Social Psych Notes PDF

**The self** **The Self: Central Themes** 1. **Introduction to the Self**: - **Self-concept**: Understanding who we are. - **Self-esteem**: Valuation of ourselves. 2. **Perspectives on the Self**: - Key thinkers: William James, Carl Rogers. - Modern psychological vie...

**The self** **The Self: Central Themes** 1. **Introduction to the Self**: - **Self-concept**: Understanding who we are. - **Self-esteem**: Valuation of ourselves. 2. **Perspectives on the Self**: - Key thinkers: William James, Carl Rogers. - Modern psychological views. 3. **Psychological Theories on the Self**: - Five models, including social comparison and self-discrepancy theories. **Slide 4: What is the Self?** **Exploring "Who Am I?"** - The **self** is an essential concept in: - **Philosophy**: Reflects on existence and identity. - **Theology**: Intersects with ideas of the soul. - **Psychology**: Examines behavior and thought origins. - **Neuroscience**: Investigates brain mechanisms that create self-concept. - **Evolutionary psychology**: Considers the development of self-awareness. **Slide 5: Perspectives on the Self** **The self is central to\...** - People's experience of **themselves**: - Thinking and feeling. - Regulating their own actions. - Dependent on **reflexive thinking**: Awareness of one\'s mental state. **Philosophical and Psychological Questions:** - What makes us distinct individuals? - How do we form thoughts about ourselves? **Slide 6: The Self-Concept** **Defining the Self** 1. **Reflexivity**: - The ability to think about oneself. 2. **Self-concept**: A representation of "me," constructed over time. 3. **Self-knowledge**: Multi-dimensional beliefs and understandings. **Dimensions of Self-Concept:** - **Existential self**: - Separate, constant identity across time. - **Categorical self**: - Grouping ourselves into traits: age, gender, profession. **Slide 7: Self-Esteem** **"How positively or negatively we feel about ourselves."** (Holt et al., 2019) - **High self-esteem linked to positive outcomes**: - Greater happiness. - More success in interpersonal relationships. - Higher achievement consistency. - **Low self-esteem associations**: - Bullying. - Aggression. - Poorer performance. **Slide 8: Key Thinkers on the Self** **William James (1890)** - **The Material Self**: Body, possessions, family, external symbols. - **The Social Self**: Based on how others see us. - **The Spiritual Self**: Personalities and core values. **Carl Rogers (1959)** - **Self-image**: How you see yourself. - **Self-esteem**: How positively or negatively you feel. - **Ideal self**: The aspirational version of yourself. **Slide 9: Psychological Theories** **Research Focus** - How people perceive, evaluate, and control themselves: - Attentional focus on self-awareness. - Building self-concept and identity. - Regulating decisions and actions. **Key Models:** 1. **Self-discrepancy Theory**: - Ideal self, ought self, and current self. 2. **Social Comparison Theory**: - Comparisons to others shape our identity. 3. **Regulatory Focus Theory**: - Promotion vs. prevention goals. 4. **Social Identity Theory**: - Identification through group belonging. 5. **Self-categorization Theory**: - Forming identity through levels of categorization. **Slide 10: Conclusion** **The self** is\... - Multi-dimensional: Reflects existential and social roles. - Dynamic: Not static, subject to individual and societal influences. **Psychological theories provide insights into:** - Building self-esteem. - Navigating relationships and group membership. - Improving understanding of self-regulation. Developmetal perspectives of the self **Slide 2: Key Areas in Development of the Self** - Infancy - Childhood - Adolescence - Adulthood **Slide 3: Infancy** **Temperament (Thomas and Chess, 1986, 1999)** - **Easy Temperament (40%)**: Generally happy and easy to soothe. - **Difficult Temperament (10%)**: Fussy, cries frequently, hard to console. - **Slow to Warm Temperament (15%)**: Hesitant but adapts over time. **Kagan's Work (1994)** - Inhibited (15%): Shy, restrained in unfamiliar settings. - Uninhibited (10%): Bold, sociable, comfortable in new settings. - Supports both **continuity and discontinuity** of temperament. **Slide 4: Infancy - Self-Awareness** **Rouge Test (Lewis & Brooks-Gunn, 1979)** - Method: Spot of rouge placed on a child's face. If the child notices the rouge in a mirror (\~18 months), they exhibit self-awareness. - Considered a **uniquely human quality** but seen in some animals (apes, dolphins, elephants). **Contributors to Self-Awareness:** 1. **Cognitive Development**: Brain growth and function. 2. **Social Experience**: Exposure to others and interactions. 3. **Attachment to Parents**: Secure relationships enhance awareness. 4. **Social Feedback**: Responding to how others react to them. **Slide 5: Childhood Developments - Early Years** - Preschool children describe themselves **concretely**. - Physical attributes or possessions. - Limited mention of psychological traits. **Developments by 8 Years:** - Self-description becomes more **abstract**. - Start incorporating personality traits. - Form social identities. - Use **social comparison** for self-evaluation. **Slide 6: Adolescence** **Key Features of Adolescent Development:** - **Focus on Psychological & Abstract Traits**: Values, ideologies, and beliefs. - Heightened **self-awareness**: Results in greater self-consciousness. - Later teens: - Combine **self-perceptions** into a cohesive self-portrait. **Identity Formation Theory (Marcia, 1966):** - Identity development can: - Take time or be redone multiple times. - Develop at varying rates across different aspects. - Proceed out of the expected order. **Slide 7: Adulthood** **Influencing Factors:** - **Age**: Experiences and maturity shape the self. - **Culture**: - Individualistic cultures emphasize personal achievement. - Collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and roles. - **Stability vs. Change**: The self is influenced by life events, challenges, and transitions. **Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development** - Details on development at different life stages: - Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust. - Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion. - Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation. **Slide 2: Seminar Participation** **Slide 3: Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)** **Discussion Questions:** - **Who or what influences your identity?** - Examples: Family, friends, hobbies, or specific interests. - **Is your identity fully defined by these factors, or is there more to it?** - Explore alternative dimensions beyond group identity. **Slide 4: Regulatory Focus Theory (Higgins, 1997)** **Context:** - **Modern context of the digital self:** - Technology has drastically evolved. - Our **online presence** may reflect actual, ideal, or ought-to versions of ourselves. **Discussion Prompts:** - How does your **digital self** fit your concept of self? - Do these online identities vary depending on the social media platform used? - Reflect on differences between platforms: Instagram, LinkedIn, TikTok, etc. **Slide 5: Identity Formation Theory (Marcia, 1966)** **Key Question:** - Is your **identity fully formed?** - If yes: What makes you believe so? - If no: - Which stage do you think you are in? - Recognize identity formation as **ongoing** and non-linear. **Slide 6: Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development (1950)** **Key Insights:** - Adolescence: Focus on **finding and developing the self.** - Adulthood: Focus on **finding love.** **Debate Topics:** - Do you agree with Erikson's sequence? - Can one develop **love before identity?** - Are these processes simultaneous? - Does another stage better represent your current development? **Slide 7: Reflection & Activity** **Final Exercise:** - Do any of the theories presented today resonate with your sense of self? - Which theories feel most applicable, and why? Human Individuality: Different Levels of Similarity As humans, we have unique traits that make each of us **individual**. However, we also share **similarities** with others. This can be categorized into three levels: 1. **Like all** others: Basic human characteristics like needing sleep or feeling emotions. 1. **Like some** others: Similar traits or preferences based on shared groups or backgrounds. 1. **Like no other**: Unique personal qualities and experiences that make us distinct. This means each person is a combination of universal features and unique aspects, encompassing the broader concept of **individual differences** from our earlier discussion. As Holt et al (2019) state, "Each of us in certain respects, are all like all other people, like some other people, and like no other people who have lived in the past or who will exist in the future." Lecture 4: Introduction to Individual Difference and Personality PS11420 -- Introduction to core topics in social and individual behaviour Jason Bush (jeb64\@aber.ac.uk) Slides courtesy of Alexandra Brookes Page 2  My detailsDr Jason Bush Email: jeb64\@aber.ac.uk Office: P5 1.15 Office Hours: Tuesday 9.30 -- 11.00 am; Friday 13.30 -- 3.00pm I am available for consultation in the Psychology department in P5 during my office hours. There is no need to book a meeting during my office hours, however you may have to wait if I am already speaking to someone Feel free to email any queries to me. Please allow 3 working days for a response. Page 3  Aims of the session: To develop an understanding of how the concept of 'personality' has developed over the course of history; To develop an understanding of how personality is conceptualised in psychology; To develop an understanding of personality 'traits' and the models of personality dimensions (e.g. the Big Five); To recognise some of the criticisms surrounding trait models of personality. Page 4  Human Individuality !"Each of us in certain respects, are all like all other people, like some other people, and like no other people who have lived in the past or who will exist in the future" (Holt et al, 2019, p. 591) Page 5  The Ancient Roots of Personality PsychologyPersonality psychology is a young field, but humans have always cared about personality. Page 6  The Ancient Roots of Personality\ \ Hippocrates (460 BCE -- 370 BCE)Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates believed that personality manifested itself in four different humours: Sanguine (blood) Choleric (liver bile) Phlegmatic (phlegm) Melancholic (kidney bile) Your temperament determined by your balance of phlegm, blood, and yellow and black bile! Page 7  The Development of Personality as a ConceptCharacter Sketches: ▪ Ironical ▪ Flatterer ▪ Boor ▪ Grumbler ▪ Reckless ▪ Chatty ▪ Surly ▪ Stupid ▪ Superstitious ▪ Gossip ▪ Shameless ▪ Arrogant Page 8  What types of individual differences?Personality psychology refers to those individual differences that: Are psychological in nature; Fall outside the intellectual domain; Are enduring dispositions; Form broad or generalized patterns. Page 9  Key Term: Individual Difference What are individual differences? The ways in which people vary in personality and mental abilities -- and how psychologists have developed scientific generalizations about this kind of human diversity. Page 10  Key Term: PersonalityWhat is personality? 'Personality' is the distinctive and enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterize a person\'s responses to life situations. Page 11  Mapping the Structure of Personality...\ \ Trait Psychology! What are the ways in which people differ in personality? Trait psychology aims to define a person\'s personality in terms of the degree to which they possess a particular characteristic. Page 12  How can we describe personality? Use a descriptive unit = trait We need a classification or 'taxonomy' These are the requirements for the scientific study of personality Page 13  What are personality traits? Descriptive unit = personality 'trait' A trait is a relatively enduring characteristic of the person A trait is a consistent pattern of behaviour, thinking or feeling that is relatively stable over time: Relatively consistent over situations Vary between people Dispositional Traits vary in generality: some are broad and some are narrow Page 14  Hierarchy of Traits: An ExampleHigh Level Trait Mid-Level TraitLow-Level TraitIllustrative behaviour Page 15  How are traits organised? We need to find a way to characterise the range of personality variation that traits cover... Page 16  Where to start?.... Survey the traits that are encoded in language This is the 'lexical approach' -- assumes important distinctions for describing personality traits are incorporated into everyday speech Classic Study:\ Allport & Odbert (1936) Recorded words to describe personality traits from the dictionary Found 17,953 words... Filtered to remove physical, cognitive, mood states, highly evaluative terms Left with 4,500 terms to describe personality! Page 17  Raymond CattellArgued that 4,500 trait words were still too many! Many of these words were synonyms or closely related (e.g., aggressive vs hostile) To overcome this, he pioneered the... Factor-analytic approach -- Aims to identify clusters of personality traits that are highly correlated (positively or negatively) with one another, but not with other traits in other clusters. Page 18  Cattell\'s 16 Factor Model Cattell progressively reduced the set Sorted words into 171 groups of synonyms/antonyms Reduced these in several steps to 16 "factors" using a technique called 'factor-analysis' These factors represented basic dimensions of personality Murder of\ Kitty Genovese\ (1964)Primary Details No one came to her aid. Few witnesses called the police. New York Times article sparked mass interest in the response of witnesses to the murder. Latane & Darley (1970) Replicated similar findings Bystander effect Developed a model of helping behaviour. Page 3  Bystander EffectPeople are inhibited to offer help or intervene resulting from: Diffusion of responsibility Less likely to act, and act slower, if there are more bystanders Social influence Others' behaviour influences an individual's responses to a situation. Pluralistic ignorance Idea that presences of others who remain inactive or seem unconcerned can dissuade us from action Page 4  Decision Model\ of Helping\ (Latane & Darley, 1970)Step 1: Recognize an event/problem Step 2 Interpret the event as an emergency Step 3 Decide if you have a responsibility for providing help Step 4 Decide how to act Step 5 Provide help \*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\* Failure to intervene can result from diffusion of responsibility or pluralistic ignorance at any steps of this sequence. \*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\* Page 5  Step 1: Recognizing the problemParticipants were sitting in a waiting room when smoke started to come out of an air vent. (Latane & Darley, 1968) How long do you think it took the person to escape? Alone With Confederates? Reporting When alone, 15% reported smoke to the experimenter. When sitting with two confederates, only 10% reported the smoke. Page 6  Step 2: Recognizing the problem as an emergency Participants were told that children in an adjacent room were supervised or unsupervised. Then they then heard sounds of fighting. What percentage of people thought the fight was real? Supervised condition 88% of those in the supervised condition thought the fight was real. Unsupervised condition 25% of those in the unsupervised condition thought it was real. \*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\* There are material and psychological costs to intervention. Those with greater responsibility were more likely to rationalize the sounds as play fighting. \*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\* Page 7  Step 3: Deciding if you have the responsibility to actLady in Distress (Latane & Rodin, 1969) 120 male undergraduates Who's more likely to help? Single or Pairs? Pairs less likely to help than single participant. Strangers or Friends? Pairs of strangers helped less than pairs of friends. \*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\* In ambiguous situations, participants relied on other's evaluations and responses in deciding whether to act or not. \*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\*\* Page 8  Step 4:\ Deciding how to assist Having... Recognized the problem Its severity Their responsibility to act People make a decision to act based on their... Competence Expertise Page 9  Step 5: Acting/AssistingPeople decide to take either: Direct Action Breaking up a fight, starting CPR Delegate, Direct, Distract, Delay Reportorial Action Calling the police, asking others for assistance Page 10  Decision Model of HelpingLatane & Darley (1970) Page 11  Exercise: Discuss Do you think you would help someone in need? Under what circumstances do you think you would or wouldn't help someone? Page 12  Questioning the Bystander EffectRevisiting evidence Using court transcripts and other evidence from the trial, demonstrated that 3 main claims are unsupported (Manning et al., 2007) 37 people watched the murder They watched events for at least 30 mins Nobody intervened Page 13  Questioning the Bystander EffectAre experimental studies ecologically valid? Hundreds of incidents captured on CCTV around the world: In 9 of 10 public conflicts, at least 1 bystander, but typically several, will do something to help (Philpot et al., 2019) https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-us-canada-49295967/is-the-bystander-effect-a-myth Page 14  Exercise: Discuss Page 15  SummaryThe event that triggered interest in the bystander effect may have been inaccurately reported. Some subsequent experiments may have lacked ecological validity. Recent research suggest that helping may be a more common response than previous literature suggested. There are clearly instances in the real world where people do not intervene: the bystander effect. The research, and the decision model of helping, provides useful insight into the factors that increase or decrease an individuals chances of helping. Page 16  Further ReadingEssential reading Section "Pro-social behaviour: Helping others" in the Holt et al. (2019) textbook Additional reading Philpot, R., Liebst, L.S., Levine, M. Bernasco, W. & Lindegaard, M. R. (2019). Would I be helped? Cross-national CCTV footage shows that intervention is the norm in public conflicts. American Psychologist. Kassin, S.M. (2017) The Killing of Kitty Genovese: What else does this case tell us? Perspectives on Psychological Science. Page 6  Levels of ConformityCompliance: Appearance of public conformity, surface level, fear of rejection, power play, fear of consequences Identification: Choosing to conform to be like someone you admire or respect, aspiration, role model Internalisation: Accepting the belief or behaviour, conforming both publicly and privately Page 7  Why Conform?The desire to 'fit in' or be liked -- normative conformity The desire to be correct -- informational conformity The desire to fit a social role -- identification conformity Page 8  Sherif (1935) Autokinetic Effect ExperimentExperiment to show that people conform to group norms when the situation is ambiguous Visual illusion that a spot of light moves Participants estimated the extent to which it moves Individually In groups of 3 (with consensus for 2) Group conformed to common estimate When unsure, we are prone to informational social influence Page 9  Asch (1951) Line ExperimentExperiment without ambiguity 1 participant and 7 confederates Responses agreed in advance 32% conformed with the clearly incorrect majority Over 12 critical trials, 75% conformed at least once Page 10  Why did they Conform? Some said that they really did believe the group\'s answers were correct They conformed: Because of normative influence - they wanted to fit in with the group (group acceptance) Because of informational influence - they believed the group was better informed than they were Page 11  Factors Affecting ConformityGroup size: Conformity increases as group size increases No increases over five group members Presence of a dissenter: One person disagreeing with the others greatly reduces group conformity by acting as a model for independent behavior -- it's ok to be different! Status of group Greater conformity if group was made up of well-respected figures (doctors, lawyers) Halo effect can increase conformity -- need to be liked by those that are seen as attractive Page 12  Social Influence on Perception of Stimuli Opinion of others affects valuation and perception of stimuli Influence of popularity on adolescent ratings of music (Berns et al., 2010) Social group pressure influences decision to buy premium brand alcohol in adults (Cunningham, 2023) Page 13  In real lifeInfluencers Prime energy drinks (adolescents) Mrs Hinch - the 'all grey interior' (adults) Page 14  Applied Social ConformityRaising awareness of the actions of others can induce positive behaviour change Make people aware that they use more energy than their neighbours - they reduce energy consumption (Selmrod & Allcott, 2011) Make people aware that they recycle less than their community - they recycle more (Schultz, 1999) Make people aware that others are paying tax -- they become less likely to avoid paying taxes (Coleman, 2007) Page 15  ObedienceObedience is 'an individual\'s response to a command from an authority figure' Implicit meaning is that the recipient of the command is reluctant to engage in the behaviour of their own free will Page 16  Milgram (1963) Obedience StudyParticipants allocated role of 'teacher' Used a 'shock generator' with levels starting at 15 volts and increasing to 450 volts 65% of participants administered the maximum electric shockWatch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBDkJ-Nc3IgInvestigation into obedience and personal conscience Page 17  Explanation of BehaviourObedience to authority figure (scientist in white coat) Gradual increase in demands (start small for behaviour change) Limited information (unfamiliar setting, defer to expert) Diffused responsibility (Milgram responsible for any harm to participant) Page 18  Partial Replication (Burger, 2006)Stopped at critical 150 volts -- those who exceeded this likely to go to the end Included 2 conditions Base condition Modeled refusal condition Included 2 personality components Empathic concern Desire for control Page 19  Conformity ResultsDifference between participants in both conditions not statistically significant Page 20  Correlations: Personality and Prods to ContinueWhen participants felt concern for the 'learner', they hesitate and need a prod Prod scores ranged from 1 (needed prod to deliver first shock) to 12 (no prods needed)High empathy -- need prod sooner High desire for control -- earlier reluctance (base condition only) Page 21  Milgram's Study as a TV Game Show Beauvois, Courbet, and Oberte (2012) Replicated Milgram's 1963 study, but as a TV Game Show in Paris Premise that the Game Show Host is an authority figure that can command obedience Participants responded to an advert, and believed the Game Show to be genuine Told it was a pilot show to see whether it would work for audiences There was no cash incentive In front of a live audience Page 22  The DesignThere were 4 Conditions Standard condition: the host instructed the participant to shock the confederate Social support condition: a technician ran onto the stage and asked for it to stop because it was dangerous and immoral TV broadcast condition: participants were told that this pilot show would be broadcast Host-withdrawal condition: the TV Game Show host left the stage Page 23  ResultsProportion of questioners who went all the way to the end (obedient) Standard condition (81% obedient) Social support condition (74% obedient) TV broadcast condition (72% obedient) Host-withdrawal condition (28% obedient) Only the host-withdrawal condition generated disobedience Page 24  ConclusionWe comply with social pressures to fit in and conform to social norms Fear of not fitting in or not having the correct information can change our behaviour We obey want we consider to be authority figures, even if it contradicts our own beliefs It's okay to be different, but sometimes it's not comfortable Developmental Perspectives On\ Social RelationshipsPS11420 Dr. Caitlin Baker cab96\@aber.ac.uk Page 2  Chapter:\ Attachment and\ Social RelationshipsLife-span Human Development Siegelman & Rider https://tinyurl.com/279rbrj7 Page 3  Lecture OutlineInfancy Attachment Theory Social Deprivation Childhood Play Adolescence Adulthood Page 4  Infancy Page 5  Attachment TheoryBowlby Attachment Strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion Proximity Seeking, Emotional Regulation, Secure Base Evolutionary Lorenz Imprinting Critical Period vs Sensitive Period Ainsworth Strange Situation See video on Blackboard Page 6  Phases of Forming attachmentUndiscriminating Social Responsiveness (Birth - 3 months) Discriminating Social Responsiveness (3 - 6 months) True Attachment (6 months - 3 years) Goal corrected partnerships (3+ years) Page 7  Attachment Types Page 8  Attachment TypesSecure (60-65%) Insecure Avoidant (15%) Resistant (10%) Disorganized-Disoriented (15%) Effects last well into adulthood But also not written in stone Other Family members Divorce, Illness Good life Changes Page 9  Caregiver ContributionsHarlow Studies Parenting Styles Page 10  Additional ContributionsInfant Contributions Person Permanence Temperament Contextual Contributions Social Context Cultural Context Page 11  Social DeprivationRomanian Orphans Studies Rutter et al. (2007) Extreme Deprivation Results Younger, Less time deprived More likely to recover physically, cognitively, behaviourally, socially Older, More time deprived Less Likely to recover Malnutrition, Lack of Hygiene, Weak, Sickly Developmental Delays, Lack of Stimulation No emotional regulation, Moody, withdrawn, overwhelmed Insecure Attachments, Indiscrimitate Likely Permanent Page 12  CHildhood Page 13  Types of Play (Parten, 1932) Page 14  Adolescence Page 15  General Page 16  Teen Relationships (Brown, 1999) Page 17  Adulthood Page 18  Adult Attachment Index\ (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2003/2007)Dismissing "It is very important that I feel independent and self-sufficient." Aligns with AvoidantFearful "I have trust issues and maintain distance from others." Aligns with Disorganized/ DisorientedPreoccupied "I want to be extremely close with others but they abandon me." Aligns with ResistantSecure "I don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me." Page 16  The Rorschach test video Page 17  QUICK TASK\ The Rorschach Inkblot Test\ \ What do you think?Is the Rorschach Inkblot test a good way to assess someone's personality? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach? Discuss with the person sitting next or near to you. Remember or note down a few ideas? Page 18  Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)The TAT was developed by Murray and Morgan (1935) as a projective method using story narratives to examine a person's construction of self and others (Sinclair et al., 2023) The ambiguous images used in the TAT to allow an individual to project aspects of themselves into the stories they tell in response to the images (related to the defence mechanism of Projection). The analysis of TAT by a trained assessor can lead to identifying the underlying variables of an individual's personality, for example their motivations, core conflicts and primary defences.Christiana MorganProjection is a process by which a person attributes their negative emotions beliefs or personality traits, on someone else.Henry Murray Page 19  Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 2The TAT consists of 31 achromatic cards measuring 9 × 11 inches. Fourteen of the cards show a picture of a single person, 11 cards depict two or more people engaged in some kind of relationship, three are group pictures of three or four people, two portray nature scenes, and one is totally blank (Weiner & Greene, 2017). Page 20  Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 3\ People are asked to tell a story about each of the cards they are shown. They are told that their stories should have a beginning, a middle, and an end and should include what is happening in the picture, what led up to this situation, what the people in the picture are thinking and feeling, and what the outcome of the situation will be. When people have finished telling their story about a picture, they are asked to add story elements they may have omitted to mention (e.g., "How did this situation come about?" "What is on this person's mind?" "How is she feeling right now?" "What is likely to happen next?"). In common with a Rorschach administration, these TAT procedures generate structural, the­matic, and behavioral data that provide a basis for drawing inferences about an individual's personality characteristics (Weiner & Greene, 2017). Page 21  Thematic Apperception Test 'make up as dramatic a story as you can for each. Tell what has led up to the events shown in the picture, describe what is happening at the moment, what the characters are feeling and thinking, and give the outcome. Speak your thoughts as they come to mind' (Murray, 1943; p.3) Page 22  QUICK TASK\ The Thematic Apperception Test\ \ What do you think?Is the Thematic Apperception Test a good way to assess someone's personality? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach? Discuss with the person sitting next or near to you. Remember or note down a few ideas? Page 23  Kelly (1955) The Role Construct Repertory TestThe repertory grid assesses each person's individuality in its own terms rather than to group norms. It attempts to capture a person's uniqueness and allows the person to select which items in the set are most important for characterizing themselves (Haslam et al., 2017). It was developed as a way for psychologists to determine the 'constructs' that people use in making sense of one another. Page 24  The Repertory Grid method (1)The person is presented with a list of role terms, e.g., mother, father, teacher, person who dislikes you etc. They are asked to name someone in their life who fits each role. The examiner selects three of these names and asks the person to state one important way two of these are alike but different from the third. For example, in considering a set of people on a topic of personal relationships, a client might say that the element \"my father\" and the element \"my boss\" are similar because they are both authoritarian, whereas the element \"my mother\" is different because she is lenient The construct might be Authoritarian Lenient Page 25  The Repertory Grid (1)The attribute that person uses in response is called a 'personal construct' as a way of differentiating people that are significant to them. This process is repeated eliciting constructs The set of 'constructs' reveals the person's distinctive ways of interpreting their interpersonal world. Once the constructs are in place, they are entered on a grid with the elements on top and the constructs down one side. The client then rates each elements against each construct usually on a scale, for example 1-5. Page 26  The Repertory Grid (2)This could be used in therapeutic setting alongside standardised inventories (questionnaires). For example, the Repertory grid test might show a person's distress is linked to a sensitivity of being abandoned and rejected (with others being seen as undependable and cold), another person's distress might be linked to feeling weak or incompetent. The distinctive way a person views others might mean that therapy focuses on different themes Page 27  QUICK TASK\ The Repertory Grid\ \ What do you think?Is the Repertory Grid approach a good way to assess someone's personality? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach? Discuss with the person sitting next or near to you. Remember or note down a few ideas? Page 28  The Big Five Personality Traits\ (McCrae & Costa, 2003) Page 29  The Big Five (McCrae & Costa, 2003) Page 30  Big Five Trait Scores Page 31  Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)Extraversion -- Introversion (E) Neuroticism -- Control (N) Psychoticism -- Superego control (P) Lie scale (L) to ensure socially desirability responses are controlled. Page 32  The Dark TriadThe Big Five tends to better tap into 'positive' aspects of people's personality over 'negative' or 'darker' sides. Paulhus and Williams (2002) developed the Dark Triad of personality, these were aversive characteristics but within the normal range of functioning. Narcissism -- inflated self-regard Psychopathy -- low empathy and callousness Machiavellianism -- manipulativeness Page 33  QUICK TASK\ Self-report measures\ \ What do you think?Are self-report measures a good way to assess someone's personality? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach? Discuss with the person sitting next or near to you. Remember or note down a few ideas? Page 34  DISCUSSION\ Personality AssessmentsWhat do you think is the best approach to assessing personality? Rorschach Inkblot Tests Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Repertory Grids -- Kelly Self-report measures -- The Big Five, Eysenck's Personality Inventory, The Dark Triad Page 13  Cluster B: Borderline Find it hard to control emotions (mood reactivity) and show high levels of impulsivity in behaviour (gambling, sex, or substance abuse) Often have negative feelings towards themselves, reporting feeling empty, which can lead to self-harming and destructive behaviours Fear of abandonment and show fanatic efforts to avoid abandonment Unstable interpersonal relationships in which other are either idealised or devalued. Unstable sense of self Page 14  Cluster B: HistrionicSeem self-centred and overly dramatic Look for immediate excitement and novelty Crave attention and often worry about their appearance Show strong, easily changeable emotions Page 15  Cluster B: NarcissisticHave a strong sense of their own self-importance Crave attention from other people, but offer little in return Can be seen to take advantage of others for personal gain, believing they are more entitled than others Dream of unlimited success, power or intellectual brilliance Page 16  Cluster C: DependentVery passive and allow others to take responsibility for their life Feel hopeless and incompetent, with low self-esteem Feel abandoned by others Put the needs of others before their own Page 17  Cluster C: AvoidantWill be very anxious and tense, worrying a lot -- especially about how perceived by others Feel insecure and inferior, but have a need to be liked and accepted Very sensitive to criticism Person pleaser Page 18  Cluster C: Obsessive CompulsiveNot the same as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) People with OC personality disorder feel justified in their actions, people with OCD rarely do Perfectionists and very rigid in their routines Find it hard to adapt to new situations and worry about things a lot Preoccupied with detail and find it hard to take criticism Judgmental of others Page 19  Classification IssuesWithin the clusters we can see overlap between the different disorders, which can make labelling one individual problematic, For example, the diagnostic criteria for schizotypal, avoidant and paranoid personality disorder all emphasis difficulty forming close relationships. Research has shown that more than 50% of those diagnosed with a personality disorder also meet the criteria for another personality disorder (Lenzenweger et al., 2007). As these are elements of personality it is easy to see some of these behaviours in people who may have stable personalities -- where does the action stop being a behaviour and become a symptom? Page 20  Classification Issues --DSM 5 approachPersonality disorder are not stable over time -- half the people diagnosed with a personality disorder achieved remission two years after diagnosis (McGlashan et al., 2005). PD patients were followed for 16 years, with 99 percent of personality diagnosis remitted (Zanarini et al., 2011). PD symptoms seem to appear in adolescence, decline into the 20's and further decline later in life (Johnson et al., 2000; Balais et al., 2007) Although, symptoms can reoccur after remission (not enough for a full diagnosis) and symptoms can also fluctuate over time (Zanarini et al., 2011). Page 21  Vulnerability to PD'sPeople differ in susceptibility to mental disorders Genes Environmental stress Personality Rarely does one factor work alone Genetic effects operate via personality Genetic effects require environmental contribution Environmental effects require genetic vulnerability In psychology the vulnerability is commonly referred to as diathesis A predisposition to develop a specific disorder that is intrinsic to the person, a part of their 'constitution' Page 22  Diathesis-Stress Models (1)Most mental disorders involve the combined action of a personality vulnerability ('diathesis') and environmental stress No disorder without diathesis No expression of diathesis without stress Both diathesis and stress vary by degrees Level of stress required to trigger disorder depends on degree of diathesis Diathesis and stress are cumulative Page 23  Diathesis-Stress Models (2)Stress may come in different forms Traumatic experiences Major life changes (including positive ones) Accumulation of 'hassles' For some diatheses, no amount of stress will trigger disorder Some diatheses may require specific types of stressor Page 24  Aetiology: Trauma (1)Experiences of childhood trauma seem to be highly prevalent in individuals with personality disorders PD and high levels of neuroticism associated with higher levels of negative life events Severity of PD correlated positively with the severity of abuse faced in childhood Participants with BPD reported the highest levels of traumatic exposure, including high rates of PTSD, youngest rates of traumatic event and highest levels of sexual traumas (including child abuse) Participants with either BPD or schizotypal PD were more likely to report being physically attacked (in either childhood or adulthood) Page 25  Aetiology: Trauma (2)Verbal abuse (being screamed at, told they would be sent away or that they were unloved) from the mother is associated with BPD, narcissistic and obsessive-compulsive Not everyone that experiences a childhood trauma will develop a personality disorder One strong relationship (parent, peer, teacher etc.) can have a mitigating effect on this development Cannot assume that everyone with a personality disorder had a traumatic childhood Page 26  Aetiology: High ReactivityHigh reactivity is a sensitivity to light, noise, texture and other stimuli Children who show high reactivity are more likely to develop shy, timid or anxious personalities While these factors may play a role in the development of a personality disorder, there is no certainty Possible interaction between a genetic maladaptation and an environmental trauma Page 27  TriggersThe Royal College of Psychiatrists (RCP) identify a number of triggers that may exacerbate the disorders; Use or misuse of alcohol or other substances Family issues Money problems Anxiety, depression or other mental health problems Important events Stressful situations Loss -- including bereavement Page 28  Treatment: Therapy (1)In the 1980's/1990's Marsha Linehan created Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) to treat BPD (based on cognitive behavioural therapy) Distress Tolerance: Coping better with painful events by building resilience and developing new strategies Mindfulness: Experiencing the present and overcoming judgemental behaviour Emotion Regulation: Moderate feelings without being over emotional Interpersonal Effectiveness: Improving relationships and communications with others Page 29  Treatment: Therapy (2)Individual DBT effective for BPD, but lengthy and expensive Therapy needs of people with Cluster A (odd) personality disorders have not been addressed fully. Group skills-based DBT effective on improving quality of life, self-control and reliance on mental health services for those with Cluster B (unpredictable) personality disorders (Conrad et al., 2017) CBT with an early focus on maladaptive beliefs helpful for people with Cluster C (fearful) personality disorders (Keefe et al., 2016) Psychotherapy has been shown to provide a small but positive effects across 22 studies of BPD and 8 of the other PD (Budge et al., 2013) Page 30  Treatment: PharmacologyA range of anti-psychotics and anti-depressants are used to treat Cluster A personality disorders, Anti-depressants, mood stabilisers, and anti-psychotics routinely prescribed for Cluster B personality disorders Anti-depressants are prescribed for Cluster C personality disorders Efficacy disputed because of a lack of clinical trials Page 31  QuestionsGiven the prevalence of personality disorders: Why do you think there is so little known on the causes of personality disorders? Why do you think some people affected may not present for treatment? Why do you think the treatment options are limited? Social Psychology Topic -- Aggression Approach -- Social Psychology\ Theory - Social Learning Theory\ Research - Peer-Reviewed Studies Individual Differences Topic -- Aggression Approach -- Individual Differences\ Theory - Five Factor Model of Personality\ Research - Peer-Reviewed Studies The Self - people's thoughts perceptions, and feelings about themselves, and their deliberate efforts to regulate their behaviour Philosophy: What is the self\ Religion and theology: The soul\ Neuroscience/biological psychology: How does the self concept arise\ in the brain\ Evolutionary psychology: How did we evolve to possess a self-concept\ Individual differences\ Social psychology "How can the human being know itself?" Nietzsche\ Reflexivity / reflexive thinking\ Awareness of one's own thoughts, feelings, and motives\ Self-concept:\ Our representation of ourselves\ Self-knowledge:\ What we know (or believe) about ourselves\ Self-knowledge is complex, containing multiple views of the self\ Multidimensional The self concept -- made 8p of many dofferent understanding and views of ourrself deriving from personal and social identities and experiences - Existential self -- sense of being separate or distinct from others, a consistent, constant and enduring self - Categorical self -- exists among other objects, which have shared 'external' qualities e.g. age, gender as well as traits and more complex groupings/qualities Self esteem Low self-esteem associated with aggression, bullying, and low performance\ However, inflated self-esteem may be a form of narcissism Carl rogers -- 3 components to self concept Level sof conformity Compliance -- the appearance of public compliance Identification -- choosing to conform to be like someone Internalisation -- accepting belief to behaviour both publicly and privately Sherif -- Autokinetic effect experiment - Conform to norms when the situation is ambiguous - Visual illusion spot moves - Participants estimated individually and in groups of 3 (two confederates) - In the group condition participants changed individual estamted to fit in eith the group - Asch line ecperiment - 7 face particpans - 35% confirmed with the inccorect majotiy - Iver 12 trials 75% conformed atlrast once even without ambiguity. Some said they truly belived goup answers were ciorrect Normative influence -- waned to fit in Informational influence -- others in the group were better informed Affects of confi=omity - Group size -- no dofference iover 5 - Presence of dissenter 0 persion dsgreen eith others greatesky reduces fconformity - Eanting to impres someone - Wanting to fir in - Core Topics Reflexivity -- awareness of own thoughts Self-concept -- representation of ourselves Self-knowledge -- what we know or believe about ourselves SELF CONCEPT - made up of different understandings of ourselves Existential self -- sense of being separate or distinct from others, a consistent and enduring self Categorical self -- exists by aiming objects (age, gender) which share internal qualities [SELF ESTEEM] HOW POSITIVELY WE THINK OF OURSELVES HIGH SELF ESTEEM - being happier - less interpersonal problems - more consistency achievement - forming satisfying love relationships LOW SELF ESTEEM - aggression - bullying - low performance HOWEVER INFLATED SELD ESTEEM MAY BE NARCISISM PERSPECTIVES ON THE SELF The self id multidimensional, consisting of the body, psyche, possessions, family, ancestors, friends, reputation, emotional ad beliefs -- William James THE MATERIAL SELF -- CLOTHES MONEY FAMILY SOCIAL SELF -- AS MANY SOCIAL SELVES AS THERE ARE PEOPLE WHO HOLD AN IMAGE OF YOU IN THEIR MINDS THE SPIRITUAL SELF -- MORE STABEL QUALITIES -- PERSINALITY/CORE VALUES THE I (PURE EGO) -- CONTINUITY BETWEEN PAST PRESENT AND FURTURE SELF WILLIAM JAMES CARL ROGERS THREE COMPONENTS TO SEL CONCEPT - SELF IMAGE - SELF ESTEM - IDEAL SELF SELF DISCREPANCY THEORY -- HIGGINS - ACTUAL SELD -- CUTRENT SELF - IDEAL SELF -- EHAT HOPE TO BE - OUGHT SELF -- THE ATTIBUTED WE FEEL WE SHOULD HAVE REGULATORY FOCUS -- HIGGINS - IDEAL SELF - ATTENTION SHIFTS TO PROMOTIONAL GOALS - Wanting to achieve the best grade in a test - OUGHT SELF PREVENTION OF GOALS - Wanting to prevent failure SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY - FESTINGER - UNDERSTAND OURSELVES AND MAKE COMPARISONS WITH OTHER - EVALUATE ABILITIES AND OPINIONS AGAINST THOSE THAT SHARE SIMILAR ABILITIES - BIG FISH, SMALL POD PHILOSOPHY - SOCIAL COMPARISONS ARE SUBJECTIVE SELF CATEGORIZATION THEORY -- TURNER - TENDENCIES TO GROUP OBJECT AND EVENTS INTO CATAGORIES - ASSIGN YOURSELF ANS OTHERS TO THESE - SMALLER CATAGIRIES -- MORE EXCLUSIVE SOCIAL IDITNTIY THEORY -- TAJFEL AND TURNER - IDENTITY BASED ON GROU MEMBERSHIP - SOCIAL CTAGROISATION O GIVES SELF IDENTITY - LEADS TO FORMATION OF IN AND OUT GOUOS - ADOPTING BEHVIOUR AND OPINIONS PEROLIIY AND SOCIALLY PROS - UDNERSTNDING COMPLEX XNXEPTS - CRWATES A MODEL TO PREDICT THOUGHTS AND BEHVAIOUR - HELPS FORM RESEARCH QIESTIONS - RESRARCH OFTEN MODIFIES THESE MODLES - CONS - NOT PERFECR MODLES -- DON'T REFLECT REAL WORLD - MAYNIT SHOW AL IMPOERTANT ASPECTS - MAY NOT BE APLICABLE TO ALL CULTURES - RESRARCH OFTEN MODIFIES THESE MODLES INDIVIDAL DIFFERECNCES RAYMOND CATTELL - ARGUED THAT 4500 TRAIT WORDS TOO MANY - MANY SYNONYMS/CLOSELY RELATED - FACTOR ANALYTCI APPRIOACH -- IDENTIFIES CLUSTERS OF PERSOANLITY TRAIRS THAT ARE CORRELTED WITH EACHITHER CATELLS 16 FACTR MODEL - 171 WORD GROUIPS (SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS) - REDUCED TO 16 - REOPRESENTED BASI DIMENTON SOF PERSOANLITY - BEEN ARGUED THIS CAN BE YER GAIN REDUCED TO 5 THE BIG 5 PEROSNLITY -- MCCRAE AND COSTA - OPENNESS -- FEELINGS, ACTIONS AND IDEAS - CONSCIOUSNESS -- COMPITENCE AND SELF DICIPLINE - EXTROVERSION -- SOCIAL, ASSERTIVNESS, EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION - AGREEABLENESS -- COOPERATIVE, TRUSTWITHY, AND GOOD NATURED - NEUROTICISM -- TENDENCY TOWARDS UNSTABLE EMOTIONS ATTRIBUTIONS -- SOCIAL - JUDGEMENTS ABOUT REASONS FOR BEHAVIOUR -- SPECIFIC CAUSE FOR BEHVIOUR - CASUAL ATTIPUBUTIONS - MAKE THESE EVERYDAY SPEICIFALLU IN SCIAL INTERACTIONS - LARGER SCALE IN POLITICS THEORIES IF ATTRIBUTION - PERSONAL VS IMPERSONAL ATTRIBUTIONS - HEIDER - INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION -- KELLY - CORRESPONDENT INTERFERENCE MODEL - COVARIATION MODEL ATTRIBUTION BIAS - FUNDAMENTAL ATTIBUTION ERROR - ACTOR OBSERVED DIFFERENCE - SELF SERVING BIAS - ULTIMATE ATTRIBUTION ERROR PEROSNLA VS IMPERSOANL ATTRUBUTION -- HEIDER - PERSON INTERPRET THE ANIMATIO INTERNAL VX EXTERNANAL ATTRIBUTION - INTRANL -- PERSONAL - EXTERNAL -- SITUATIONAL - ATTRIBUTION RELATED TO CURRENT OR PAST BEHVIOUR BUT ALSO TOWARDS EXPECTATIONS OG WHAT WILL HAPPEN IN THE FUTUTE CORRESPONDENT INFERENCE MODEL -- JONES AND DAVIS MORELILEY TO MAKE INTERNAL ATTRIUBUTION WHEN - FREELY CHOSEN - UNUSUAK - SOCIALLY DEVIVENT - INTERWST TO PERON - HIGH IMPACT ON PERSON - BYSTANDER INTERVESNTION KITTY GENOVESE - NOONE AME TO HER AID - FEW WITNESSES CALLED THE POLICE - NYT ARTICLE SPARKED MASS INTERESTED INTO THE RESPOSE LATABE & DARLEY - REPLICATED WITH SIMILAR ESULTS - DEVELOPMED A MODL HELPING BEHVAIOUT STEP 1 -- RECOGNISE PROBLEM STEP 2 -- INTERPRET AS AN EMERGENCY STEP 3 -- DECIDE IF HAVE REPSOITIBILTY TO PRIVIDE HELP STEP 4 -- DECIDE HOW TO ACT STEP 5 -- PROVIDE HELP FAILURE CAN RESILT IN DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY OT PLURALISTIC IGNIRANCE BYSTANDER EFFECT - PEOPLE ARE INHIBITED TO OFFER HELP OT INTERVESTOM RESULTING IN - DIFFUSION OF RESPOSIBILITY -- LESS LIKLEY TO ACT AND ACT SLOWER IF MORE THAN ONE BYSETANDER - SOCIAL INFLUENCE - OTHER BEHAVIOU INFLUENCES AN INDIVIDUALS RESPONSE TO SITUATIONS - PLURAL IGNOTANCE - THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS EHO REMAIN INACTIVE SEEM TO DISSUADE FROM ATION PSYCHOANALYSTIC APROCHAES DIVIDED INTO SEVERAL MODELS OR SUBTHEORIES FREUD MAD EUP OF 3 ASPECTS -- CONCIOUS, UNCONCIOUS AND ONE THAT CAN BE AC - TOPOGRAPHIC, - LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE (CONCIOUS, PRECONCIOUS, UNCONCIOUS) - STRUCTURAL -- ORGANISATION OF PERSONALITY (ID, EGO, SUPER EGO) - GENETIC -- STAHED OF PERSONL DEVELOMEJT (ORAL, ANAL, PHALLIC, LATENY, AND GENITAL) -- DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY UNRELIABILITYOF INTERPRETATION SUBJECTIVITY LACK OF OBJECTIVE CREITERIA LACKS SCIENTIFIC BASIS LACKS SCIENTIFIC TESTING DIFFICUT TO TEST RECOGNISES CONFLICT AND COMPLEXITY PEOPLE ARE SOMETIMES MYSTERIES TO THEMSELVES ACKNOWLEDGES MENTAL PHENOMENA ARE MEANINGFUL IMPORTANCE OF CHILDHOOD BIOLGICAL - NATURAL SELECTION - SELECTIVE NEUTRALITY AN BALANCING SELECTION -- NETTLE - EXTRAVERTS --MORE SEXUAL PARTNRS, MORE LIKLEY TO HAVE BEEN HOSPITALIZED FOT ACCIDENTS AND ILLLNESS - INTOVESRTS -- LIKELY TO LIVE LONG ENOUGH TO REPRODUCE - BALANCE -- EXTRAVERYS WHO DID SURVIVE TO REPRODUCTIVE AGE TO HABE MORE OFFSPRING - FREQUENCEY DEPENDNENT SELECTION GENETIC AND BEHAVIOURAL GENETICS BASIC IDEAS - GENOTYPE -- INTERNAL GENETIC CODE (DNA) - PHENOTYPE -- OUTWARDS MANIFESTATION - GENETCI INFLUSNCES - ENVIRNMENTAL INFLUENCES - INTEEAXTIO BETWEEN GENETIC AND ENVIRNMANTAL INFLUENCES - DEVEMOPMENTL INFLUENCES - ASSORTTATIVE MATING - EVOLUTION THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES - THE FOUR HUMOURS - PAOLVS TYPOLOGY - EYSENCKS GENERAL AROUSAL THEORY - GRAYS REINFORCEMENT SENSITITUBY THEORY - NEUROTNSMITTR THEORIES EYSENCKS GENERAL AROUSAL THEORY - INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY = DIFEEENCES IS BRAIN FUNCTIONS - TWO SETS OF NEURO MECHANISMS - EXCITATORY MECHANISMS - INHABITIRY MECHANISMS - TWO CIRCUITS MANAGE AROUAL - RETICULO-CORTICAL CIRCUIT CONTROLS AROUSAL GENERATED BY INCOMING STIMULI - RETICULO-LIMBIC CUITCUTE CONTEOLC AROUSAL TO EMOTIONAL STIMULI - BALANCE REGULTED BY - ASCENFING RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (ARAS) EYSENKS BIOLOGICAL MODEL - BASIC DIMENTIONS - INTRIVERSION -- EXTROVERSION -- RELATED TO RETUICULO-CORTICAL CIRCUIT - ARAS OPERARE IN DIFFERENT WAYS - EXTREME INTOVERTS = OVERAROUSED ( - EXTREME EXTROVERTS = UNDERAROUSED - GENETIC BASIS FOR AROUSAL PATTERNS COGNITIVE APPROACHES - EXPLAIN PEROSNALIY WITH REFERNCE TO COGNOTIVE PRIOCESSES AND STRUCTURES (PLANS, MOEMORIES, BELIEFS) - FOCUS ON WAYS OF THINKINGS AN DCONSTRUCTING MENING - PEOPLE as active sense makers - Emphasis in experience rather than inferred phenomena - Persoan as scientist model ATTRIBUTIONS -- CONSTRUCTS THAT ARE ABOUT HOE WE PERCIEVE THE WORLM, ATTRIBUTIONS ARE HOW WE EXPLAIN IT - PEOPLE AIM TO DETERMINE THE AUSES OF EVENTS AND EXPERIENCES - ATTRIBUTIONS DIFFERE ON SEVERA;L DIMENTIONS - INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL (DISPOSITIONAL VS SITUATIONAL) - STABLE VS UNSTABLE - GLOBAL VS SPECIFIC - CAUSES CAN VARY ALONG THESE DIMENTIONS ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY CHANGE WHEN IS PEROSNLAITY ASSESSSMENT USED: - ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOIGY - CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY - EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - COUNSELLING - FORENSIC MEASURING PERONALITY PERSONALITY ADDESSMENT ASLOS CES SERIOUS CHALLENGES 1. ASSESSMENT SPPEARS TOBE SBJECTUVE 2. NO INFALLIBLE SOURCE OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE PERSON 3. THE IBJECT BEING MEASUTE KNOWS ITS BEING MEASURE 4. TRATS NOT DIRECTLY OBSERVABLE RELIABILOTY - INTERNAL CONSISTENCY - DO THE COMPONENTS OF ALL THE TESTS COHERE - ALL TEST ITEMS SHOILD CORRELAE WITH ONE ANOTHER - EQUIVALENCW -- INTERRATER RELIABILITY - DIES THE TEST GIVE THE SAME RESULT IF A DIFFERENT PERSON ADMINISTERS IT - STABILITY -- TEST-RE-TEST - DOESTHE TEST YEILD SIMILAR RESULTS WBEN ADMINISTERED BY THE SAME PEROSN ON DFFERENT OCCASIONS HIGH RELIABILOTY -- HIGH CONSISTENCY -- LOW MARGIN FOR. ERROR VALIIDITY - DOES THE TEST MEASURE WHAT WE NEED IT TO MEASURE? - CONTENT VALITDITY -- APPROPRAITE CONTENT FOR WHAT WERE TRYING TO MEASURE - CONSTRUCT -- MERASURE IS APPROPRALY RELATED TO ONE OR MOR VARIABLES - CONVERGENT -- MEASURE RELATED TO ONE OF MORE VARIABLES - DISCRIMINATE -- ANY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT MEASURES - CONCURRENT -- RELATED TO OTHER MEASURES IF TAKEN AT THE SAME TIME - DOES THE TEST PROVIDE PRACRICALLY USEFUL INFORMATION - PREDICTIVE VALIDIITY -- PREDICTS THE CRITERIOM THAT WILL OCCUR IN THE FUTURE KIND OIF PEROSNALIRY MEASURE - INTERVIEWS - PERSONALITY INVENTORIES - PRIJECTIVE TESTS - IMPLICIT PEROSNALITY TESTS INTERVIEWS - RARELY USED FOR FORMAL PERSONALITY TESTS - TIME CONSUMING - SUBJECTUVE (POOR INTERRATER RELAIBILITY) - CONTIAN PRONE BIOAS - HALO EFFECT -- FIRST MEETING KEPPS GOING - SOEMTIMES USED GO ASSESSING ATTIRBUTES WHERE PERONS MAY NOT BE RELIABLE INFORMANT - PERSONALITY DISORDERS - VARIOUS KINF OF INTERVIEWS CAUSING DIFFERENT KIND OF RESULTS - STRUCTURED - UNSTRUCTURED - SEMI-STRUCTURED - PROACTIVE = TYPE A PERONLITY PERSONALITY INVENTORIES (QUESTIONAIRS) - SELF REPORT PERSONALITY TEST - COMPOSED OF MULTIOLE ITEMS - ITEM FORM SCALES - OMNIBUS TEST -- MANY SCALES (LIKE 100) - SINGLE SCALE TESTS -- MEASURE ONE THING GENERALLY 10 ITEMS PER SCALE - VERITY OF RESPONSES - TRUEE/FALSE - LIKERT SCALE TEST DEVLOPMENT - ITEM GENERATION -- TAKES TIME - PILOT TESTING - ITEM ANALYSIS - CHECK INTTERNAL CONSISTENCY - FACTIOE ANALYSIS - SELECT OPTIMAL ITEMS OR FINAL SCALE -- SCALES USUSUALLY CHANGE - RE-TEST ON NEW SAMPLE -- USUSALLY UNDERGRADS - CORRELARE WITH ITHER TESTS AND PREDICIOJM CRITERA -- SEE IF RESULTS SIMILAR - DEVELOP NORMS PROBLEMS OF SLEF REPORT - TRUTH NOT ALWAYS TOLD - REPSONSE BIAS - LIE SCALES -- FAKING BEING GOOD - RANDOMNESS REPSOSES - DEFENSIVE SCALES - INCINSISTENCY SCALES PROJECTUVE TESTS - DEVELOPED TO BYPASS SLD REPORT - AIMED TOI PENETRATE DEEPER KEVELS - ALLIEDWITH PSYCHOLGALAYS - DELIBERATLY INVIOLVE AMBIGUITY AND OPENENDED NESS - AMBIGIOUS STIMULI - UNSTRUCTURED RESPOSES - DEVELOPMET OF AGRESSION 4 TYOES OF AGRESION - INSTRUMENTAL -- YOUNG CHILD - Aggressive behaviour for a goal - Includes ohysical act -- crying kicking screaming - Trrible twos -- 18 months -- 24 months - Before the development of language - Devlopemtnal delays -- still portray behviour if have the mentality of a 2 year old - HOSTILE -- CHILDHOOD - Aggressive verbal behaviours -- bullying, taunting, name calling - Can include physical aggression but not usually - More likely to draw adult attention - Fighting - Animal cruelty - Arson - Men more liekly - RELATIONAL - TEENAGE - Aimed at damaging someones self estee t relationship - Ostracism - Gossipism - peer rejection - expression of distain - more likely females - more likeky to estake the notice of adults - TRAIT -- ADULTHOOD - Aggression that does not increase with age - People would usually ave the knowledge to not show anger in public - Tends ti mostly be ih boys - Tend to be predictive of life course persistant snit sical behviou - Developmentally abnormal - Murder - Serial killers - Rapists BIOLOGCAL CONTRIBUTORS - TESTOSTERONE - CROSS CULTURAL - CROSS SPECIES EVIDENCE - MORE TESTOSTERONE = MORE AGGRESSIVE - BIRTH COMPLICATIONS - ANOXIA -- CHILD IS DEPRIVED OF OXYGEN - FORCEPS DELIVERY -- LEAD TOBRAIN DAMAGE - CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DAMAGE - TERATOGENS/POLLUTION - DRUGS - MEDICATIONS - FELIDIMIDE -- FOR MORNING SICKNESS -- BIRTH DEFECTS - HEALTH CONDITION - INFECTION - MALNUTRITION - ROMANIAN ORPHAN STUDY - LAC OF NUTRIENTS TO BRAIN - DEPRIVATION EFFECTS BRAIN DEVELOPMENT - BRAIN DEVELOPMENT - DEVELOPMENTAL DELAYS/DISABILITIES - ADHD - NEUROTRANSMITTERS - SEROTONIN SITUATIONAL CONTRIBUTORS - POOR PARENTING - AUTHORITARIAN -- LOW WARMTH, HIGH RESTRICTION - PERMISSIVE -- HIGH WARMTH, LOW RESTRICTION\] - EMITIONAL TRAUMA FROM NEGLECT - POVERTY - DANGEROUR/UNSAFE ENVIRNMENT - USE AGRESSION TO KEE THMESAFE - CHILDREN LEARD THESE BEVIOURS - CORPROL PUNISHMENT - BEATING - SLAPPING - BELT - GENDER STERYOTYPE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR - SOCIAL GROUP -- LIKE FINDS LIKE