PE - Cooper Past Paper Notes PDF

PE -- COOPER 10/09/2024 Sport psychology recap [Personality] Trait theory- Eysenck 1967 - Born with innate characteristics - Stable and enduring and consistent and predictable in stressful situation Social learning theory -- Bandura 1971 - Social learning, learn all characteristics...

PE -- COOPER 10/09/2024 Sport psychology recap [Personality] Trait theory- Eysenck 1967 - Born with innate characteristics - Stable and enduring and consistent and predictable in stressful situation Social learning theory -- Bandura 1971 - Social learning, learn all characteristics. Learn from people we hold in high esteem. - Socialisation -- primary and secondary - Observe, Identify, Reinforce, Copy. - Does not factor in genetically inherited traits Interactionalist- Lewin 1935 - Behaviour is a function of the personality traits and the situation. - B = f(PXE) - Hollander approach to Interactionist theory Questionaries, Interviews, Observation- measuring personality. Hollander model -- 1971 -Personality Framework (Hollander, 1967) \| Download Scientific Diagram Credulous- links to theory are strong and trusted Susceptible- links to theories are weak and doubted [Attitudes] Thoughts and feelings based on an attitude object -- can be positive and negative. Stable and enduring Prejudice- A prejudgment of a person, group, or situation. Usually based on inadequate, inaccurate or biased information. Change through persuasive communication or cognitive dissonance Triadic model  Questionnaires 1. Thurstone scale -- measure of favourability on a scale 2. Likert scale -- 5-point scale 3. Osgood scale [Anxiety] State of nervousness and irrational thinking, causes negative effect on performance, perceive something as a threat, find the situation threatening. Somatic anxiety- Sweating, muscular tension, physiological responses. Cognitive anxiety- Thoughts and feelings, self-doubt. Competitive state anxiety- specific sporting situations create anxiety, but not anxious outside life, higher chance if you have trait anxiety, temporary to a particular moment. Competitive trait anxiety- Constant state of anxiety, innate, predisposition to suffer from nervousness in most sporting situations. SCAT testing- Sports Competitions Anxiety Test As cognitive anxiety is low, performance is better. As somatic anxiety is middle, performance is better. [Arousal] State of readiness to perform Inverted U theory- Optimum level of arousal, if above or below performance would start to drop off, dependant of level of performance, type of skill, and task complexity. Catastrophe theory- reach level of optimum arousal, once over immediate and severe drop off, recovery can occur if there is enough time. Drive theory- Increased arousal = increased performance Zone of optimal functioning- reticular articulating theory, three types of athletes, A,B,C. Flow state- timing, action and movement are perfect, efficient and effortless. Characterized by a belief in ability to complete the challenge. [Motivation] "The drive needed to succeed" Why do we need motivation? - Always perform at the highest level possible - Persistent and consistent all the time in your training or playing - Link to optimum arousal levels Two types of motivation: Motivation from external stimuli and internal mechanisms that drive and direct behaviour. Intrinsic motivation- from within - Feeling of pride and satisfaction at having completed a task. - Meeting an objective gives a sense of self- satisfaction. - Driven to succeed by the feelings it brings you. Extrinsic motivation- outside source - Comes from an outside source. - Tangible- Physical and can be touched or held. - Intangible- Non-physical and concern praise and encouragement from an outside source. Danger of overreliance on extrinsic motivation. - Leads to a loss of value. - Extrinsic rewards may cause players to bend the rules to get the trophy. - Extrinsic motives undermine the intrinsic reasons for competing, you compete to get rewards and not for the benefits in exercise that competing could bring. [Achievement motivation] How much desire a player has to keep on trying to achieve. Atkinson identified two personality dimensions: 1. Need to achieve 2. Need to avoid failure The need to achieve- player welcomes competition. They show approach behaviours, where they welcome competition and evaluation. Risk taker, confident, leaders on the pitch, extroverted, neurotic personality type, task persistent, attribute success internally, welcome feedback and evaluation. Happy to play against someone of equal ability or slightly better, even though there is a risk of losing there is a pride and satisfaction from winning. The need to avoid failure- Player avoids risk. Show avoidance behaviours, they avoid competition and evaluation. They seek safe and secure options rather than risky ones. They give up easily, aren't task persistent since they don't like to damage their self-esteem. May go on to develop negative attitudes. They don't like feedback or evaluation; they avoid stat sheets, so they don't find unwelcome things to damage their self-esteem. They will take easier option, will be more likely to play people they will easily beat, or someone they will play someone much better than them, so no one will expect them to win it, so they don't view it as a loss. [Self-Serving Bias] Using external and/or unstable reasons for losing: - Bad luck - Difficulty of the task - Facilities or equipment Everyone will display aspects of both characteristics, but it is the interaction of two key areas that determine the level of achievement: - Personality - Situation [Personality] Naturally some performers will be NACH and some NAF. These personalities can be innate or developed but those with the trait of approach behaviour will try hard in most situations. [Situations] The performer has to gauge the probability of success in the task and the incentive gained from the task. - NAF- An easy task will be completed successfully but will offer little incentive value or pride. - NACH- Undertaking a task of high degree of difficulty may not be completed successfully, but if it is there is a large slice of pride and satisfaction to gain. Coaches developing approach behaviours: Reinforcement- coach should offer praise and rewards to players who do well or who achieve goals, so the players keep the desire to do well in future, promoting task persistence Attribute success internally- Coach should tell player that any success achieved was down to the player, not the other team Allowing success and improving confidence- set easier tasks in the early development of the player. Goal setting- set goals that are achievable with an amount of effort. Players can gain satisfaction from achieving the goal. Achievement goal theory- the theory states motivation and task persistent depend on the type of goal set by the performer and how they measure success. [Outcome goals] - Beating others - Doesn't matter how long as it was achieved - Pride and satisfaction are felt when achieved Three characteristics of a person with a need to achieve mindset would be they are task persistent, risk taking. Aggression- instant theory, all aggression is in the moment and not premeditated and people aren't naturally aggressive [Social facilitation and inhibition] Social inhibition- the negative effect of the presence of others on performance Social facilitation- the positive effect of the presence of others on performance. The effects of others who might be present and watching when sport is played. Those effects are very different. 4 categories of spectators: 1. Competitors- competitive co-actors, the opposition 2. Audience- just spectators or a tv audience 3. Co-actors- people doing the same thing but not necessarily in direct competition with them 4. Social reinforcers- direct influence on the performance, coaches and people running it. Audience and co-actors have no influence and are passive but still have a cause of increase in arousal. A beginner will experience anxiety and over-arousal as a result of being watched. This will lead to a poor execution of performance- social inhibition. An expert will be motivated and will improve performance- social facilitation. If the skill is simple, the other people will not impede the skill but if the skill is complex the spectators will cause a detriment in the skill. Drive theory, an expert where the actions are well learnt and habitual, will experience a linear improvement with the bigger the audience. The beginner without the autonomous response will often choose the wrong thing due to the required amount of information they require. Evaluation Apprehension- the perception of players when someone significant is watching to feel fear of being judged and evaluated. It can both a positive and negative effect dependant on performer.  A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated Preventing social inhibition: - Make the performer familiar with playing in front of big crowds - Gradually introduce evaluation - Improve autonomous nature of skills - Improve concentration and focus. Exam Question- A coach may be able to reduce social inhibition through putting a player into a position of power so they are being constantly watched and assessed, which will make the performer used to this pressure and then can change their mindset. A coach will make simple skills fully autonomous with overlearning of that skill so that very little concentration is used for the simple skills. [Groups and cohesion] A team has the following characteristics: - A collective identity - Interaction - Communication - A shared goal or purpose Tuckman's theory of group formation- four stages all teams must go through 1. Forming- Short, first stage. Group gets to know each other 2. Storming- Potential conflict in this stage as individuals compete to establish their position, status or role. 3. Norming- Once all conflicts has been resolved, the team settles down and begin to cooperate. Group standards are accepted, and cohesion develops. 4. Performing- All the players are now interactive and working together to achieve their goals. Members support each other and understand their role in the team. The length of time this process can take varies according to the size of the group, the difficulty of the task, and the experience of the players. PE PRACTISE QUESTIONS 1. Define the storming stage of Tuckmans model of group formation. Give a sporting example. Storming is the stage of potential conflict between a new team, it is the second stage of a group forming and comes about as people begin to try and establish themselves amongst the team as an individual. Such as a player trying to proof he is a better player than another person in his position leading to conflict within the team. 2. Zajonic's model shows the effects of the pressure of others on performance. Explain how the presence of others will affect the performance of an individual in the autonomous stage of learning. The autonomous stage of learning states that a performer can effectively complete a skill with little cognitive thinking behind the action. If this person doesn't have to think when performing skills, when being put under pressure of a crowd, their basic skills will not differ due to the fact they don't think about the skills, and therefore the crowd does not put them under any pressure with their over learnt skills. Since the performers basic skills wont change, the performance will stay at a maintained level and won't drop due to the presence of other. 3. Olympic athletes have to complete in front of large audiences. Discuss the effect that the presence of spectators can have on performers. Suggest strategies that can be used to limit any potential negative effects. AO1- Social facilitation is the influence of the presence of others on performance, presence of others increases arousal. [Cohesion] The tendency for individuals to work together to achieve their goals. The forces that keep the group members on task. Cohesion is required for the team to achieve its goals. In some sports the cohesion involves ever team member working hard at the same thing, known as co-action. In other sports, each player may have a different role, and this role must be integrated with the roles of the other team members. Task cohesion- looks at the end result of the team pulling together fulfilling their individual role to achieve the goal as a group. Social cohesion- is the interaction between team members and how they work with each other. They may eve socialise away from sport. Social cohesion will help interaction, communication and team spirit but it can also be a negative influence on the group. Social cohesion might cause sub-groups within the team and therefore friction, this could affect their cooperation at training or in matches. Task cohesion is very important and can over-ride the problems of social cohesion. The performance and results may still be good even if the players do not socialise, but without task cohesion performance would be poor. Actual productivity- The team performance during a game or event and refers to the extent of successful interaction.c Potential productivity- the maximum capability of the group when cohesiveness appears at its strongest. Faulty processes- Factors which can go wrong in team performance. AP=PP-FP Faulty processes- Two faulty processes that bring about losses in potential productivity: - Co-ordination losses- any breakdown in teamwork and synchronization of the group is regarded as co-ordination loss. - Motivation losses- Relate to an individual who suffers a decrease in motivation during performance and so withdraws effort and 'coasts'. Coordination losses: - Team performance affected by lack of coordination/ working together/ lack of communication. - Inadequate leadership - Poor team tactics/ strategies Negative influences that can cause social loafing: - Feelings others in the team are not trying - Feeling that performances are never watched or valued by the coach - Low self-confidence may result in a strategy of social loafing to protect self-esteem - Those with negative experiences - Loss of motivation if a task is perceived too difficult. Factors that adversely affect teamwork: - Injuries - Lack of incentives - Vague individual roles - Low sum of the players overall ability - Personality- people with low train confidence - Inadequate leadership Improving productivity: - Structured practise to ensure all players know tactics and strategies - Give individuals special roles of responsibility - Give feedback to team ot make improvements - Have an effective leader - Team bonding exercise - Avoid social cliques within teams - Develop confidence within team with attribution - Develop support within the team - Maintain stability within the tea - Maintain motivation with varied practice Carron's Antecedents: - Environmental factors - Personal factors - Similarity of group members - Leadership - Team factors [Importance of goal setting] Benefits: - Increasing motivation of performers and ensure persistence. - Improves confidence. - Regulating and sustaining effort. Outcome goal- A goal set against the performance of others and based on a result. - Can become concerned with results over performance. - Involves comparison with others. Task orientated goal- Getting a better performance - Based on task not the outcome - Concerned with improvements in performance Performance goals- When the athlete sets a goal to better their own performance rather than comparing to others - Judged against own previous performances in an attempt to improve personal achievement. Process goals- Based on improving technique - Concerned with improvements in technique SMARTER principles - S-specific - M-measured - A-achievable - R-realistic - T-time-bound - E-evaluate - R-re-do Smarter targets: - Improve tackle over 15% of last ditch one on one tackles in the backfield in two weeks. [Attribution theory] Attribution- A perception of the reason for an outcome or of an event. An attribute is a reason given to explain something that has happened. It is a perceived outcome of events. These reasons are vital for motivation and effort. Attribution is a kay factor in a task persistence. The locus of causality can be either internal or external. Internal: - The result was because of me. - I have some control over the outcome. - I believe I played well and that contributed to our success. External: - That result was due to a poor refereeing decision. - I had no control over that outcome. - That team would have beaten anyone in the world. The stability dimension This dimension is concerned with how changeable the reasons for winning and losing are. Stable: - Relatively permanent. - Can change over a long period but not likely to change in the short-term - High self-belief about your ability to score goals will likely remain in the future. Unstable: - Changeable in the short run. - If you think did not put enough effort into a performance, this can be rectified in the next game. [Weiner's model of attribution] Weiner (1974) classified the reasons for winning and losing into two sections, locus of causality and stability, and each subsection is subdivided into two parts, internal and external and stable and unstable. [ ]  [Retrieval questions] 1. Forming, storming, norming, performing. 2. Aggression is an action completed with an intent to harm outside the rules of the game and duty of care against another. Assertion is an action inside the rules and is a controlled. 3. Reinforcement, attribute success internally, goal setting 4. A novice who has no experience in front of crowds is at the cognitive stage of performance, meaning they must still think consciously about all actions they perform, and have trouble with identifying relative stimuli. This would mean social inhibition would occur for the performer. In this, a crowd would act as a large stimulus which would cause the novice to decrease in performance as they may not choose the correct relative stimuli and either underperform a skill or chose the wrong skill to perform, making them perform badly. [Attribution theory continued] Self-serving bias: - Using external and/ or unstable reasons for losing. - Winning= Players like to think it was down to them and provide stable and internal reasons for success. - Losing= players tend to look for unstable and external reasons for their loss! - The self-serving bias helps to promote self-esteem. Learned helplessness: - Using internal stable reasons for losing. - Occurs when players blame losing on internal and stable reasons such as ability. - Often, they lack so much confidence that they think failure is inevitable and success unlikely. Attribution retraining: - Changing the reasons given for success and failure. - The key to attribution retraining is to change the perception and belief of the sportsperson by changing the reason given for failure. - Create opportunities to succeed. Mastery orientation: - A state of mind when the performer is high in confidence, has belief in their ability and thinks that success can be repeated, and failure is both temporary and changeable. General and specific learned helplessness: - General- overall internal reasons for losing - Specific- a specific situation or skill attributed to the internal reason for losing Exam practise: 1. Learned helplessness is attributing the loss of a game to an internal stable reason, which would decrease confidence and motivation since the performer would think that they are the reason they lost, and because its stable, they believe they will keep losing, which decreases motivation and confidence, hindering performance. 1. Self-serving bias is when a performer would use external and unstable reasons of losing and when winning, they believe it was down to their skill and talent to protect the performer. 2. Weiners model of attribution states that there are four reasons for losing and the attribution of the loss, stable and unstable, and external and internal. It states a reason is either stable or unstable and external or internal, such as the referee being unstable and external. 3. An attitude object is the object the attitude is aimed at, such as a referee, which would form an attitude due to how the players views the referee's decisions and effectiveness to ref the game, and then would create an attitude against the object. 4. Audiences, co-actors, competitors and social reinforcers. Audience and co-actors have no effect n the event but can still cause social inhibition or social facilitation by affecting arousal. 5. Task cohesion looks at the end result of the team pulling together fulfilling their individual role to achieve the goal as a group. Social cohesion is the interaction between team members and how they work with each other. They may even socialise away from sport. Task cohesion is the more important due to the fact if they have the drive to fulfil the same goal it doesn't matter if they get along off the pitch. 6. Outcome goal is a goal set against the performance of others and based on a result. Can become concerned with results over performance. Involves comparison with others. 7. Catharsis is when an action is completed out to frustration to relieve it and prevent aggression if completed or will increase aggressive action if action where frustration is relieved is prevented. 8. Intrinsic motivation will not disappear so will always be possible and Confidence and self-efficacy Confidence- A belief in the ability to master a task. Those with higher confidence tend to take more risk and try harder. They are more likely to show approach behaviour, and they are more likely to win. Trait confidence- consistent level of confidence shown in most situations. State confidence- refers to a specific situation and is unstable and concerns how they play at a particular moment. Vealy model She suggested that confidence gained in one area of sport could be used to improve confidence in a different sporting activity. The player evaluates the outcome. The result of this judgement may lead to increased confidence in future activities as the player may go on to develop a competitive orientation. PE- Sports Psychology, Confidence and Self-efficacy (Vealey\'s for \... Explaining the model- Player in a school rugby team playing in the county cup final Objective competitive situation: Refers to the competition or competitive situation. Playing in the final. Trait sport confidence: refers to stable and enduring sport confidence. It is innate characteristic which means that a person with high SC trait is likely to feel capable of being successful. Competitive orientation: refers to the level of competitiveness of the player and how much effort they put into something to be successful. Highly competitive players are more likely to try and tackle players larger than themselves. State sport confidence: the actual level of confidence in the situation similar to self-efficacy. The player will have low, medium or high confidence; dependant on SC trait and competitive orientation. Behavioural response: are the actual behaviours that the players exhibit, this often reflects the quality of their performance. Players experiencing high SC state want to be involved in the action of the game, taking, putting a lot of effort in and performing skills without fear of failure. Subjective outcomes: how the player perceives or rates their performance. IF the performance is perceived to be successful then competitiveness and SC state increased. Exam questions 1. Identify three characteristics of an individual with a need to achieve personality. Player welcomes competition. They show approach behaviours, where they welcome competition and evaluation. Happy to play against someone of equal ability or slightly better. Mastery orientation/task persistent 2. Identify and describe one strategy a coach uses to develop approach behaviour. Attribute success internally- Coach should tell player that any success achieved was down to the player, not the other team. A coach telling a team they won due to their well worked set piece drills over the other team's poor defending. Confidence varies with intensity and situation. Confidence also depends on interaction. Bandura's theory of self-efficacy How well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations Self-efficacy is a person's belief in their ability to master a specific sporting situation. Self-confidence is the general feeling of belief; self-efficacy is a specific sporting situation. Factors affecting self-efficacy: - Performance accomplishment - Vicarious experiences - Verbal persuasion - Emotional arousal Performance accomplishments: What have you achieved already. Self-efficacy is influenced by what you have done in the past or your past experiences. Can be enhanced if the players not only achieved but enjoyed the experience too. Vicarious experiences: Seeing others do the task. Involves watching others of similar ability do the same task and be successful. Verbal persuasion: Encouragement from others. Looks at the power of reinforcement and encouragement. Praise from the coach, fellow players or spectators gives a real incentive and confidence to repeat the successful attempt. Even more significant if it is from someone the performer holds in high esteem. Emotional arousal: A perception of the effects of anxiety on performance. Keeping calm, maintaining control and game strategy when you are close to getting a big win is essential to good performance. These situations cause increase in anxiety and arousal. The key to emotional arousal is how the performer perceives the increased arousal before and during the activity. Strategies to improve confidence: 1. Control arousal- the lower the anxiety the higher the confidence. 2. Accurate demonstrations- demonstrations performed by role models who demonstrates accurately and is equal ability to performer 3. Point out past successes 4. Give support and encouragement 5. Allow success in training- set tasks within capability of the performer 6. Set attainable goals- once goals have been reached, set a more challenging goal 7. Attribute any successes to the athlete 8. Mental practise- go over a routine in the mind 9. One on one coaching- the performer is given specific attention and help with weaknesses in their own performance Performance accomplishments Vicarious experiences Verbal persuasion Emotional arousal ----------------------------- ------------------------ -------------------------------- ------------------- Allow success in training Accurate demonstration Give support and encouragement Control arousal Set attainable goals One-on-one coaching Mental practise Point out past successes Attribute athlete's successes Advantages of self-efficacy: - Increases positive attitudes - Increases motivation - Reduces fear of failure - Reduces anxiety - Helps to reach optimal arousal levels Home field advantage Increases the confidence of the home team and increases anxiety of away teams Why is it good: - Often teams playing at home wins because the home audience support increases the players' confidence - Playing at home may mean the home team plays a more fluent style since they feel more at ease and more confident - Home audiences can cause 'functional assertive behaviour' in the home team, causing them to have more drive, more assertion and the correct choice of response. - Since expert players are use to playing in front of large crowds the effect of social facilitation could occur - The home crowd can have a negative effect on the away team, causing increased anxiety with hostile chanting. This leads to less effective performance and the opposition could suffer from effects of social inhabitations Why is it not good? - The home crowd might cause the home team to 'choke', in big games, with the increased pressure of the game causing the catastrophe effect, where the players suffer a dramatic reduction in performance. The interactionist theory combines both trait and situational approaches to explain behaviour, suggesting that behaviour is influenced by an individual\'s personality traits and the environment they are in. This theory is useful to understand the ways in which different personalities in a team would work in a competitive environment, with different competitive environments changing the way the team would perform and react to the changing environments. For example, if a team member is naturally introverted, a personality trait, but finds themselves in a high-pressure match where their role requires them to communicate their behaviour might change. According to the interactionist perspective, their performance could improve or worsen depending on how well they adapt to this combination of personality and environmental demands. This theory allows adaptation in performance as it acknowledges that no single factor---personality or situation---completely determines how someone acts. For instance, a normally aggressive footballer might show restraint in a match where they are warned of a potential red card, due to the environment dictating their innate personality traits. However, it could be argued that in some high level and highly competitive teams with well learnt skills and a variety of experience that personality traits are more stable and influential than the interactionist perspective. Explain how the negative attitude of players can impact on the cohesion of a team and using named psychological theories. Attitudes are defined as a thought or feeling directed towards an object called an attitude object, this thought or feeling could be positive or negative, but the attitude is respondent to the attitude object and anything this object might do. A negative attitude is a negative emotion, such as aggression or frustration, directed towards the attitude object and this negatively impact the performance of a player, with it potentially causing overarousal, which can decrease the performance of a player in a team. The cohesion of a team is due to two types of cohesion, task cohesion and social cohesion. Task cohesion is the directive of a team towards a common goal, such as a trophy, and if a negative attitude directed at an object, for instance a call from the referee perceived as bad causes frustration, then something may occur from this too reduce performance, and if performance is decreased and you become overused due to frustration, the task cohesion would begin to decrease in strength, reducing the cohesiveness of a team. Social cohesion, although less important than task cohesion is the cohesion through socialisation and whether you like your teammates or not. With an increase frustration due to the negative attitude towards the object, then a moment of cathartic aggression might ensue, causing a red card and dropping a player, which would cause the players to create a social dislike to the performer and therefore reduce both social and task cohesion, which would decrease the performance of the team. [Leadership in sport] A leader is someone who has an influence in helping others achieve their goals. A leader plays a role in maintaining effort and motivation by inspiring the team and setting targets. Leadership in sport: - Coach - Manager - Captain - Physiotherapist - Director Two types of leaders: 1. Prescribed leaders may bring in new ideas to the group but could risk upsetting some of the players by replacing trusted methods with unfamiliar ones. 2. Emergent leaders keep group harmony but might not advance the group with new ideas. Essential key characteristics for a leader: - Assertive and confident-2 - Ruthless when needed - Trusted among team - Knowledgeable and experienced-1 - Respected - Passionate - Charismatic - Empathy - Inspirational-3 - Organisational skills Charisma- top leaders have a certain demeanour and presence that the makes other listen and follows. Interpersonal skills- the leader needs to interact with other members of the team and sometimes those outside the group. Empathy- the leader needs to be able to listen to others and take views into account, showing an affinity with other views. Experience- leaders would have a wealth of knowledge in their chosen sport built up over years. Inspirational- leaders need to encourage others and keep them trying. Confidence- a confident approach from the leader can be infectious and spread across the players. Organisational skills- a good leader would plan and prepare training linking to the demands of the team. Leadership style is the manner in which the leader chooses to lead the group. The choice of style is crucial to good leadership and if correct still is used the group is more likely to be successful. Styles of leadership: - Autocratic - Democratic - Laissez-faire [The autocratic and task-oriented style] The leader makes the decisions. The leader dictates the instructions to the group. The leader is task-orientated, the concern of the leader is to get results and reach targets. May have a specific approach and plan to win the game, tells the players the plan and makes them follow it in the expectation of a win. The coach must maintain contact throughout the sessions, since the group will switch off when the coach is not there. [The democratic and person-orientated style] Concerned with interpersonal relationships. The coach adopts a more sympathetic approach to leadership and seeks the opinion of the group before making decisions, based on those suggestions. The leader adopts a person-oriented style. The coach may use the quality of empathy to listen to the senior players after watching video footage of the next opposition and then plans. This means the group continues to work when the coach is not present. [The laissez-faire style] The leader does very little and leaves the group to it. The manager may tell the players what he wants from them in the training sessions. However, less motivated players will stop working hard when alone. [Fiedler's contingency model of leadership] Looks at the favourableness of the situation Only based of autocratic and democratic styles If very favourable or very unfavourable Fiedler suggests using autocratic. When situation is closer and in the middle Fiedler suggests democratic is the best. How favourable a situation is depends on: - The task complexity - The leader-group relationship - Leaders position of authority Most favourable situations: - Leader has respect - Good support in the group - High ability - High motivation - Clear task for team - Harmony in team and leadership Least favourable situation: - Hostility in team - Little respect for leader - Low ability - No support - Low motivation - Unclear task - Leader is weak Moderately favourable situation: - Need or preference for consultation within the group - Motivation is moderate - Limited support - Reasonable ability Chelladurai's multi-dimensional model of leadership Chelladurai looks at other factors: he suggested that the leader must use an interactive approach to balance aspects of the situation, the leader and the group. Antecedents = characteristics affecting the leader Situational characteristics = type of task being performed, individual or team sport, danger of the situation, opposition, time availability, size of group, task complexity Leader characteristics = personality, skills, experience, their preferred style. Member characteristics = gender, age, ability, motivation levels, ambition levels, personalities. Required behaviour = what the situation demands. The leader has assessed the situation and decides what style best suits the situation. Actual behaviour = what the leader decides to do in relation to leadership style. This can be determined by matching the situation and group demands. Preferred behaviour = what the group wants. [Stress management] Stress- negative response of the body to a threat causing anxiety. Eustress- positive response of the body to a threat. Stress is the response of an individual to a threat. An energised state of readiness before performing a task. A state of activation experienced by a performer before and during competition. The cause of stress in sport is called a stressor: - Injury - Playing in an important match - Playing against good opponents - Playing to get an important reward - Fear of failure caused by the pressure of being watched by significant others, pressure from the coach or pressure from your own expectations Cognitive stress: - Cognitive effects of stress are psychological. - Negative thoughts and feelings; often irrational - Inability to cope with the demands of the situation - Loss of concentration - Information processing becomes limited and specific/ environmental cues are missed causing a drop in performance. Somatic stress: - Somatic effects of stress are physiological - Increase in heart rate and sweating - Extreme cases lead to nausea - Muscular tension can cause poor performance Stress management techniques 1. Thought stopping- when negative or irrational thoughts occur, the performer uses a learned action or trigger to remove them. Simple learned action to redirect attention back to the task at hand. Batsman in cricket prodding the ground with his bat between deliveries. 2. Positive self-talk- performer replaces negative thoughts with positive ones. Can be used to focus on a task or instructions or tactic from a coach. Self-talk can overcome bad habits. 3. Imagery- used to recreate a successful image of the skill performed well. Used to recall the actual movements of success in their mind. Can go further and tap into the emotions experienced during that performance. Some use imagery to avoid stressful situations by imaging a calm place. A mental escape from stress. 4. Visualisation- similar to image perfected while training is then 'locked in' and re-lived when performing. External visualisation and imagery focus on the environment, as if they are watching themselves on television. Internal visualisation and imagery focus on the perfected skill being performed. 5. Mental rehearsal- going over the movements of the task in the mind prior to the action taking place. Particularly useful for athletes about to perform a set of skills or routine. Rehearsed in a spatial sequence reducing the likelihood of elements being forgotten. Best done in a quiet, calm prior to competition. 6. Psychological skills training- performer can train or practise using any methods explained. Many professional sport clubs employ sports psychologists to do that. Players can be guided through aspects of visualisation and imagery. Easterbrook (1959) -- cue utilisation. Low levels of stress and arousal: performer is able to process plenty of cues from the environment- may be to broad as high amount of information causes confusion. Moderate levels of stress and arousal: the performer picks up the relevant information and the performance can be successful. High levels of stress and arousal: only limited can be processed and this can cause important information to be missed -- a problem known as attentional wastage. This reduces levels of information. Niddefer (1976) -- attention styles Broad -- when a number of cues can be identified Narrow -- when it is best to focus on one or two cues External -- when information is drawn from the environment Internal -- when information is used from within the performer. Wages in perfectly competitive markets In labour market economics, the equilibrium wage refers to the wage rate at which the quantity of labour supplied by workers matches the quantity of labour demanded by employers. The supply of labour and the demand for labour intersects. Wages rates in perfectly competitive labour markets In a perfectly competitive labour market, relative wage rates are determined at the point where DL=SL. There is an assumption in perfectly competitive that all workers possess identical skills and receive the wage rate. In reality, workers have diverse skill sets and different motivational factors drive them. An excess demand of labour leads to a shortage of workers in a particular occupation, causing wages tend to increase. Causes a rise in wages and is an incentive to work, this increases the supply of labour Questions Aggression questions 1. Aggression is an act of violence outside the laws of the game with intent to harm an opponent, such as tackling someone out the air in rugby with the intention to hurt them. 2. Assertion is an act of violence within the rules that does not have the intent to harm, like a hard but fair slide tackle in football 3. The aggression -frustration hypothesis states that an athlete may resort to aggression as a means of catharsis if put in a frustration situation. Instinct theory states that all people have the ability and innate transgression to turn to aggression in certain situations. 4. The aggressive cue hypothesis states that frustration causes anger and arousal that creates a readiness for aggression. This frustration comes from a small moment or cue, such as a player disagreeing with a decision the referee made. 5. The aggression -frustration hypothesis states that an athlete may resort to aggression as a means of catharsis if put in a frustration situation. If a player gets a goal disallowed in football, then is called offside at the next play he will become frustrated and turn to aggression as a means of catharsis. Personality questions 1. The interactionist theory is preferred by psychologists due to the more varied nature of the theory; it suggests that both the innate characteristics and the environment a person grows up in and are in will craft the personality of the person. 2. Neurotic and stable 3. Trait theory states that a person's personality is a makeup of purely the innate characteristics inherited by the person, this states that someone will have the same response in all situations since their personality makeup doesn't change. This is a draw back since psychologist know that personality is affected by the environment the performer is in.4 4. Observation, where a player is watched during training or a game. May causes pressure or stress with knowledge of being watched so may alter behaviour 5. Exit ticket 1. Forming Storming Norming Performing 2. A collective identity, Interaction 3. Task cohesion is the cohesion between the team to complete a combined task. Social cohesion the cohesion between team members where they get along. [Diet and nutrition] Balance diet is for: - optimum performance - Health - Weight - Energy levels Balanced= sufficient/enough/correct amount of each component A diet must match the requirements from training and games. A balanced diet must contain all of the 7 classifications of food. The 7 classifications of food: - Protein -- meat/eggs- muscle growth, repair and sustainability, last resort energy source - Carbohydrates-noodles/rice/pasta- primary energy release - Fibre -- nuts and seeds, digestive purposes - Vitamins -- fruits- general overall health - Water - hydration - Fats -- avocado -- sustain energy levels after carbohydrates - Minerals -- iron, zinc -- general overall health Carbohydrates Two types- simple and complex Simple- founds in fruits easily digested. Processed foods, anything with refined sugar Complex- found in plant-based foods, take longer for the body to break down. Breads, pasta, rice. Main energy source, broken into glucose, stored as glycogen Stored in liver and muscles Glucose- simple sugar and the main source of energy for the body's cells, mainly found in the blood. Glycogen -- the stored form of glucose. The glycaemic index -- an index which monitors the blood glucose levels at different rates. High glycaemic index- foods raise blood sugar quickly, within 30 minutes, blood sugar falls. It falls below the starting point, which makes us feel like we lack energy and are tired. Low glycaemic index- foods increase blood glucose slowly. Within 30 minutes, blood sugar gently falls. Energy is provided for a longer period of time. Low GI foods night before and morning of, and then high GI foods before the game Protein Protein are a combination of many chemicals called amino acids. Amino acids are used in all body cells to build protein. Protein is important for the four reasons: 1. Growth and repair 2. Making enzymes 3. Making hormones 4. Making haemoglobin Minor source of energy. Provide energy when carbohydrates and fats are low. Tend to be used more by power athletes who have a greater need for growth and repair and development of muscle tissue. When a muscle grows and repairs it has a larger contraction potential. Analyse the importance for a marathon runner to consume complex carbohydrates, simple carbohydrates and protein in order to achieve success. 1. Too much protein damages the liver and the kidneys 2. Simple and complex 3. Water, minerals, vitamins, fats, fibre 4. Stored as glycogen, used as glucose 5. Glucose 6. Its causes a spike then a deep trough 7. 3-4 hours before 8. Carbs, fats, protein 9. Growth and repair, enzymes produced, hormones produced, and haemoglobin produced Fats -- different types of fats Saturated fats, too many lead to: - Weight gain - Poor stamina - Poor flexibility - Coronary heart disease - Diabetes - High blood pressure - Poor thermoregulation Consuming too many saturated fats lead to high levels of cholesterol. Cholesterol is made predominantly in the lover and is carried by the blood as two forms of cholesterol: - Low density lipoproteins - LDL - High density lipoprotein - HDL LDL is bad and HDL is good LDL can accumulate, atherosclerotic plaque LDL leave fatty deposits in the arteries and causes poor blood flow and oxygen transportation. HDL take cholesterol away from parts of the body where it has accumulated. It takes it to the liver. IT is then disposed of. It is important to consume the right type of fat in your diet. The other type of fat is known as unsaturated: - Fats also help to carry/transport vitamins - Specifically, A, D, E and K - They help act as an insulator - Provide energy when intensity is low and duration long Fats are crucial part of any endurance athletes diet. We will learn more about this when we study energy systems, but fat is broken down by a process called 'beta oxidation'. This provides energy. Unsaturated food sources: - Avocado and avocado oil - Fatty fish, salmon and mackerel - Peanut butter and peanut oil - Olives and olive oil - Vegetables oils Trans fat Trans-fat are a type of unsaturated fat. They are mostly made from industrial processes by adding hydrogen. It gives it a longer shelf life. It causes high levels of blood cholesterol. Most supermarkets have removed hydrogenated oil from own-brand products. Discuss the importance of fat intake to an endurance athlete. Since fat can be used as a primary source of energy, if the athlete has correct intake of fat, then their carbohydrate stores will be able to last for longer, with fats being burnt as a way of producing energy. However, if too many fats are consumed, then the athlete could gain weight and lose flexibility which would mean it takes more energy to move the same distance as a lighter competitor with better range of motion. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a netball player having a diet rich in fat? Advantages: - Long duration, so increased stamina from unsaturated fats which can improve performance. - Carry vitamins, stay healthy for longer and train for more time improves performance. Disadvantages: - Low stamina if saturated fats and have been consumed too much - Lower flexibility, harder to move and make blocks and interceptions. Questions 1. They add hydrogen through industrial processes 2. Weight loss 3. Low density lipoproteins 4. High density lipoprotein 5. Fatty fish 6. Poor flexibility 7. A, D, E and K Vitamins 2 types of vitamins: - Fats soluble - Water soluble Fat soluble: A, K, E, D Water soluble: B, C **[Priority on vitamins B C D -- ones we need to talk about on spec]** Fat soluble vitamins- stored in liver and fatty tissue (for use at a later date). This means it is not essential to consume these types of vitamins every day. Vitamin A -- found in animal sources: - Milk - Fish - Eggs - Cheese - Plant based foods such as carrots Vitamin K -- found in green leafy vegetables: - Spinach - Cabbage - Broccoli Vitamin E -- 60% of vitamin E comes from vegetable oil: - Vegetable oil - Nuts - Seed - Cereals Vitamin D is made by our body underneath the skin when exposed to sunlight. A smaller amount can be gained from milk and oily fish. It has two exercise relayed functions: helps absorb calcium, Maintains bones and teeth. Vitamin D makes a performer less likely to suffer stress fractures caused by overuse. Bones are also less likely to break from impact within contact sports. Water soluble vitamins Water sol vitamins are not stored and need to be taken daily. Any excess will not be beneficial, will be excreted. These vitamins can be easily destroyed and washed out. Vitamin B B1 -- eggs, liver and red meat B2 -- Eggs, liver and cereal B6 -- Eggs and cereal B12 -- red meat, liver, kidney and fish B1- break down and release energy from food B2- break down and release energy from food B6- helps form red blood cell and haemoglobin B12 -- helps from red blood cells and maintains nervous system Vitamin C Known as ascorbic acid. Can be found within many fruits and vegetables. Most associated with citrus fruits, oranges, kiwis, strawberries. Exercise related function: - Protects cells, keeps them healthy - Maintains bones, teeth, gums, and ligaments Minerals Minerals assist bodily functions. Minerals dissolved by body as ions. Main minerals functions: - Facilitate transmission of nerve impulses - Enable effective muscle contraction Source: - Meat, fish, eggs, dairy, cereals, vegetables, fruits & nuts Minerals need to know: - Calcium: important for strong bones and teeth. Efficient nerve and muscle function. - Sodium: Regulate fluid levels. Too much can cause high blood pressure. Increase risk of stroke or heart attack. - Iron: Forms haemoglobin in red blood cells. Helps transport oxygen. A lack of iron is called anaemia. Fibre Function: slows down the time it takes the body to break down food. This therefore provides a slower, more sustained release of energy. Helps to prevent constipation and assist digesting. Fibre and cholesterol -- fibre fights diseases. A diet high in fibre can help prevent colon cancer and heart disease. High fibre helps the body to eliminate cholesterol by binding it in the digestive tract. Water Constitutes 60% of a person's body weight. Essential for a good health. It is the main component of many cells. Transport- nutrients, hormones and waste products. Helps to regulate our body temperature and maintain hydration. However, as more energy is generated, more heat is released, and our body begins to cool itself. It does this via radiation and evaporation. Evaporation takes place as an athlete sweats. It does this to cool the body. Water is lost during this process. If water levels are not replenished, then dehydration will occur. The benefit of the diet high in water and fibre on a tennis player. Dehydration will cause: - Headaches & muscle fatigue. - Increased heart rate equals a lower cardiac output. - Reduction in transportation of oxygen and nutrients. - Reduction in exchange of waste products. - Increases reaction time & decision making. - Reduced sweating to prevent water loss. - Increased core temperature. - Blood viscosity will increase. - Reduces blood flow to muscles & skin. - Loss of electrolytes/possible cramps Rehydration Sports drinks will: - Boost glycogen levels before competition. Water will: - Rehydrate during competition. For every **1 KG of body weight lost during exercise**, the performer needs to drink **1.5l of fluid.** Dietary supplements - Glycogen loading - Creatine monohydrate - Sodium bicarbonate - Caffeine Creatine: - It increases the amount of phosphocreatine stores in the muscle. - Phosphocreatine is used to fuel ATP-PC system. This system can give us energy for up to 10 seconds. - Increasing creatine will allow this energy system to work longer and also decreases recovery time - This supplement allows them to work at **higher intensities** and **recover quicker** between rounds. They are explosive, powerful events. Sodium bicarbonate: - Sodium bicarbonate is an antacid *(neutralise acidity in the stomach).* - It increases the buffering capacity of the blood. - It neutralises the negative effects of lactic acid and hydrogen ions. - Due to the fact it neutralises the negative effects of lactic acid and hydrogen ions, it is used by athletes who engage the *'anaerobic glycolytic system'.* - This system lasts between 8-10 second & 3 minutes. - Sodium Bicarbonate: A white soluble compound: antacid. - Buffering: Ability of the blood to compensate for the buildup of lactic acid or hydrogen ions to maintain the pH level. - Hydrogen Ions: Responsible for the acidity of the blood. - Lactic Acid: A by-product of anaerobic respiration; as it accumulates, it causes fatigue. A white sheet with black text and black text Description automatically generated Caffeine: - Stimulant that increases mental alertness and reduces fatigue. - Improves metabolism of fatty acids - Used by endurance athletes using the aerobic energy system - 3mg caffeine per kg body weight is best Glycogen loading: - The body\'s preferred fuel for endurance sport is glycogen. - If muscle glycogen breakdown exceeds its replacement, glycogen stores with deplete. - In order to maintain glycogen stores, athletes need a diet high in carbohydrates. Endurance athletes need to consume at least 6-10g of carbohydrates per KG of body weight. - The harder you work; the more food is needed to replenish. **[Method of glycogen loading:]** Method 1: Glycogen loading 6 days before competition: - Day 1,2,3 consume all protein (high intensity) - Day 4,5,6 consume all carbohydrates (low intensity) Exercising with protein at high intensity will burn off carbohydrate stores, depleting them. Exercise with carbohydrate at low intensity allows glycogen stores to be increased by up to 2 times the original amount. Preventing fatigue, a depletion in glycogen and a performer 'hitting the wall'. Method 2: carbo -- window Replenishing glycogen stores during the first 20 minutes after exercise will enhance performance for the next day. In that 20-minute window the body is most able to restore lost glycogen. Many elite performers will drink chocolate milk due to the fact: - It is a 3:1 carbohydrate to protein ratio - Helps to resynthesise muscle glycogen - Liquid absorbed much faster - Rehydrate at the same time