | | relaxing | consuming. | | | | muscles, | | | | | noticing | - Doesn't | | | | difference and | control | | | | repeating** | cognitive | | | | | stress. | | | | | | | | | | - Can't be | | | | | used in | | | | | some sports | | | | | e.g. mid | | | | | game in | | | | | rugby. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Relaxation | Use of soft | **Downloading | - Can be time | | Techniques** | voice videos / | meditation apps | consuming. | | | music etc... to | to listen to | | | | lower HR and | before a game** | - Not | | | stress levels | | available | | | | | to all | | | | | sports | | | | | (need | | | | | breaks in | | | | | play to | | | | | use). | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | cognitive | | | | | stress. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Massage** | Relaxation | **Go on a rest | - Doesn't | | | through | break with | control | | | pressure | massaging and | cognitive | | | applied to | spa facilities | stress. | | | different parts | 2 days before a | | | | of the body. | big game to | - Short | | | | relax the body | lasting | | | | and reset the | benefits. | | | | mind** | | | | | | - Can't be | | | | | done | | | | | mid-game. | | | | | | | | | | - Can be time | | | | | consuming. | | | | | | | | | | - Expensive. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Breathing | Focussing on | **Deep | - Distracts | | Control** | deep slow | breathing | you from | | | breaths to | before a game | the | | | distract you | to bring heart | stressor. | | | from the | rate down** | | | | stressor. | | - Can | | | | | distract | | | | | you from | | | | | the game. | | | | | | | | | | - Can often | | | | | be used mid | | | | | game. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | cognitive | | | | | stress. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Biofeedback** | A technique of | **Wearing a | - Informs the | | | gaining control | headband that | body that | | | of | tracks your | an episode | | | self-regulation | brain activity | of high | | | , | while you | stress is | | | based on | meditate or | about to | | | information or | using | occur so | | | feedback | Electromyograph | you can | | | received from | y | respond. | | | the athletes\' | (EMG), which | | | | body and mind. | measures muscle | - Requires a | | | | tension. ** | good | | | | | awareness | | | | | of the | | | | | body's | | | | | response to | | | | | stress. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | cognitive | | | | | stress. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Centring** | Focusing | **Football | - Not always | | | thought during | player focusing | time use in | | | a stressful | on the ball on | game. | | | situation, | the penalty | | | | listening to | spot rather | - Distracts | | | your breaths | than the | you from | | | and achieving | goalkeeper or | the | | | mental clarity | the fans behind | stressor | | | | the goal** | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | control | | | | | cognitive | | | | | stress. | | | | | | | | | | - Can reduce | | | | | stress / | | | | | anxiety. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Anxiety / Stress PPQ's:** Explain trait and state anxiety. Give a practical example of how anxiety may affect performance **(5 marks).** Trait anxiety is the relation to innate characteristics that humans are born with. State anxiety is a temporary feeling of fear and apprehension that occurs in response to a specific situation or threat which includes emotional changes, cognitive changes and physiological changes. A practical example would be before a big-league football final the player becoming tense and having negative thoughts before going on the pitch which can lead to a decreased performance. The player could become so worried that they will lose that they cannot control the spiralling negative thoughts in their head. This could lead to them starting the game very poorly by making basic mistakes. Define the term anxiety **(1 marks).** An emotional state that can range from mild to severe and is characterized by feelings of fear, dread, and uneasiness Describe trait anxiety **(2 marks).\ Trait anxiety is a personality trait that describes a tendency to feel anxious in many situations, and to perceive situations as threatening. People with high trait anxiety may feel worried or fearful in a variety of situations, perceive things as threatening where others might not or frequently express anxiety about situations that do not provoke anxiety in others** Explain how the body responds to cognitive and somatic anxiety **(2 marks).\ Somatic anxiety refers to the physiologic response, including increased levels of cortisol, elevated heart rate, and muscle tension. Cognitive anxiety consists of two components: worry about the situation and potential outcomes, and disruptions in focus or concentration.** The graph below shows cog. and som. state anxiety before during and after the start of performance. Analyse the relationship between cognitive and somatic anxiety and their effect on performance. Make links to the graph and the Catastrophe Theory of Arousal **(6 marks).\ Somatic anxiety refers to the physiological response including elevated heart rate and muscle tension. Cognitive anxiety consists of worry about the situation and potential outcomes and disrupts focus. The results show that 1 week before somatic anxiety is low but cognitive anxiety is high due to worries about the event. 1 day before the event, cognitive anxiety remains high but somatic anxiety has begun to increase. 2 hours before, cognitive anxiety gradually increases but there is a rapid increase in somatic anxiety. Both types of anxiety continue to increase to prepare the performer for exercise by increasing heart rate. Both types will reach their optimum where performance will be at its peak and performer will be in the zone. Optimal performance will only be achieved if cognitive arousal is kept low during performance. The catastrophe theory states that high cognitive and high somatic arousal causes a sudden dramatic drop in performance or a catastrophe. After a catastrophe, if arousal continues to rise performance will drop further. If cognitive anxiety can be lowered performance starts to recover.\ ** Describe cognitive and somatic anxiety management techniques that can be used to control anxiety within sport **(6 marks).** **Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR) -** This technique involves tensing and relaxing muscles while breathing rhythmically. It can help reduce somatic anxiety by focusing the mind on tension and relaxation.  **Centring -** This breathing technique involves relaxing the chest and shoulder muscles, and focusing on the abdominal muscles while breathing deeply and slowly. **Biofeedback -** This technique uses physiological measuring equipment to monitor heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin response. Once learned, the performer can lower these responses without the equipment.  **Imagery -** This technique involves visualizing aspects of previous positive performances to increase or decrease arousal or anxiety levels.  **Positive self-talk -** This technique involves talking to yourself in a positive way to support your cognition and performance.  **Cognitive reframing -** This technique involves changing negative thoughts about situations into more positive, realistic ways of thinking.  **Deep breathing -** This technique involves inhaling through the nose and exhaling through the mouth.  **Goal setting -** This technique involves setting process-related goals to develop a process to achieve set targets.  Explain how two different causes of stress could affect sports performance **(4 marks).** **Physical discomfort -** Stress hormones can cause physical discomfort, such as muscle tension and pain, which can lead to decreased confidence and self-doubt.  **Lack of mental focus -** Stress can make it difficult to focus mentally, which can worsen physical anxieties and create a cycle that hinders performance Identify two somatic stress management techniques **(2 marks).** **Movement -** Moving your body can help release endorphins, which can improve your mood and reduce stress.  - **Progressive muscle relaxation**: Tense and release different parts of your body, starting with your face and head and moving down.  - **Gentle stretches**: Start with something simple, like stretching your neck.  - **Dancing, yoga, or swimming**: These activities can be a fun way to move your body.  **Breathing exercises** - **Abdominal breathing**: Inhale and exhale slowly and deeply, while moving your stomach and keeping your chest still.  - **Alternate nostril breathing**: A somatic therapy technique Other than imagery, identify two other stress management techniques **(2 marks).** - Positive self-talk - Goal setting Define stress **(1 mark).** **Stress is a natural response to a challenge that can affect both the body and the mind. It can be defined as a state of worry or mental tension caused by a difficult situation** Identify 3 strategies that can be used to minimise stress **(3 marks).** - Mindfulness - Breathing control - Good amounts of sleep Identify one cognitive method of stress management and identify a sporting situation where this could be applied **(2 marks).** Mental rehearsal - Mentally thinking about the technique of a serve in volleyball step by step before carrying the skill out Define stress and identify one cause of stress **(2 marks).** **Stress is the body\'s response to pressure or an imbalance between the demands of a situation and an individual\'s ability to meet them. A cause of stress could be new or unexpected events** Describe mindfulness and identify one disadvantage of this technique **(2 marks).** By beginning with a mindful exercise, it gives the performer a chance to focus their energy, concentrate on the present, while acknowledging their current mood, thoughts, and feelings to better prepare them for the game. A disadvantage could be it could increase anxiety to depression and full-blown psychosis. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_  **Aggression is defined as...\ **Intent to harm outside the rules of the event **Assertion is defined as...\ Forceful behaviour within the rules of the event** - **Aggression can be desirable or unacceptable - it can be channelled** - **Channelled aggression is assertion - as opposed to reactive aggression** - **Reactive aggression is aggression without thinking -- lashing out** **Socio-Cultural Causes of Aggression:** Society has violence (e.g. crime) which is visible to all. - E.g. Laws to protect players / citizens. - E.g. We see violence in society and copy this into when we play sport. Society recognises some violence will occur in sport (a.k.a. assertion). - E.g. rugby, ice hockey is violent in nature. Society has big expectations of success (puts pressure on the performers). - E.g. Increased pressure on a rugby player leads to aggression as they have a 'do anything to win' mentality. Social Learning... - E.g. Seeing others act aggressively, then repeating this ourselves.**\ ** **Other Causes of Aggression:** - The desire to win (e.g. injuring the opponents' best player). - Participants coached to use violence (e.g. rugby coach teaching players to nip during a scrum). - Aggression can be a trait of a person (e.g. being naturally aggressive). - Fans may expect aggression / violence (e.g. local derby).  - Competition (e.g. top vs bottom, compared to a local Derby etc\...) **Theories of Aggression:** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Theory** | **Describe | **Example | **Evaluate | | | (AO1)** | (AO2)** | (AO3)** | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Instinct | Linked to | **E.g.** | - Too | | Theory** | **evolution** | | generalised | | | (same in | **-born with | / | | | animals).\ | it** | simplistic. | | | \ | | | | | Views | **-Having a | - Human | | | aggression as a | natural | aggression | | | **natural | instinct to | is often | | | response.\ | tackle and | learned | | | \ | defend your | (social | | | **Humans | goal** | learning).  | | | generate | | | | | aggressive | | - Human | | | energy. | | aggression | | | | | is often | | | Aggression is | | not | | | **instinctive** | | spontaneous | | | and if not | | , | | | released, will | | it is | | | build up inside | | usually | | | the body. | | provoked. | | | | | | | | | | - Proves why | | | | | some people | | | | | are always | | | | | aggressive. | | | | | | | | | | - Aggression | | | | | can be as a | | | | | result of | | | | | genetics / | | | | | traits. | | | | | | | | | | - Catharsis | | | | | can be | | | | | experienced | | | | |.  | | | | | | | | | | - Not all | | | | | humans show | | | | | aggression. | | | | | | | | | | - Some people | | | | | are only | | | | | aggressive | | | | | in certain | | | | | situations | | | | | / | | | | | environment | | | | | s. | | | | | | | | | | - People can | | | | | learn not | | | | | to be | | | | | aggressive. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Frustration - | If a player's | **E.g.** | - Frustration | | Aggression | goal is | | does often | | Theory** | blocked, they | **-kyle walker | lead to | | | become | being too fast | aggression. | | | frustrated. | for the left | | | | | midfielder, | - But | | | Frustration | midfielder | frustration | | | **ALWAYS** | kicks out** | doesn't | | | leads to | | always lead | | | aggression. | | to | | | | | aggression. | | | Once aggression | | | | | has been | | - More | | | released, you | | realistic | | | will experience | | than | | | a feeling of | | instinct | | | catharsis. If | | theory. | | | not released it | | | | | will build up | | - Evident | | | and may lead to | | when | | | an aggressive | | watching | | | act.\ | | sport. | | | \ | | | | | Frustration can | | - Useful for | | | increase | | coaches to | | | arousal. | | manage | | | | | aggressive | | | | | players. | | | | | | | | | | - Aggression | | | | | can occur | | | | | without | | | | | frustration | | | | |.  | | | | | | | | | | - Aggression | | | | | isn\'t | | | | | always | | | | | satisfying. | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | - Some | | | | | performers | | | | | are | | | | | motivated | | | | | by | | | | | aggression. | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | account for | | | | | instinct | | | | | theory. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Aggressive | Performers | **E.g.** | - Some | | Cue | build up | | performers | | Hypothesis** | aggression due | **-verbal | may be | | | to frustration | abuse** | motivated | | | (and | | by cues | | | **over-arousal* | | that cause | | | *). | | others to | | | | | become | | | For the | | aggressive | | | aggressive act | | | | | to occur, they | | - This is | | | must be | | evident | | | triggered by a | | when | | | **cue**. | | watching | | | | | sport e.g. | | | | | Zidane... | | | | | | | | | | - Doesn't | | | | | explain why | | | | | people are | | | | | naturally | | | | | aggressive | | | | | when not | | | | | provoked by | | | | | a cue. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Social | **Bandura** | **E.g.** | - Disputes | | Learning | believes that | | the idea of | | Theory** | aggression is | **-children | natural | | | **learned** | copying racket | aggression. | | | (and not | smashing in | | | | instinctive).\ | tennis** | - Some people | | | \ | | are | | | We learn to be | | naturally | | | aggressive | | aggressive | | | through | | (supports | | | **watching and | | instinct | | | copying.\ | | theory). | | | \ | | | | | **We are more | | - Explains | | | likely to copy | | why people | | | our significant | | are only | | | others. | | aggressive | | | | | in certain | | | | | situations. | | | | | | | | | | - Supp | | | | | orted | | | | | by the Bobo | | | | | Doll | | | | | experiment. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **How can we reduce aggression?** **Strategy (AO1)** **Example (AO2)** ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Lowers Arousal** E.g. mindfulness E.g. A netballer using Imagery to imagine herself in a calm relaxing place after being aggressive towards an opponent. E.g. A rugby player using breathing control to slow BR down when getting angry. **Attentional Control** E.g. remaining focuses/ selective attention E.g. A footballer receives a ban / fine for hitting an opponent. E.g. A rugby coach teaching his players to be assertive rather than aggressive, to avoid getting banned. **Removal** E.g. have rewards for non-aggressive behaviour E.g. A rugby coach praises a player after an assertive tackle. E.g. A football teams captain never showing aggression on the pitch to set a good example. **Goals** E.g. play a match without getting a yellow card E.g. A golfer telling himself that he will get the next shot in after missing an easy one and becoming aggressive. **Questions** Explain the Frustration-Aggression Theory **(3 marks).** **The theory suggests that when someone is frustrated, they may react with aggression. This aggression can lead to catharsis, or a release of the frustration, which can then lead to more frustration and aggression.** Identify a strength and a weakness of the Frustration-Aggression Theory **(2 marks).** **Strength - The theory identifies different levels of anger that people experience when they are aggressive.** **Weakness - The theory assumes that people will react similarly to the same frustration, but people can respond differently to the same situation** Give 3 examples of aggressive cues that could lead to aggression **(3 marks).** **Insults, Threats, Physical violence** Evaluate the instinct theory of aggression **(6 marks).** **The instinct theory of aggression is a theory that suggests humans are biologically programmed to act aggressively. The theory states that aggression is a natural instinct that humans are born with, and that it\'s a survival mechanism to dominate others. It\'s based on observations of non-human animals, where aggression is used to maintain territory. The theory suggests that aggression can be released through activities like boxing and cage fighting, which can provide a safe and socially acceptable outlet. This release of pent-up energy is thought to make people more comfortable and stable, and less aggressive in other situations. The theory suggests that some people are born with more aggressive characteristics than others, which can make them more aggressive in both sport and life. ** Define aggression in sport **(1 marks).** Intent to harm outside the rules of the event Define assertion in sport **(1 marks).** **Forceful behaviour within the rules of the event** Explain, using an example, the Frustration-Aggression Theory **(3 marks).** **A performer will get frustrated if their goal is continuously blocked and when frustration builds up this leads to a player being aggressive.** **\ **To what extent is aggression in sport due to social and cultural influences, or because of the psychological approaches of individuals in sport **(10 marks).\ ** Aggression in sport can be attributed to both social and cultural influences and the psychological approaches of individuals involved in sports. The extent to which each factor contributes depends on the context, the individuals, and the sport itself. The main factors are social and cultural Influences, cultural norms and values and socialization. Social and cultural factors are powerful forces that shape behaviour, including aggression in sport. Different cultures and sports have varying expectations around aggression. For example, in contact sports like rugby or ice hockey, aggression might be more socially acceptable and even encouraged as part of the game. In contrast, other sports may emphasize sportsmanship and non-aggressive behaviour. In some cultures, aggressive behaviour in sport might be seen as a way to demonstrate strength, dominance, or commitment. In others, excessive aggression may be discouraged, and restraint may be valued. Certain sports have a history of aggressive behaviour due to their nature or the values of the community. For instance, football might see aggression in the form of tackles, while boxing might promote physical combat as part of the competitive process. Athletes are often socialized into a sport through exposure to both coaches and peers. These social experiences teach players the acceptable levels of aggression in the game. Coaches may either encourage aggressive play (e.g., pushing players to be more physical) or emphasize restraint and control. The coach\'s approach to aggression is often reflected in the players\' behaviour. Athletes may be influenced by their teammates or competitors, especially when aggression is rewarded or normalized within the team dynamic or the sports community. Media portrayals of aggressive athletes and the glorification of aggressive play in sports can reinforce the idea that aggression is a valuable trait. Role models in sport, whether they are teammates, coaches, or public figures, also shape how athletes perceive aggression and whether it is acceptable or desirable. Psychological factors related to individual characteristics also contribute to aggression in sport. These include personal traits, emotional regulation, and mental strategies employed by athletes. Certain personality traits may prompt individuals to be more aggressive in sports. For example: High levels of trait anger can make athletes more prone to aggression. Competitive drive, athletes with a strong desire to win may sometimes resort to aggression to gain an advantage. Low self-control, athletes who struggle with impulse control may be more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviours in the heat of the moment. Aggression is often linked to physiological and emotional states such as frustration, stress, or heightened arousal. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis states that when athletes face obstacles or feel stuck by their opponents or officials, this frustration can trigger aggressive responses. The intense emotional and physical demands of sport can heighten aggressive tendencies, especially when athletes are pushed to their limits. For some individuals, aggression is seen as a tactical approach to intimidate opponents, assert dominance, or disrupt the opponent's strategy. Some athletes may deliberately adopt aggressive behaviours as a means of gaining a psychological edge in competition. Some athletes may use aggression as a way to cope with anxiety, pressure, or anger. Aggression can provide an outlet for emotions that might otherwise overwhelm the individual. In this sense, it may not always be a deliberate choice but a reaction to internal stressors. Athletes often undergo mental training to control their emotions and aggression. Techniques such as mindfulness, cognitive-behavioural strategies, and emotional regulation exercises are used to help athletes focus their energy and prevent excessive aggression from negatively impacting their performance. **Social Facilitation:\ The positive influence of others, who may be watching or competing, on sports performance** **\ Social Inhibition:\ **The negative influence of others, who may be watching or competing, on sports performance What is meant by the term "Coactor"? **Evaluation Apprehension:** States that the presence of an audience / others alone did not increase arousal levels. Instead, he believed that arousal levels only increase when... - The performer is being evaluated.\ \ E.g. You know your manager is evaluating your performance - The performer believes they are being evaluated.\ \ E.g. you believe a scout is watching your game **Factors affecting social facilitation & social inhibition:\ **[Personality Factors:] High anxiety / Type A performers perform worse with large crowds. Low anxiety / Type B performers perform better with large crowds. Extroverts often perform better with large crowds.  E.g. An extroverted footballer has low internal arousal due to an unstimulated RAS, so the crowd provide the stimulation to achieve optimum arousal and high performance. Introverts often p