Psychology Concise Notes PDF

3\) **Classical conditioning** -- ex. eat healthy chocolate every time you crave chocolate.  \-      4) **Deprivation**? -- Removing something completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion.           **Individuals and Society**          **Self-Identity**       ...

3\) **Classical conditioning** -- ex. eat healthy chocolate every time you crave chocolate.  \-      4) **Deprivation**? -- Removing something completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion.           **Individuals and Society**          **Self-Identity**          Self Concept, [Self-Identity], and Social Identity          **Self-concept** is how someone perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self-awareness. \-      Development of self-concept has 2 parts: first, an **existential** self and then a **categorical** self. ·       **Existential self** is [most basic] part of self-concept, the sense of being **separate** and **distinct** from others. Awareness that the self is **constant** throughout life. ·       **Categorical self** comes once baby realizes they're separate -- becoming aware that even though we're separate, we also [exist in the world with others]. And each of those entities have properties.  ¨     Ex. **age** and **gender** are first babies learn, then **skills** and **size**. Then compare ourselves with others -- **traits**, **comparisons**, **careers**.           **Carl Rogers** (**[Humanistic Theory]**), believed self-concept had 3 different components. \-      **Self-image**: what we believe we are \-      **Self-esteem**: how much value we place on ourselves \-      **Ideal-self**: what we aspire to be \-      When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is **incongruity**.           We can use the **social identity theory** -- 2 parts: personal identity and social identity \-      All humans **categorize** ourselves and others without really realizing it, ex. race/job/etc ·       If we assign categories to others, we make pre-judgements about them. \-      Next is **identification**. When we adopt identity of group, we see us as belonging -- behaving and acting like the category we belong to, ex. a student. Our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging. \-      Final step is social **comparison** -- how we comparing ourselves with other groups, to maintain our self-esteem.  Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we compete to maintain self-esteem.           Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy, and Locus of Control  \-      **Self-esteem** is the respect and regard one has for oneself \-      **Self-efficacy** -- belief in one's abilities to succeed in a particular situation. Developed by Bandora due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem.   ·       People with **strong** self-efficacy **recover** quickly from setbacks, have strong **interest**, **strong** sense of commitment, and **enjoy**challenging tasks (**RISE**)  ·       People with **weak** self-efficacy focus on personal **failures**, **avoid** challenging tasks, quickly **lose** confidence in personal abilities, and believe they **lack** the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations (**FALL**)  \-      Look at these sources to determine if person has strong/weak sense of self-efficacy:  ·       1. **Mastery of experience** -- strengthens self-efficacy ·       2. **Social modeling** -- seeing people like ourselves complete the same task  ·       3. **Social persuasion** -- when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt ·       4. **Psychological responses** -- learning how to minimize stress and control mood in difficult situations can improve self-efficacy           A person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. Ex. a perfectionist can have low self-esteem but still see themselves as capable of doing tasks.           **Locus of control** -- the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives. \-      **Internal** - when person believes he or she can influence events/outcomes. Results come primarily from their own actions.  \-      **External** -- attribute events to environmental events/causes.          Overview of **Theories of Development**          The theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another.          Freud -- Proposed the **psychosexual theory** of development.  \-      Believed early **childhood** was the most important age/period it developed. Plays large role in [personality development. ] \-      **5 stages** -- if completed successfully, result is a healthy issue. If issues aren't resolved at a certain stage, then **fixation occurs**          Erikson -- **Psychosocial development theory**.  \-      Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire **lifespan**.  \-      Each stage depends on [overcoming a **conflict**]**,** and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory.  \-      **8 stages**          Vygotsky -- **Sociocultural development theory** \-      Believed children learned **actively** through **hands-on** processes, and suggest [parents/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes] are all responsible for [higher function of learning]. \-      Child internalizes interactions with others.           Kohlberg -- **Moral development theory.** \-      Focused on **moral reasoning** and difference between right and wrong. \-      Moral reasoning develops through cognitive development, and people pass through **3 stages** of development (each with 2 stages) **-- 6 levels total**          In general, Freud and Erikson were interested in how personality develops, and Vygotsky and Kohlberg were interested in how cognition develops          **[Freud's Psychosexual Development]**          Proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and pleasure -- the build-up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts.  \-      **Fixation** was due to concept of **libido** -- a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. And when fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development. \-      First **5 years** are crucial (Mnemonic -- OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES) ·       Old = oral, age = anal, parrots = phallic, love = latent, grapes = genital          Depending on what stage we're at, going to be different fixation of energy at certain body part.  \-      For oral stage -- focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals.           **Oral stage** -- age **0-1** yrs., libido is centered around baby's mouth, vital for sucking/eating. Because completely dependent on caretakers, baby also [develops sense of trust and comfort].  \-      If fixation here, issues with ***dependency or aggression***. Also smoking or biting fingers.          **Anal stage** -- age **1-2**, centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing [control/independence], encouraging positive outcomes. Serve as basis for [competent adults]. \-       If fixation occurs, have problems with ***orderliness and messiness***.           **Phallic stage** -- age **3-6**, children discover difference between males and females. ***Oedipus complex*** (desire for sexual involvement with other parent) also develops. Resoled through process of **identification**, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent.  \-      If fixation occurs, cause ***sexual dysfunction***. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage.           **Latent period** -- [no focus of libido]. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of [social and communication skills].  \-      Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation.          **Genital stage** -- [back on libido], because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on [needs of others].           **[Erikson's Psychosocial Development ]**          Greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was **based on culture and society** \-      Another key difference between his and Freud's theory was he suggested there was plenty of [room for growth throughout one's life] (not just childhood).  \-      Assumed a **crisis** can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful of 8 stages results in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality.          Failure in certain stage results in reduced ability to move on to further stages.  I.         ***1 yrs***., **[trust vs. mistrust]**. If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. Virtue is **hope**, and failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust. II\.         ***2 yrs***., **[autonomy vs. shame/doubt]**. Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtue achieved is **will** (independence). If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame.   III\.         ***3-5 yrs***., **[initiative vs. guilt]**. Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue they reach is a sense of **purpose** in what they do and choices/decisions they make. If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt -- as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy.  IV\.         ***6-12***. **[industry vs. inferiority]**. Where teachers take an important role in a child's life, and child works towards competence. Child will gain greater significance and self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Will feel industrious, but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior. Some is good though, so child has modesty. V.         ***12-18***, ***adolescence.*** **[identity vs. role confusion]** Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society. In this stage, the child has to learn rules, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. Virtue is **fidelity**, seeing oneself as unique. Can cause rebellion/unhappiness.  VI\.         **[intimacy vs. isolation].** Try to find love and relationships. Completion leads to comfortable relationships, avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness.  VII\.         ***40-65***, **[Generativity vs. stagnation]** so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture.. Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities, so develop sense of care for others. Negative outcome is they feel stagnate and unproductive. VIII\.         ***65+***, **[integrity vs. despair]** slowing in productivity. Contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilt about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is wisdom, but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death.           **[Vygotsky Sociocultural Development]**          Studied the role [social interaction] plays in development of **cognition**. \-      Focussed on **social interactions** between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of higher order learning.          Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions: \-      **Attention, sensation, perception, and memory.** \-      These elementary mental functions are [developed into more sophisticated and mental processes] -- **higher mental functions**. Most develop from skillful "tutor" -- a model, ex. parent/teacher.  \-      Independent learning and thinking ·       1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a **MKO** (**more knowledgeable other**).  ·       2. **Zone of proximal development --** part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do.  ·       3. **Language** -- the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves -- happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development.           **[Kohlberg Moral Development]**          Moral theory of development, different from previous 3, but based on **cognitive** development similar to Vygotsy. \-      Looked at how people developed their morals, and the way moral reasoning changes as people grow. \-      Also looked at children. He told stories to children and gauged their response.  ·       Most famous story was the **Heinz Dilemma**, his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered by a local chemist that could save her. Chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug, and more than Heinz could afford. Only had half the money, so explained to chemist his wife was dying, but chemist refused. He broke into chemist's office at night and stole the drug. ¨     Asked children questions like what if Heinz didn't love his wife, if person dying was a stranger, should he have stolen it, and should police arrest chemist for murder if woman died.  ¨     After analyzing these, he came up with 3 moral stages, each split into 2.           1. **Pre-Conventional** [(pre-adolescent)] \-      1. ***Obedience vs. Punishment*** -- reasoning is based on [physical consequences of actions], so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment.  \-      2. ***Individualism and Exchange*** -- recognize [not just one right view by authorities], different individuals have different viewpoints.           2. **Conventional**   \-      3. ***Good Boy and Good Girl*** - Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, [emphasis on conformity].  \-      4. ***Law and Order*** -- maintaining [social order], child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws.           3. **Post-Conventional** (moral) \-      5. ***Social Contract*** -- Individual laws exist for the greater good but they can work [against interest of particular people].  \-      6. ***Universal Ethical Principle*** -- people develop [own set of moral guidelines], which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Gandhi.           **Social Influences**          How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence.           **Imitation** -- a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and self.  \-      Andrew Meltzoff questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth. Picture baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Imitating experimenter.  \-      Was it true imitation or something else? Picture you opening mouth, baby should also open mouth. Had to ensure it wasn't a reflex or conditioning either.  \-      Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. \-      Evidence suggests we have **mirror neurons**, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person.           **Roles** -- define what we do and who we are. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of a social group, use it to guide our behaviours. We respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them even more when roles are stereotyped.           **Reference groups** -- the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviours. \-      Constantly looking for [external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviours]. Influences our social decisions.           **Culture and socialization** -- important contributions of society to our personal development, the people and culture in which we live.           **[George Herbert Mead: The I and the Me]**          **Charles Cooley** and **George Herbert Mead** both thought **others** could play a significant role in how we view ourselves, but differed in how they thought this would happen. \-      Cooley thought [everyone] a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity \-      Mead thought this was more restricted -- only [certain people] can and only in [certain periods] of life.           **Mead** developed the idea of **social behaviourism**, the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of ***symbolic interactionism***).  \-      Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and see themselves as being the focus of their own world and don't care what others think of them. Lack ability to take perspective of another person -- related to **Piaget's** concept of egocentrism.           As we grow up, how others perceive us is more important, 3 stages:          1. **Preparatory stage** -- [imitation], ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words).           2. **Play stage** -- more [aware of social relationships], reflected in children's tendency to **pretend role play** as others like firefighters, doctors, etc.  \-      Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view.           3. **Game stage** -- Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "**generalized other**" (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Also realize people can take on multiple roles. Also realize others perceive them, and are influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (important relationships, ex. parents/teachers/close peers).  ·       Believe this last stage led to development of the **"I"** and **"me".** ·       **Me** = how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it, the social self, and the "I" is our response to the "me".  ·       **I** = the response of the individual to the "me" aka [attitudes of others].