Social Psy Test 6 All Content PDF

Social Psy Chapter 10 Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination Text Book Notes Key Learnings The core of this lesson is understanding Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination. It's recommended to start with a reflective journaling activity...

Social Psy Chapter 10 Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination Text Book Notes Key Learnings The core of this lesson is understanding Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination. It's recommended to start with a reflective journaling activity to grasp these concepts through personal reflection and analysis of current events. Core content of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Understanding the persistence of violence and mistreatment of Black Americans in the United States, and the extent to which people's identities are derived from their group affiliations. 1. Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Understanding the persistence of violence and mistreatment of Black Americans in the United States, and the extent to which people's identities are derived from their group affiliations. Key Points Characterizing intergroup bias. Economic, motivational, and cognitive perspectives on bias. Reducing stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Explanation The class explores the reasons behind the persistence of violence and mistreatment of Black Americans, examining how people's identities are influenced by their group affiliations. It discusses when the success of individuals like Oprah and the Obama family can change prejudiced perceptions and when it cannot. The class outlines intergroup bias and examines economic, motivational, and cognitive perspectives on stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. 2. Anti-Asian Racism in the United States Asian Racism in the United States: The rise in prejudice and discrimination against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs) since the COVID-19 pandemic, and historical instances of anti-Asian racism in the U.S. Key Points Increase in AAPI hate incidents since March 2020. Historical periods of amplified anti-Asian racism in the U.S. Impact of rhetoric linking COVID-19 to China. Explanation The class discusses the dramatic rise in acts of prejudice and discrimination against AAPIs since the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting violent incidents and verbal harassment. It examines historical instances of anti-Asian racism, such as the mid-1800s Chinese laborers and the Japanese internment camps during World War II. The class also explores the impact of rhetoric from political leaders linking COVID-19 to China, which fueled anti-Asian sentiment. AAPI Hate Incidents During COVID-19 1. Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, acts of prejudice and discrimination against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders have risen dramatically in the United States. Notable incidents include the March 2021 shootings in Atlanta that killed eight people, six of them women of Asian descent, and physical attacks on elderly people of Asian descent in New York City and California. 2. The Stop AAPI Hate Coalition received over 9,000 reports of hate incidents between March 2020 and March 2021.  3. San Francisco reported a 567% increase in AAPI hate incidents from 2020 to 2021. 4. Rhetoric from political leaders, including then-President Donald Trump, linked COVID-19 to China, exacerbating anti-Asian sentiment. 3. Characterizing Intergroup Bias Characterizing Intergroup Bias: Distinguishing among stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, and understanding modern and ambivalent forms of prejudice. Key Points Definitions of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Explicit and implicit ways to measure these biases. Examples of stereotypes and their impact on behavior. Explanation The class defines stereotyping as categorizing people based on group attributes, prejudice as an attitudinal response toward a group, and discrimination as actions directed toward group members. It discusses explicit and implicit measures of these biases, including the Implicit Association Test, and provides examples of stereotypes, such as those linking African Americans with crime or Islam with extremism. Stereotypes and Their Impact 1. Examples include the stereotype of African Americans being more likely to break the law, leading to discriminatory behavior by police, and the stereotype linking Islam with extremism, resulting in negative reactions toward Muslims. 2. Stereotypes can lead to discriminatory behavior, such as police disproportionately pulling over 3. African American drivers. 4. Stereotypes about Muslims can lead to negative reactions and discrimination against Islamic institutions. 4. Contemporary Prejudice Contemporary Prejudice: The evolution of norms regarding prejudice and discrimination, and the conflicts arising from these changes. Key Points Changes in social norms regarding prejudice. Conflicts between personal beliefs and societal expectations. Non-conscious and automatic responses to other groups. Explanation The class discusses how norms about prejudice and discrimination have evolved, particularly in Western countries where many forms of discrimination are now illegal. It examines the conflicts individuals experience between personal beliefs and societal expectations, and the non-conscious, automatic responses that may differ from explicit beliefs. 5. Modern Racism Modern Racism: Modern racism refers to the subtle, conflicted forms of racism prevalent in the developed world today. It involves rejecting explicitly racist beliefs while harboring unacknowledged negative feelings and attitudes toward other racial and ethnic groups. Key Points White people may reject explicitly racist beliefs but still feel animosity or suspicion toward black people. Many people hold egalitarian values but also have unacknowledged negative feelings due to in-group favoritism and a desire to defend the status quo. Prejudice or discrimination may be expressed if a justification or disguise is available. Explanation Modern racism is characterized by subtle expressions of prejudice, where individuals may not consciously recognize their biases. This form of racism is often masked by justifications that allow individuals to maintain a self-image of egalitarianism while still acting in discriminatory ways. Helping Behavior Study by Gartner and DeVideo, 1977 1. White participants were in a position to aid a white or black person in need of medical assistance. If they thought they were the only one who could help, they aided the black person more often than the white person. However, when they thought others were present and their inaction could be justified on non-racial grounds, they helped the black person much less often than the white person. 2. Participants helped the black person 94% of the time when they thought they were the only one who could help, compared to 81% for the white person. 3. When they thought others were present, they helped the black person 38% of the time compared to 75% for the white person. 4. This demonstrates how modern racism can manifest in situations where individuals can justify their inaction on non-racial grounds. College Applicant Evaluation Study by Hodson, Davidio, and Gertner, 2002 1. White participants evaluated black and white college applicants. When applicants excelled on all dimensions, ratings were the same. However, when applicants excelled on some dimensions but were below average on others, prejudiced participants rated black applicants less favorably than unprejudiced participants. 2. Participants rated applicants equally when they excelled on all dimensions. 3. Prejudiced participants rated black applicants less favorably when they excelled on some dimensions but were below average on others. 4. Prejudiced participants could defend their ratings as nondiscriminatory by claiming the dimensions on which black applicants fell short were more important. 6. Benevolent Racism and Sexism Benevolent Racism and Sexism: Benevolent racism and sexism involve ambivalent attitudes that contain both negative and positive features. These attitudes can be resistant to change and may inhibit progress toward equality. Key Points Ambivalent attitudes contain both negative and positive features. Benevolent sexism involves chivalrous behavior toward women who conform to gender roles but derogates those who deviate. Such attitudes can disarm targets, making it easy to overlook negative beliefs. Explanation Benevolent racism and sexism are characterized by seemingly positive stereotypes that coexist with negative ones. These attitudes can be particularly resistant to change because the positive aspects allow individuals to deny prejudice. They can also inhibit progress toward equality by rewarding conformity to stereotypes. Ambivalent Sexism Study by Glick and Fisk, 2001 1. Glick and Fisk interviewed 15,000 men and women in 19 nations and found that benevolent sexism, marked by protectiveness and affection toward women who embrace conventional roles, often coexists with hostile sexism. 2. Benevolent sexism involves protectiveness and affection toward women who conform to traditional roles. 3. Hostile sexism involves dislike of nontraditional women and those seen as usurping men's power.  4. Even positive stereotypes can inhibit progress toward equality by rewarding conformity to stereotypes. Paternalistic Treatment Study by Darden, Dumont, and Bollier, 2007 1. Women treated in a paternalistic manner performed worse on cognitive tests compared to those in hostile sexism or no sexism conditions due to self-doubts aroused by the treatment. 2. Paternalistic treatment can arouse self-doubts in women, leading to poorer performance on cognitive tests. 3. This demonstrates how benevolent sexism can be just as damaging as hostile sexism. 7. Measuring Attitudes about Groups Measuring Attitudes about Groups: Attitudes about groups can be measured through self-report questionnaires and indirect, non-self-report measures like the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Key Points Self-report questionnaires ask respondents about their attitudes and beliefs about different groups. Indirect measures like the IAT reveal subtle, non-conscious biases. Explanation Researchers use both direct and indirect methods to assess attitudes about groups. Self-report questionnaires provide explicit measures, while indirect methods like the IAT capture implicit biases that respondents may not be consciously aware of. Implicit Association Test by Greenwald and Banaji, 1995 1. The IAT measures non-conscious biases by having respondents quickly categorize words or pictures that conform to certain rules. Faster responses indicate stronger associations between groups and attributes. 2. Respondents press keys to categorize words or pictures based on rules. 3. Faster responses for certain group-attribute pairings indicate stronger implicit associations. 4. The IAT captures non-conscious biases even among those who believe they are bias-free. 8. Implicit Association Test (IAT) Implicit Association Test (IAT): The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a psychological tool used to measure implicit biases and prejudices that individuals may not be consciously aware of or willing to admit. It assesses the strength of associations between concepts (e.g., black people, white people) and evaluations (e.g., good, bad) or stereotypes (e.g., athletic, clumsy). Key Points The IAT has been taken by millions of people online. Research shows that both young and older individuals often show a preference for the young over the old. Approximately two-thirds of white respondents show a preference for white over black faces or names. About half of all black respondents also show some pro-white prejudice. IAT responses are correlated with heightened neural activity in the amygdala when viewing black faces, indicating implicit biases. IAT scores can predict discrepancies in behavior, such as how much individuals speak or smile at people of different races. Explanation The IAT measures implicit biases by evaluating the speed at which individuals associate different concepts with positive or negative words. The test reveals biases that individuals may not consciously acknowledge. Studies have shown that these implicit biases can influence behavior, such as the amount of interaction or friendliness shown towards individuals of different races.  Study on IAT and Neural Activity 1. Participants in a brain imaging study viewed pictures of black and white faces. The study found that IAT responses to black faces were significantly correlated with heightened neural activity in the amygdala, a brain region associated with fear and emotional learning. 2. Participants took the IAT to measure implicit biases. 3. They were then shown images of black and white faces while their brain activity was monitored. 4. The study found a correlation between IAT scores and increased amygdala activity when viewing black faces, suggesting implicit biases were present. Behavior Prediction Study 1. Participants interacted with both a white and a black experimenter after taking the IAT. The IAT scores predicted differences in how much they spoke, smiled, and made speech errors with the experimenters of different races. 2. Participants took the IAT to assess implicit racial biases. 3. They interacted with a white experimenter and then a black experimenter. 4. The study observed discrepancies in behavior, such as speaking more to the white experimenter, which correlated with their IAT scores. 9. Priming and Implicit Prejudice Priming and Implicit Prejudice: Priming is a psychological technique used to measure implicit prejudices by activating certain associations in the mind. It involves exposing individuals to a stimulus that influences their response to a subsequent stimulus, revealing underlying biases. Key Points Priming can reveal prejudices that individuals might not be aware of or may wish to deny. The technique involves showing a word or image and measuring the speed of response to related words. Implicit measures of prejudice can be derived by comparing reaction times to positive or negative words after being primed with faces of different racial groups. Explanation Priming works by activating certain associations in the mind. For example, if someone is shown the word 'butter' and then asked to identify whether 'bread' is a word, they will respond faster than if shown an unrelated word like 'car'. This principle is applied to measure implicit biases by observing how quickly individuals associate positive or negative words with faces of different racial groups. Priming with Nuns 1. If you associate nuns with virtue, you are likely to respond faster to positive words like 'good' after seeing a picture of a nun. Conversely, if you have negative associations, you will respond faster to negative words. 2. Participants are shown images of nuns. 3. They are then asked to identify positive or negative words. 4. Response times reveal whether they have positive or negative associations with nuns. Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP) 1. In the AMP, subjects are shown a picture of a target group member followed by a neutral image. The evaluation of the neutral image reveals implicit biases based on the feelings associated with the target group. 2. Participants are shown images of a target group, such as Muslims. 3. A neutral image, like a Chinese pictograph, follows. 4. Participants rate the neutral image, and their ratings reveal biases based on the preceding image. 10. Economic Perspective on Prejudice Economic Perspective on Prejudice: The economic perspective explains prejudice and discrimination as arising from competition between groups for limited resources. This perspective suggests that intergroup hostility is rooted in competing interests. Key Points Prejudice and discrimination often arise from competition over limited resources. Realistic Group Conflict Theory predicts that prejudice increases under economic difficulty. Groups that stand to lose the most from another group's economic advancement exhibit the strongest prejudice. Explanation The economic perspective posits that when groups compete for scarce resources, such as jobs or land, prejudice and discrimination are likely to arise. Realistic Group Conflict Theory suggests that economic hardship exacerbates these tensions, as groups vie for survival and dominance. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 1. The conflict between Israelis and Palestinians is an example of groups vying for the same limited resources, leading to intense intergroup tensions. 2. Both groups claim ownership of the same land. 3. This competition for territory has led to longstanding conflict and prejudice. Immigrant Discrimination in the U.S. 1. Immigrants from Mexico and Central America face discrimination from U.S. citizens who perceive them as threats to their jobs. 2. Economic competition for jobs fuels prejudice against immigrants. 3. This is particularly evident during times of economic difficulty. 11. Group Conflict and Ethnocentrism Group Conflict and Ethnocentrism: The theory of group conflict explains how groups fight over whose god should be worshipped, what values should be taught, and what should be permissible on television and the internet. Ethnocentrism develops, where the out-group is vilified and the in- group is glorified. Key Points Groups fight over religious beliefs, values, and media content. Ethnocentrism leads to vilification of the out-group and glorification of the in-group. Loyalty to the in-group intensifies, leading to a 'circle-the-wagons' mentality. Explanation The theory specifies that group conflict results in pronounced ethnocentrism, where the out-group is seen negatively and the in-group positively. This is evident in various social situations, such as sports teams or national crises. September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks 1. After the attacks on the World Trade Center, individuals across different ethnic and racial groups in the United States seemed to pull together more than before. 2. The attacks were framed as targeting all Americans, reducing prejudice toward black Americans. 3. This demonstrates how a common threat can reduce intergroup prejudice. 12. Robber's Cave Experiment Robber's Cave Experiment: A classic study in social psychology exploring ethnocentrism resulting from intergroup competition, conducted by Muzafer Sharif and colleagues in 1954. Key Points Twenty-two fifth-grade boys were divided into two groups at a summer camp. The groups engaged in competitive activities, leading to intergroup hostility.  Superordinate goals were introduced to reduce conflict. Explanation The experiment involved dividing boys into two groups, the Eagles and the Rattlers, and fostering competition. This led to hostility, which was later reduced by introducing tasks that required cooperation. Competition Phase 1. The Eagles and Rattlers competed in a tournament with activities like baseball and tug-of- war, leading to insults and physical altercations. 2. The competitive nature encouraged viewing the other group as an obstacle. 3. Hostility manifested in name-calling and physical aggression. Cooperation Phase 1. Superordinate goals, such as fixing a broken water supply, required cooperation between the groups, reducing hostility. 2. Tasks that required joint effort led to reduced name-calling and increased friendships. 3. The boys chose to return home on the same bus, indicating improved relations. 13. Jigsaw Classroom Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning procedure developed by Elliot Aronson to improve academic performance and intergroup relations in integrated settings. Key Points Students are divided into small, balanced groups. Each student masters and teaches a part of the lesson. The method reduces competition and encourages cooperation. Explanation The Jigsaw Classroom involves dividing students into diverse groups where each student is responsible for a part of the lesson. This structure promotes cooperation and reduces intergroup hostility. Implementation in Austin, Texas 1. After integration in 1971, Aronson implemented the Jigsaw Classroom to reduce physical confrontations among students of different ethnicities. 2. The method aimed to unite students in mastering material rather than competing for grades. 3. Field experiments showed improved academic performance and attitudes toward different ethnic groups. 14. Minimal Group Paradigm Minimal Group Paradigm: A research paradigm developed by Henry Tajfel to study in-group favoritism using arbitrary group distinctions. Key Points Groups are formed based on arbitrary criteria. Participants favor their in-group even at a cost. Demonstrates the ease of adopting an us-versus-them mentality. Explanation The Minimal Group Paradigm involves creating groups based on meaningless criteria and observing how participants favor their in-group. This highlights the cognitive tendency to form us-them distinctions. Dot Estimation Task 1. Participants estimated dots and were randomly assigned to groups labeled as overestimators or underestimators.  2. Participants favored their in-group in point allocation, despite the arbitrary group assignment. 3. This behavior illustrates the tendency to favor one's group even without personal gain. 15. Social Identity Theory Social Identity Theory: A theory explaining in-group favoritism based on the idea that self-esteem is derived from group identity and accomplishments. Key Points Self-esteem is linked to group status and achievements. In-group favoritism is motivated by the desire to enhance self-esteem. The theory explains behavior beyond economic motivations. Explanation Social Identity Theory posits that individuals derive self-esteem from their group memberships, leading to in-group favoritism. This is motivated by the desire to see one's group positively. Canadian Identity and Maple Syrup 1. Canadian participants rated maple syrup more pleasant when their Canadian identity was made salient. 2. The association of maple syrup with Canadian identity influenced participants' ratings. 3. This demonstrates how group identity affects perceptions and preferences. 16. In-group Favoritism and Self-esteem In-group Favoritism and Self-esteem: In-group favoritism is the tendency to favor one's own group over others, which can enhance self-esteem. This behavior is driven by the desire to boost the status of the groups to which individuals belong, as their self-esteem is partly based on the status of these groups. Key Points Self-esteem is linked to the status of the groups we belong to. In-group favoritism can lead to higher self-esteem. People with strong group pride are more prone to in-group favoritism. Criticism of a group is often perceived as criticism of the self. Explanation In-group favoritism occurs because individuals derive self-esteem from their group memberships. When people feel uncertain about their own identity, they are more motivated to identify with groups and exhibit favoritism towards them. This behavior is evident in minimal group situations where individuals show preference for their in-group, leading to increased self-esteem. Minimal Group Situation Study 1. Participants awarded points to overestimators or underestimators, showing higher self- esteem when allowed to display in-group favoritism. 2. Participants were divided into minimal groups. 3. They were given the opportunity to favor their in-group. 4. Those who favored their in-group reported higher self-esteem. 17. Social Identity and Partisanship Social Identity and Partisanship: Social identity theory explains how people's identities are tied to their group affiliations, influencing behaviors such as partisanship and basking in reflected glory. Key Points People announce group affiliations when the group is successful. Basking in reflected glory involves identifying with a winning group. Partisanship is influenced by social identity. Explanation Social identity theory suggests that individuals derive part of their identity from the groups they belong to. This can lead to behaviors such as basking in reflected glory, where individuals associate themselves with successful groups to enhance their self-esteem. This is evident in sports fans who wear team colors after a victory. Basking in Reflected Glory Study 1. Robert Cialdini recorded how often students wore school colors after their football team won or lost. 2. Students wore school colors more often after a victory. 3. Use of first-person references increased after a win. 4. This behavior reflects basking in reflected glory. 18. Denigrating Outgroups to Bolster Self-esteem Denigrating Outgroups to Bolster Self-esteem: Criticizing outgroups can boost self-esteem, especially when individuals feel threatened or receive negative feedback. Key Points Denigrating outgroups can increase self-esteem. Negative feedback can lead to outgroup denigration. Self-esteem threats increase likelihood of outgroup criticism. Explanation When individuals receive negative feedback or feel threatened, they may denigrate outgroups to boost their self-esteem. This behavior is supported by studies showing increased self-esteem after criticizing outgroup members. Self-esteem and Outgroup Denigration Study 1. Participants who received negative feedback on an intelligence test denigrated a Jewish candidate, resulting in increased self-esteem. 2. Participants were given positive or negative feedback. 3. Those with negative feedback rated Jewish candidates poorly. 4. Denigrating the outgroup boosted their self-esteem. 19. Self-esteem and Racial Prejudice Self-esteem and Racial Prejudice: Individuals may use racial stereotypes to enhance self-esteem, especially when receiving feedback from individuals of different races. Key Points Racial stereotypes can be used to manage self-esteem. Feedback from different races influences perception. Participants react differently to praise and criticism based on race. Explanation In situations where individuals receive feedback from people of different races, they may use racial stereotypes to manage their self-esteem. This is evident in studies where participants' recognition of words related to race or profession varied based on whether they were praised or criticized by a black or white doctor. Sinclair and Kunda Study on Racial Stereotypes 1. Participants were faster at recognizing words related to black stereotypes when criticized by a black doctor and faster at recognizing medical words when praised. 2. Participants received feedback from black or white doctors. 3. Reaction times to words related to race or profession were measured. 4. Participants used racial stereotypes to manage self-esteem based on feedback. 20. Cognitive Perspective on Stereotyping Cognitive Perspective on Stereotyping: The cognitive perspective suggests that stereotyping is an inevitable process due to the necessity of categorization. This perspective explains how basic cognitive processes such as categorization, construal, expectations, and attributions contribute to stereotyping and prejudice. Key Points Stereotyping stems from the ubiquity and necessity of categorization. Categorization simplifies the processing of stimuli. Stereotypes act as schemas that conserve cognitive resources. Stereotyping is more likely when mental energy is low. Explanation The cognitive perspective posits that categorization is a fundamental cognitive process that helps individuals manage the complexity of the environment by simplifying information. Stereotypes are seen as cognitive shortcuts that conserve mental energy, especially when individuals are overloaded or tired. This perspective also highlights the role of both automatic and controlled processing in the formation and maintenance of stereotypes. Walter Lippmann's Theory on Stereotypes 1. Walter Lippmann, an American journalist, coined the term 'stereotype' and suggested that the real environment is too complex for direct acquaintance, necessitating simpler models for understanding. 2. Lippmann argued that stereotypes provide simplified models to manage the complexity of reality. 3. These models help individuals deal with the overwhelming variety of stimuli. Circadian Rhythm and Stereotyping 1. An experiment showed that people are more likely to use stereotypes when tested at their circadian rhythm's low point. Morning people tested at night and night people tested in the morning were more prone to stereotyping. 2. Participants were more likely to stereotype when their mental energy was low. 3. This supports the idea that stereotypes conserve cognitive resources. 21. Conservation of Cognitive Resources Conservation of Cognitive Resources: The use of stereotypes allows individuals to conserve cognitive resources by simplifying information processing, which can free up mental energy for other tasks. Key Points Stereotypes make it easier to recall stereotypically consistent information. Using stereotypes can improve performance on unrelated tasks by freeing cognitive resources. Explanation When individuals use stereotypes, they can process information more efficiently, which conserves cognitive resources. This conservation allows them to allocate mental energy to other tasks, potentially improving performance in those areas. McRae et al. Study on Stereotypes and Cognitive Resources 1. Participants performed two tasks simultaneously: forming an impression of a person using trait terms and listening to a lecture on Indonesia. Those given a stereotype remembered trait information better and performed better on the lecture quiz. 2. The stereotype made the first task easier, freeing cognitive resources for the second task. 3. Participants with stereotypes performed better on the quiz, demonstrating the conservation of cognitive resources. 22. Biased Information Processing Biased Information Processing: Biased information processing occurs when stereotypes influence how individuals interpret and remember information, often leading to confirmation of existing stereotypes. Key Points Stereotypes can lead to mistaken impressions and unfair judgments. People are more likely to remember distinctive events, which can lead to illusory correlations. Expectations influence how information is processed and remembered. Explanation Stereotypes can bias the way information is processed, leading individuals to notice and remember information that confirms their stereotypes while ignoring or dismissing information that contradicts them. This can result in illusory correlations, where people perceive relationships between events or characteristics that do not exist. Hannah Study by Darley and Gross 1. Students watched a video of a fourth grader named Hannah. Depending on whether they believed she was from an upper-middle-class or working-class background, they predicted her academic performance differently. 2. Participants' assumptions about Hannah's social class influenced their expectations of her academic success. 3. This demonstrates how stereotypes can lead to biased information processing. Illusory Correlation Experiment by Hamilton and Gifford 1. Participants read about actions of members from two groups, A and B. Despite equal ratios of positive and negative actions, participants overestimated negative behaviors of the minority group B. 2. Distinctive events, such as negative actions by minority groups, are more memorable. 3. This leads to illusory correlations, reinforcing negative stereotypes about minority groups. 23. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Self-fulfilling prophecies occur when stereotypes lead individuals to act in ways that elicit behavior from others that confirms the stereotype. Key Points Stereotypes can influence behavior towards others, leading to confirmation of the stereotype. Self-fulfilling prophecies perpetuate stereotypes by reinforcing expected behaviors. Explanation When individuals hold stereotypes, they may behave towards others in ways that elicit the expected behavior, thereby confirming the stereotype. This cycle perpetuates the stereotype and can lead to a 'reign of error' where the stereotype is continually reinforced. Interview Study by Ward, Zanna, and Cooper 1. White interviewers treated black and white job applicants differently, leading to poorer performance by black applicants, which confirmed the interviewers' stereotypes. 2. Interviewers' behavior towards black applicants created a disadvantageous environment. 3. This led to poorer performance, reinforcing the stereotype of black applicants. 24. Explaining Away Exceptions Explaining Away Exceptions: When confronted with evidence that contradicts stereotypes, individuals often dismiss it as an exception or subtype, allowing the stereotype to persist. Key Points People often dismiss disconfirming evidence as exceptions. Subtyping allows stereotypes to remain intact despite contradictory evidence. Explanation Individuals tend to maintain their stereotypes by categorizing disconfirming evidence as exceptions or subtypes. This process, known as subtyping, allows stereotypes to persist even when faced with evidence that contradicts them. 25. Concrete and Abstract Construals Concrete and Abstract Construals: The concept of concrete and abstract construals refers to how people perceive and describe actions. Concrete construals involve specific, detailed descriptions that say less about the person involved, while abstract construals involve general, meaningful descriptions that say more about the person's character. Key Points Concrete descriptions focus on specific actions and details. Abstract descriptions focus on general traits and intentions. People tend to use abstract descriptions for positive actions of their in-group and concrete descriptions for negative actions. Explanation In the context of intergroup competition, individuals tend to describe positive actions of their own group in abstract terms, which enhances the perception of their group as having positive traits. Conversely, they describe negative actions in concrete terms, minimizing the impact on the group's perceived character. This bias helps maintain a favorable view of one's own group. Polio Competition in Ferrara, Italy 1. During the annual polio competition in Ferrara, Italy, fans described positive actions of their team in abstract terms and negative actions in concrete terms. The opposite was true for the opposing team. 2. Fans of the polio competition used abstract language to describe positive actions of their own team, enhancing the perception of their team as altruistic. 3. Negative actions by their team were described concretely, reducing the perceived impact on the team's character. 4. This pattern was reversed for the opposing team, maintaining a positive bias towards their own team. 26. Stereotypes and the Encoding of Behavior Stereotypes and the Encoding of Behavior: Stereotypes influence how people encode and interpret behaviors, often leading to biased perceptions. People tend to encode stereotype-consistent behaviors at a more abstract level, making them seem more meaningful, while encoding stereotype- inconsistent behaviors at a more concrete level. Key Points Stereotype-consistent behaviors are encoded abstractly, enhancing their perceived importance. Stereotype-inconsistent behaviors are encoded concretely, diminishing their perceived importance. This encoding bias reinforces existing stereotypes. Explanation The encoding of behaviors according to stereotypes leads to a biased perception of in-group and out-group members. In-group members' positive actions are seen as more meaningful, while out- group members' negative actions are emphasized. This reinforces stereotypes and biases. Study on Stereotypes and Behavior Encoding 1. Participants described actions of in-group and out-group members, with in-group positive actions described abstractly and out-group negative actions described abstractly.  2. Participants used abstract language for positive in-group actions, reinforcing positive stereotypes. 3. Negative out-group actions were also described abstractly, reinforcing negative stereotypes. 4. This asymmetry in description supports the maintenance of stereotypes. 27. Out-group Homogeneity Effect Out-group Homogeneity Effect: The out-group homogeneity effect is the tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than members of one's in-group. This effect contributes to stereotyping and prejudice. Key Points People see more variability within their own group than in out-groups. This perception leads to stronger stereotypes about out-groups. The effect is influenced by the amount and nature of contact with in-group and out-group members. Explanation The out-group homogeneity effect occurs because individuals have more interactions with in-group members, allowing them to see individual differences. In contrast, out-group members are often seen as representatives of their group, leading to a perception of homogeneity. Princeton and Rutgers Study 1. Students from Princeton and Rutgers were shown videos of other students making decisions. They perceived more similarity among out-group members than in-group members. 2. Participants generalized behaviors of out-group members more than in-group members. 3. This perception of homogeneity supports the formation and maintenance of stereotypes. 28. Automatic and Controlled Processing in Stereotyping Automatic and Controlled Processing in Stereotyping: Stereotyping involves both automatic and controlled cognitive processes. Automatic processes are quick and unconscious, while controlled processes are deliberate and conscious. Key Points Automatic processes trigger stereotypes without conscious awareness. Controlled processes involve conscious suppression or acceptance of stereotypes. The interplay between these processes influences reactions to different groups. Explanation Automatic processes can activate stereotypes even when individuals do not consciously endorse them. Controlled processes can override these automatic responses, but not eliminate them entirely. The distinction between these processes is crucial in understanding how stereotypes influence behavior. Devine's Study on Automatic and Controlled Processes 1. Devine's study showed that both prejudiced and unprejudiced individuals have automatic stereotype activation, but differ in their controlled responses. 2. Participants were primed with stereotype-related words and then evaluated ambiguous behaviors. 3. Both groups showed automatic stereotype activation, but only prejudiced individuals endorsed these stereotypes in controlled processes. 29. Cognitive Processes Behind Stereotyping and Prejudice Cognitive Processes Behind Stereotyping and Prejudice: The cognitive processes involved in stereotyping and prejudice include automatic and controlled components, where individuals may react based on ingrained stereotypes or consciously override them. Key Points Automatic reactions based on stereotypes. Controlled processes to override stereotypes. Explanation The cognitive processes behind stereotyping and prejudice involve both automatic and controlled components. Automatic processes are quick and often based on ingrained stereotypes, while controlled processes involve conscious efforts to override these stereotypes. 30. Study by Correll et al., 2002 Study by Correll et al., 2002: This study examined how white participants reacted to white or black characters in a video game holding either a gun or a non-threatening object. Key Points Participants had to decide quickly whether to shoot based on the object held by the character. The study explored racial biases in decision-making. Explanation Participants were asked to respond quickly by pressing a key to shoot if the character was holding a weapon or pressing a different key to not shoot if the character was holding a non-threatening object. The study aimed to explore racial biases in decision-making. Correll et al., 2002 Video Game Study 1. Participants were shown video game characters of different races holding either a gun or a non-threatening object and had to decide quickly whether to shoot. 2. Participants reacted faster to shoot black characters holding a gun compared to white characters. 3. The study highlighted implicit racial biases in decision-making processes. 31. Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Various approaches to reducing prejudice include media campaigns, school programs, and diversity training. Key Points Media and school programs can promote acceptance. Diversity training can reduce stereotypes. Explanation Efforts to reduce prejudice often involve media campaigns or school programs designed to promote acceptance of different groups. These efforts can be effective in reducing stereotypes and prejudice, especially when they align with prevailing social norms. British Schoolchildren Study 1. British schoolchildren were assigned to listen to stories about friendships between children with and without disabilities. 2. Children who listened to stories about disabled peers expressed more favorable attitudes toward people with disabilities. 3. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of storytelling in reducing prejudice. Rwanda Radio Soap Opera 1. A radio soap opera in Rwanda was used to heal ethnic conflict between Hutus and Tutsis. 2. Listeners of the soap opera were more open to intermarriage and reconciliation. 3. The study showed the potential of media in reducing ethnic tensions. 32. Contact Hypothesis Contact Hypothesis: The contact hypothesis suggests that prejudice can be reduced if members of different groups have frequent contact under certain conditions. Key Points Equal status among groups is necessary. Shared goals that require cooperation promote positive interactions. Explanation The contact hypothesis posits that prejudice can be reduced through frequent contact between different groups, provided certain conditions are met, such as equal status and shared goals that require cooperation. U.S. Army Integration Study 1. A survey of white soldiers' attitudes towards black soldiers in integrated units during World War II. 2. White soldiers in integrated units expressed little resistance to fighting alongside black soldiers. 3. The study provided early support for the contact hypothesis. 33. Intergroup Contact and Prejudice Reduction Intergroup Contact and Prejudice Reduction: The contact hypothesis suggests that under certain conditions, contact between members of different groups can reduce prejudice. These conditions include equal status, interdependence, supportive social norms, and one-on-one interactions. Key Points Equal status among group members is crucial for reducing prejudice. Interdependence and cooperation in achieving shared goals help in reducing intergroup hostility. Supportive social norms encourage positive intergroup interactions. One-on-one interactions emphasize individual identities over group identities. Explanation The contact hypothesis posits that prejudice can be reduced through structured intergroup contact. This involves creating situations where members of different groups interact as equals, work together towards common goals, and are supported by societal norms that favor such interactions. Personalization and common identity formation are key processes in this reduction. Seeds of Peace Program 1. Israeli and Palestinian teenagers participate in a three-week summer camp in the United States, engaging in interdependent tasks and forming friendships across group lines. 2. Teenagers from conflicting groups live together and cooperate on tasks. 3. Friendships formed during the camp predict more favorable attitudes towards the other group. 4. Attitudes remain improved even nine months after the camp. 34. Diversity Ideologies: Multiculturalism vs. Colorblindness Diversity Ideologies: Multiculturalism vs. Colorblindness: Multiculturalism and colorblindness are two diversity ideologies with different approaches to reducing prejudice. Multiculturalism emphasizes acknowledging and appreciating cultural differences, while colorblindness focuses on ignoring group differences. Key Points Multiculturalism is generally more effective in reducing prejudice than colorblindness. Colorblindness can lead to increased prejudice and discrimination by ignoring cultural differences. Multiculturalism can enhance perspective-taking and support for diversity policies. Both ideologies have pros and cons, and their effectiveness can vary based on context. Explanation Multiculturalism encourages the recognition and appreciation of cultural differences, which can lead to better intergroup relations and reduced prejudice. However, it can also cause feelings of exclusion among majority group members. Colorblindness aims to treat everyone as individuals but can inadvertently increase prejudice by ignoring important cultural contexts. 35. Diversity Training and Its Effectiveness Diversity Training and Its Effectiveness: Diversity training aims to reduce stereotyping and prejudice in workplaces but has shown limited effectiveness. It often benefits those already low in prejudice and may not lead to significant changes in hiring or retention of underrepresented groups. Key Points Diversity training is common but often lacks systematic assessment of its effectiveness. It may improve attitudes among those already low in prejudice but has limited impact on broader organizational change. Training can sometimes alienate majority group members or lead to questioning the competence of underrepresented groups. Explanation Diversity training programs are designed to foster inclusion and reduce prejudice. However, their effectiveness is often limited to improving attitudes among individuals who are already predisposed to low prejudice. The training may not translate into tangible changes in organizational diversity or retention of underrepresented groups. 36. Sexism in Task Assignment Sexism in Task Assignment: The concept of sexism in the workplace, particularly in task assignment, where certain tasks are given based on gender stereotypes. Key Points Sexism involves discrimination based on gender. Assigning tasks based on gender stereotypes can be considered sexist. Positive stereotypes can still have adverse effects. Explanation The example discusses a scenario where a male CEO consistently assigns a female employee to organize the company's holiday party, justifying it with the stereotype that women are better party planners. This is an example of sexism because it relies on a gender stereotype to make decisions about task assignments. Such stereotypes, even if seemingly positive, can limit opportunities and reinforce gender roles, potentially affecting the female employee's career development and job satisfaction. CEO Assigning Party Planning to Female Employee 1. A male CEO of a small company always asks a female employee to organize the company's holiday party, justifying it by saying women are better party planners. 2. The CEO's behavior is based on a stereotype that women are inherently better at planning parties. 3. This stereotype, although positive, can be considered sexist as it assigns roles based on gender rather than individual capability. 4. The female employee may feel pigeonholed into certain roles, affecting her career growth and job satisfaction. 37. Robber's Cave Experiment Robber's Cave Experiment: A social psychology experiment that studied intergroup relations and conflict. Key Points  The experiment involved two groups of boys at a summer camp. It demonstrated how intergroup conflict can arise from competition. It showed that cooperation towards a common goal can reduce intergroup hostility. Explanation The Robber's Cave Experiment was conducted by Muzafer Sherif and involved two groups of boys at a summer camp. Initially, the groups were kept separate and developed their own identities. When introduced to each other, competition for resources led to hostility. The study revealed that intergroup conflict can arise from competition, but introducing superordinate goals that required cooperation between the groups reduced hostility and improved relations. 38. Cognitive Perspective on Prejudice and Discrimination Cognitive Perspective on Prejudice and Discrimination: Understanding prejudice and discrimination through cognitive processes, including controlled and automatic processing. Key Points Stereotypes are cognitive shortcuts that can lead to prejudice. Controlled processing involves deliberate thought and can counteract automatic stereotypes. Prejudice and discrimination are not inevitable; they can be mitigated through awareness and effort. Explanation The cognitive perspective suggests that stereotypes are mental shortcuts that help simplify the social world but can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Automatic processing involves quick, unconscious reactions based on these stereotypes, while controlled processing requires conscious effort to override these biases. Prejudice and discrimination are not inevitable; they can be reduced by increasing awareness of these cognitive processes and actively working to counteract them. 39. Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination in Schools Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination in Schools: Strategies for reducing prejudice and discrimination among students of different backgrounds. Key Points Promote intergroup contact and cooperation. Implement educational programs that focus on diversity and inclusion. Encourage empathy and perspective-taking among students. Explanation To reduce prejudice and discrimination in schools, social psychologists suggest promoting intergroup contact and cooperation through activities that require students from different backgrounds to work together towards common goals. Educational programs that emphasize diversity and inclusion can help students understand and appreciate differences. Encouraging empathy and perspective-taking can also foster a more inclusive and accepting school environment.  Social Psy Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination Lecture 1 & 2 Key Learnings The core of this lesson is understanding Stereotypes and Their Activation. It's recommended to start with a reflective journaling exercise to grasp how stereotypes can be activated subconsciously through personal reflection and awareness. Core content of Stereotypes and Their Activation: Stereotypes can be activated subconsciously, influencing perceptions and actions. The core of this lesson is understanding Stereotypes. It's recommended to start with a reflective journaling exercise to grasp Stereotypes through personal reflection and analysis of personal biases. Core content of Stereotypes: Over-generalizations about individuals based on group membership, often incorrect and based on limited experiences. 1. Stereotypes Stereotypes: Stereotypes are over-generalizations about individuals based on their group membership. These generalizations are often based on limited experiences or perceived knowledge about the group. Key Points Stereotypes involve making broad generalizations about individuals based on their group. These generalizations are often incorrect and based on limited experiences. Explanation Stereotypes occur when individuals make assumptions about others based on their group membership, often leading to incorrect and unfair judgments. 2. In-group and Out-group Bias In-group and Out-group Bias: In-group bias refers to the tendency to favor members of one's own group over those in out-groups. Out-group bias involves negative feelings and unfair treatment towards those perceived as outside one's group. Key Points In-group bias leads to preferential treatment of one's own group members. Out-group bias results in negative perceptions and treatment of those outside one's group. Explanation In-group and out-group biases arise from the human tendency to categorize people into groups, leading to preferential treatment of in-group members and discrimination against out-group members. 3. Out-group Homogeneity Out-group Homogeneity: Out-group homogeneity is the perception that members of an out-group are more similar to each other than they actually are, often leading to stereotypes. Key Points Out-group homogeneity involves viewing out-group members as being alike. This perception contributes to the formation of stereotypes. Explanation Out-group homogeneity occurs when individuals perceive members of an out-group as being more similar to each other than they are, reinforcing stereotypes and biases. 4. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own group is superior to others, often leading to prejudice and discrimination. Key Points Ethnocentrism involves viewing one's own group as superior. This belief can lead to prejudice and discrimination against other groups. Explanation Ethnocentrism arises from the belief that one's own cultural or social group is superior, which can result in prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors towards other groups. 5. Minimal Group Paradigm Minimal Group Paradigm: The minimal group paradigm demonstrates that even arbitrary group distinctions can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Key Points Minimal group paradigm shows that arbitrary group distinctions can create prejudice. Categorization alone is enough to foster in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. Explanation The minimal group paradigm illustrates that simply categorizing individuals into groups, even based on trivial criteria, can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. Eye Color Experiment 1. A teacher divided her classroom into groups based on eye color, treating one group more favorably than the other. This led to jealousy and hostility between the groups. 2. The teacher arbitrarily categorized students by eye color. 3. Favoritism towards one group led to negative feelings in the other group. 4. This experiment demonstrated how minimal group distinctions can create prejudice. Coin Flip Study 1. In a study, participants were divided into groups based on a coin flip, leading to immediate prejudice between the groups. 2. Participants were randomly assigned to groups based on a coin flip. 3. Despite the arbitrary grouping, participants showed favoritism towards their own group. 4. This study highlighted how minimal distinctions can foster prejudice. 6. Just World Beliefs Just World Beliefs: Just world beliefs are the assumption that people get what they deserve, which can lead to erroneous judgments and prejudice. Key Points Just world beliefs involve the assumption that life is fair and people get what they deserve. This belief can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Explanation Just world beliefs lead individuals to assume that people deserve their circumstances, which can result in prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors based on perceived fairness. 7. Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice and Discrimination: Prejudice involves negative attitudes towards individuals based on their group membership, while discrimination is the behavior that results from these attitudes. Key Points Prejudice is an attitude, while discrimination is a behavior. Both are often based on stereotypes and can lead to harm. Explanation Prejudice and discrimination arise from stereotypes and biases, leading to negative attitudes and behaviors towards individuals based on their group membership. 8. Fundamental Attribution Error and Ultimate Attribution Error Fundamental Attribution Error and Ultimate Attribution Error: The fundamental attribution error involves attributing others' behavior to their character rather than situational factors. The ultimate attribution error extends this to entire groups. Key Points Fundamental attribution error attributes behavior to character, not situation. Ultimate attribution error applies this to entire groups, reinforcing stereotypes. Explanation These errors occur when individuals attribute behavior to personal characteristics rather than situational factors, leading to stereotypes and prejudice against entire groups. 9. Stereotypes and Their Activation Stereotypes and Their Activation: Stereotypes can be activated in various situations, often without our awareness, influencing our perceptions and actions. Key Points Stereotypes can be activated subconsciously. Words and comments can trigger stereotypes and prejudice. The impact of stereotypes can be observed in social interactions and evaluations. Explanation Stereotypes are preconceived notions about individuals or groups that can be triggered by certain comments or situations. These stereotypes can influence how we perceive and evaluate others, often leading to biased judgments. Study on Debater Ratings 1. In a study involving black and white debaters, participants rated the debaters' skills after hearing different types of comments: no comment, non-racist comment, and racist comment. 2. The control group showed no difference in ratings. 3. Non-racist comments resulted in a slight, insignificant difference in ratings. 4. Racist comments led to a significant difference, with black debaters receiving lower ratings. 10. Stereotype Threat Stereotype Threat: Stereotype threat occurs when individuals are aware of a stereotype about their group, which can negatively impact their performance. Key Points Stereotype threat can affect performance in various domains. Awareness of stereotypes can lead to anxiety and decreased performance. Stereotype threat can be mitigated through positive reinforcement and self-affirmation. Explanation Stereotype threat is a psychological phenomenon where individuals underperform in areas where they feel their group is stereotypically expected to do poorly. This can be countered by reinforcing positive self-images and focusing on individual abilities. Golf Performance Study  1. A study examined how black golfers performed when told the game was based on strategic intelligence versus natural athletic ability. 2. When told the game was based on intelligence, black participants performed worse. 3. When told it was based on athletic ability, performance was unaffected. Math Performance Study 1. A study on men and women showed that when women were told there were no gender differences in a math test, their performance was similar to men's. 2. When informed of potential gender differences, women's performance decreased. 3. Men's performance improved when reminded of the stereotype. Asian Women Math Performance 1. Asian women were tested on math performance with priming of either their Asian or female identity. 2. Priming Asian identity led to better performance. 3. Priming female identity led to worse performance. 11. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Self-fulfilling prophecy is when an individual's expectations about another person lead to the fulfillment of those expectations. Key Points Expectations influence behavior towards others. Behavior can lead to outcomes that confirm the original expectations. Self-fulfilling prophecies can perpetuate stereotypes and biases. Explanation Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when an individual's beliefs or expectations about another person cause them to act in ways that lead to the expected behavior, reinforcing the initial belief. Interview Distance Study 1. A study examined how the distance an interviewer sat from a candidate affected the candidate's performance and the interviewer's perception. 2. Interviewers sat further from black candidates, leading to shorter interviews and more mistakes. 3. When white candidates were treated similarly, they performed poorly as well. 12. Reducing Prejudice and Stereotype Threat Reducing Prejudice and Stereotype Threat: Strategies to reduce prejudice and stereotype threat include increasing awareness, promoting positive self-affirmation, and fostering intergroup contact. Key Points Awareness and education can reduce stereotype threat. Positive self-affirmation can counteract negative stereotypes. Intergroup contact and cooperation can reduce prejudice. Explanation Reducing prejudice and stereotype threat involves creating environments where individuals are aware of their biases, encouraged to affirm their strengths, and engage in cooperative activities with diverse groups. Robber's Cave Study A study at a summer camp divided boys into two groups, leading to competition and prejudice. Cooperative tasks were later introduced to reduce hostility. Initial competition increased negative perceptions. Cooperative tasks, like fixing a water tank and pulling a truck, reduced prejudice and increased friendships.  Social Psy Chapter 13 Aggression Lecture Notes Lecture Notes Key Learnings The core of this lesson is understanding Aggression and Its Reduction. It's recommended to start with analyzing real-life scenarios to grasp Aggression and Its Reduction through practical application. Core content of Aggression and Its Reduction: Discusses reasons behind aggression and methods to reduce it, emphasizing humor and empathy. Core content of Theories of Aggression: Covers Instinct Theory, Frustration-Aggression Theory, and Social Learning Theory, explaining different perspectives on aggression. The core of this lesson is understanding Aggression and Its Types. It's recommended to start with analyzing real-life scenarios to grasp Aggression and Its Types through practical examples and discussions. Core content of Aggression and Its Types: Aggression is a behavior characterized by hostility, anger, or the intention to harm, categorized into instrumental and hostile types. Core content of Frustration-Aggression Theory: This theory posits that aggression results from blocked goals, with repeated blockages increasing frustration. 1. Aggression Aggression: Exploration of the concept of aggression, its types, and examples. Aggression is defined as an intentional act to be hurtful towards another person. Key Points Aggression is an intentional act to harm another person. Pro-social aggression is socially sanctioned and approved by society. Sanctioned aggression is somewhat accepted by society, such as aggression in sports. Hostile aggression is aimed at causing harm without any other goal. Instrumental aggression uses aggression as a means to an end, not necessarily to harm. Explanation Aggression is discussed as an intentional act to harm others. Pro-social aggression is socially approved, like tackling a robber to help someone. Sanctioned aggression is seen in sports, where aggression is somewhat accepted. Hostile aggression is purely to harm, like in a bar fight. Instrumental aggression uses aggression to achieve a goal, like robbing a store for money. Pro-social Aggression Example 1. Chasing down a robber to help a mugging victim. 2. Witnessing a mugging and chasing the robber is considered pro-social aggression. 3. The act is aggressive but socially approved as it helps the victim. Sanctioned Aggression Example  1. Aggression in sports, such as being aggressive towards opposing fans. 2. In sports, aggression towards opposing fans is somewhat accepted. 3. This type of aggression is sanctioned by the social context of sports. Hostile Aggression Example 1. A bar fight where individuals aim to harm each other. 2. In a bar fight, the primary goal is to harm the other person. 3. This is an example of hostile aggression with no other end goal. Instrumental Aggression Example 1. Robbing a store to obtain money without intending to harm. 2. The goal is to obtain money, not to harm the store owner. 3. Aggression is used as a means to achieve the goal of obtaining money. 2. Aggression and Its Types Aggression and Its Types: Aggression is a behavior characterized by strong feelings of hostility, anger, or the intention to harm others. It can be categorized into different types based on the underlying motives and expressions. Key Points Instrumental aggression is goal-oriented and used as a means to an end. Hostile aggression is driven by feelings of anger with the intent to cause pain. Aggression can be influenced by various factors such as frustration, provocation, and environmental cues. Explanation Aggression can manifest in different forms depending on the situation and the individual's personality. Instrumental aggression is often calculated and used to achieve a specific goal, while hostile aggression is more impulsive and emotionally driven. Understanding the types of aggression helps in identifying the underlying causes and addressing them effectively. Chicken Nuggets Incident 1. A person becomes aggressive because they are denied chicken nuggets after 10:30 AM. 2. Initially, the aggression was instrumental as the person had a goal to obtain chicken nuggets. 3. When the goal was blocked, the aggression turned hostile as the person became angry and wanted to hurt others. 3. Sources of Aggression Sources of Aggression: Aggression can stem from various sources, including frustration, provocation, physiological arousal, and environmental cues. Key Points Frustration occurs when a goal is blocked, leading to aggressive behavior. Provocation by others, especially close relationships, can trigger aggression. Physiological arousal, such as the fight or flight response, can increase aggression. Environmental cues, like noise and heat, can serve as primers for aggressive thoughts and actions. Explanation Different sources contribute to aggressive behavior. Frustration-aggression theory suggests that blocked goals lead to aggression. Provocation, especially from close relationships, can quickly escalate aggression. Physiological arousal, such as stress responses, can heighten aggressive tendencies. Environmental factors like noise and heat can also trigger aggression by overwhelming the senses. Urban Overload Hypothesis  1. Excessive noise, heat, and unpleasant smells in urban environments can lead to increased aggression. 2. The hypothesis suggests that overwhelming environmental stimuli can lead to aggressive behavior. 3. People in urban settings may experience sensory overload, leading to irritability and aggression. 4. Personality and Aggression Personality and Aggression: An individual's personality traits can influence their propensity for aggression, interacting with situational factors. Key Points Men are generally more overtly aggressive due to higher testosterone levels. Personality traits such as high aggressiveness can lead to stronger reactions to provocation. The interaction between personality and situational factors determines aggressive behavior. Explanation Personality plays a significant role in aggression. Men tend to be more physically aggressive due to biological factors like testosterone. Individuals with naturally high aggressiveness are more likely to react strongly to provocation. The interplay between personality traits and situational factors, such as provocation or environmental stressors, influences the likelihood and intensity of aggressive responses. Noise Provocation Study 1. A study examining how individuals with different levels of aggressiveness respond to noise provocation from a partner. 2. Participants with high aggressiveness reacted more strongly to moderate noise provocation. 3. In strong provocation scenarios, the difference in response between high and low aggressiveness individuals was less pronounced. 5. Alcohol and Aggression Alcohol and Aggression: Alcohol consumption can increase aggression by lowering inhibitions and impairing judgment. Key Points Alcohol reduces self-control, leading to more aggressive behavior. Both men and women show increased aggression under the influence of alcohol. The expectation of consuming alcohol can also influence aggressive behavior. Explanation Alcohol affects the brain's ability to control impulses, leading to increased aggression. Studies show that both men and women become more aggressive when consuming alcohol, with men showing a more significant increase due to testosterone. Interestingly, even the belief that one has consumed alcohol can lead to more aggressive behavior, highlighting the psychological impact of alcohol consumption. Alcohol Placebo Study 1. A study comparing aggression levels in individuals who consumed alcohol versus those who believed they consumed alcohol. 2. Participants who consumed alcohol showed increased aggression. 3. Those who believed they consumed alcohol also exhibited more aggressive behavior, indicating the power of expectation. 6. Frustration-Aggression Theory Frustration-Aggression Theory: This theory posits that aggression is the result of blocking a person's efforts to achieve a goal. Key Points Frustration occurs when a goal is blocked, leading to aggressive behavior. Repeated goal blockages increase frustration and the likelihood of aggression. The perception of intentional obstruction can intensify aggressive responses. Explanation Frustration-aggression theory suggests that when individuals perceive their goals are being blocked, they experience frustration, which can lead to aggression. The more frequently goals are blocked, the higher the frustration and the greater the likelihood of aggressive behavior. If individuals perceive the obstruction as intentional, their aggressive response may be more intense. Traffic Jam Example 1. A person becomes aggressive when stuck behind a slow driver while trying to reach a destination on time. 2. The slow driver is perceived as an obstacle to reaching the goal of arriving on time. 3. This perception leads to frustration and potentially aggressive behavior, such as honking or tailgating. 7. Mitigating Information and Aggression Mitigating Information and Aggression: Having prior knowledge about a person's situation can reduce aggressive responses by providing context for their behavior. Key Points Mitigating information helps in understanding the reasons behind someone's aggressive behavior. Knowing the context can lead to empathy and reduce the likelihood of retaliation. Lack of mitigating information often leads to attributing behavior to the person's character rather than the situation. Explanation Mitigating information provides context for understanding why someone might behave aggressively. When individuals have this information, they are more likely to empathize and less likely to retaliate. Without such information, people tend to attribute aggressive behavior to the individual's character, leading to a higher likelihood of retaliation. Waitress Example 1. A waitress behaves aggressively after having her tips stolen, but knowing this information beforehand can lead to understanding and empathy. 2. If customers know the waitress's tips were stolen, they might empathize with her situation. 3. This understanding can prevent customers from reacting aggressively to her behavior. 8. Excitation Transfer Theory Excitation Transfer Theory: Excitation Transfer Theory suggests that emotions and arousal can spill over from one context to another, leading individuals to transfer their emotional energy from one situation to another unrelated situation. Key Points Emotions and arousal can spill over from one context to another. Individuals may transfer emotional energy from one situation to another unrelated situation. This transfer can lead to aggressive behavior in a different context. Explanation The theory explains how emotions experienced in one situation can influence behavior in another. For example, if someone is frustrated at work, they might transfer that frustration to their interactions at home, leading to arguments with their partner. Work Frustration Leading to Home Arguments 1. When someone is frustrated at work due to a difficult boss, they may not express their frustration directly at work due to fear of repercussions. Instead, they might go home and argue with their partner, transferring their work-related frustration to their home life. 2. The individual experiences frustration at work. 3. They suppress their emotions at work due to potential consequences. 4. Upon returning home, they express their frustration through arguments with their partner. 5. This transfer of emotion provides a sense of relief as the aggressive energy is released. Traffic and Grocery Store Frustration 1. After a long day at work, an individual gets stuck in rush hour traffic and then faces long lines at the grocery store. They take out their frustration on the cashier, who retaliates, leading to a sense of relief for the individual. 2. The individual experiences a stressful day at work. 3. They encounter additional stress in traffic and at the grocery store. 4. They express their frustration by being aggressive towards the cashier. 5. The cashier's retaliation provides a sense of relief as the individual transfers their aggressive energy. 9. Misattribution of Arousal Misattribution of Arousal: Misattribution of arousal occurs when individuals incorrectly attribute their emotional state to the wrong source, often due to a lack of self-awareness about the true cause of their emotions. Key Points Individuals may incorrectly attribute their emotional state to the wrong source. This often occurs due to a lack of self-awareness about the true cause of emotions. External factors like caffeine or heat can lead to misattribution. Explanation Misattribution of arousal explains how people might blame their irritability on others when the true cause is something else, like caffeine or heat. This lack of awareness can lead to misunderstandings in social interactions. Caffeine-Induced Irritability 1. An individual consumes a high amount of caffeine, leading to irritability. They mistakenly attribute their irritability to the behavior of someone they are interacting with, rather than recognizing the caffeine as the cause. 2. The individual consumes caffeine, leading to increased arousal. 3. They become irritable due to the caffeine's effects. 4. They incorrectly attribute their irritability to the person they are interacting with. 5. This misattribution can lead to unnecessary conflict. Heat-Induced Irritability 1. High temperatures cause discomfort and irritability in an individual. They mistakenly believe their irritability is due to the actions of someone they are speaking with, rather than the heat. 2. The individual experiences high temperatures, leading to discomfort. 3. They become irritable due to the heat. 4. They incorrectly attribute their irritability to the person they are speaking with. 5. This misattribution can lead to misunderstandings. 10. Aggression Aggression: Aggression is a behavior characterized by physical or verbal harm towards others. It can be influenced by various factors including environmental cues and media exposure. Key Points Aggression can be provoked or unprovoked. Environmental cues, such as the presence of weapons, can increase aggression. Media exposure, including violent video games and television, can lead to increased aggression. Explanation Aggression is studied through experiments that manipulate environmental cues and measure aggressive responses. The presence of weapons, such as guns, can increase aggressive behavior in individuals. Similarly, exposure to violent media can prime individuals for aggression, affecting both children and adults. Weapons Effect Experiment 1. Participants were exposed to different items on a shelf, including a gun and a badminton racket, to see how these items influenced their aggression levels when provoked by an electric shock. 2. Participants were either provoked or not with an electric shock. 3. They were exposed to a gun or a badminton racket on a shelf. 4. The presence of a gun increased aggressive responses compared to the badminton racket. Bobo Doll Experiment 1. Children observed adults interacting with a Bobo doll either aggressively or kindly, and their subsequent behavior towards the doll was recorded. 2. Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to act aggressively towards the doll. 3. Children who observed kind behavior were more likely to act kindly. Violent Video Games Study 1. The study examined the long-term effects of playing violent video games on aggression and criminal behavior. 2. Exposure to violent video games increased aggressive behavior and decreased pro-social behavior. 3. Long-term exposure was linked to higher rates of criminal arrests in adulthood. 11. Media Influence on Aggression Media Influence on Aggression: Media, including video games and music, can influence aggressive behavior and desensitize individuals to violence. Key Points Violent video games increase aggression and decrease empathy. Music with aggressive lyrics can increase aggressive behavior. Repeated exposure to media violence can desensitize individuals to real-life violence. Explanation Media influences aggression by priming individuals to respond aggressively and reducing their sensitivity to violence. Violent video games and aggressive music lyrics can increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors, while repeated exposure to media violence can lead to desensitization. Music Lyrics and Aggression Study 1. Participants listened to songs with neutral or misogynistic lyrics and their aggressive behavior was measured by how long they left another person's hand in ice water. 2. Men exposed to misogynistic lyrics left women's hands in ice water longer. 3. Women exposed to anti-male lyrics left men's hands in ice water longer. 12. Aggression and Its Reduction Aggression and Its Reduction: The class discusses the reasons behind aggression and methods to reduce it, emphasizing the importance of understanding and managing aggressive behavior. Key Points Aggression can be reduced by distracting the aggressor. Humor can defuse aggression by creating incompatible responses. Acknowledging and validating the aggressor's feelings can help reduce aggression. Dehumanization can increase aggression, while empathy can reduce it. Explanation The class explores various strategies to manage aggression, such as using humor to create incompatible responses and acknowledging the aggressor's feelings to reduce hostility. It also highlights the role of empathy in mitigating aggressive behavior. Traffic Aggression Study 1. A study was conducted to observe aggression in male drivers stuck in traffic on hot days without air conditioning. Aggression was measured by the frequency of horn honking. 2. The study introduced incompatible responses to reduce aggression, such as a person hobbling across the crosswalk or a clown performing tricks. 3. The presence of a clown reduced horn honking, indicating that humor can defuse aggression. 4. A beautiful woman crossing the street also reduced aggression, suggesting that arousal can be incompatible with aggression. 13. Catharsis Theory Catharsis Theory: Catharsis theory suggests that expressing aggression can reduce aggressive feelings, but this theory is debated. Key Points Catharsis involves releasing pent-up aggression to prevent explosive outbursts. Punching a pillow is a common example of catharsis, but it may not effectively reduce aggression. Sublimation, such as exercising, is a healthier way to manage aggression. Explanation The class discusses the concept of catharsis, where expressing aggression is thought to reduce it. However, evidence suggests that catharsis may not be effective, and sublimation through activities like exercise is recommended. 14. Theories of Aggression Theories of Aggression: Three main theories explain aggression: Instinct Theory, Frustration- Aggression Theory, and Social Learning Theory. Key Points Instinct Theory: Aggression is an innate instinct, as proposed by Freud. Frustration-Aggression Theory: Frustration can lead to aggression if not managed. Social Learning Theory: Aggression is learned through observation and imitation. Explanation The class covers three theories of aggression. Instinct Theory suggests aggression is innate, Frustration-Aggression Theory links aggression to frustration, and Social Learning Theory posits that aggression is learned through observing others. Bobo Doll Experiment 1. Albert Bandura's experiment where children observed adults interacting with a Bobo doll. Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate it.  2. Children were divided into groups observing either aggressive or non-aggressive adult behavior. 3. Those who observed aggression were more likely to act aggressively towards the Bobo doll. 4. The experiment supports the Social Learning Theory, showing that aggression can be learned through observation. Social Psy Chapter 13 Aggression Text Book Notes Key Learnings The core of this lesson is understanding Situational Determinants of Aggression. It's recommended to start with observing real-life scenarios or case studies to grasp Situational Determinants of Aggression through practical analysis. Core content of Situational Determinants of Aggression: External factors that can lead to aggressive behavior, quickly escalating situations into violence. The core of this lesson is understanding Construal Processes and Aggression. It's recommended to start with analyzing real-life scenarios where perception leads to aggression to grasp Construal Processes and Aggression through practical examples and discussions. Core content of Construal Processes and Aggression: Construal processes involve how individuals perceive situations, leading to aggression. Core content of Dehumanization and Aggression: Dehumanization is perceiving others as less human, increasing aggression. Core content of Evolution and Aggression: Evolutionary perspectives explain patterns of aggression, particularly within families and between genders. 1. Situational Determinants of Aggression Situational Determinants of Aggression: Situational determinants refer to the external factors that can lead to aggressive behavior. These factors can quickly escalate situations into violence, similar to how ecological conditions can transform a forest into an inferno. Key Points Situational factors can lead to violence between different groups or individuals. Aggression can be hostile or instrumental, with hostile aggression motivated by anger and instrumental aggression serving other motives. Situational perspective is crucial in understanding aggression, not just individual traits. Explanation Situational determinants of aggression highlight how external conditions can influence aggressive behavior. For instance, certain situations can escalate quickly into violence, similar to how specific ecological conditions can lead to a forest fire. Understanding these determinants helps in analyzing aggressive incidents beyond individual predispositions. George Floyd's Murder by Derek Chauvin 1. On May 25, 2020, Darnella Frazier filmed police officer Derek Chauvin kneeling on George Floyd's neck, leading to Floyd's death. This incident, captured on video, sparked global protests and highlighted issues of police brutality and racial dynamics. 2. The situation outside Cup Foods involved racial dynamics and power imbalances between police and citizens. 3. Frazier's video brought global attention to the incident, leading to protests and Chauvin's conviction.  4. The incident exemplifies how situational factors, like racial dynamics and power imbalances, can lead to aggression. 2. Construal Processes and Aggression Construal Processes and Aggression: Construal processes involve how individuals perceive and interpret situations, which can influence their likelihood of acting aggressively. Key Points Perception of context as threatening can increase aggression. Self-construal, or how one perceives their role in an interaction, affects aggression. Awareness of actions, such as through body cameras, can reduce aggressive behavior. Explanation Construal processes focus on the subjective interpretation of situations. For example, if a person perceives a context as threatening, they are more likely to act aggressively. Self-awareness, such as through body cameras, can alter these perceptions and reduce aggression. 3. Culture and Aggression Culture and Aggression: Cultural factors influence aggression, with different societies exhibiting varying levels of aggressive behavior due to cultural values, practices, and beliefs. Key Points Cultural differences can explain variations in aggression, such as police-related deaths in different countries. Cultural norms and values shape aggressive behaviors and responses. Explanation Cultural influences on aggression are evident in the differing rates of police-related deaths across countries. These differences are shaped by cultural norms, values, and practices that either promote or discourage aggressive behavior. 4. Evolution and Aggression Evolution and Aggression: Evolutionary forces contribute to aggressive tendencies, particularly in men, due to biological predispositions such as genes and testosterone levels. Key Points Men are often the perpetrators and victims of aggression due to evolutionary and biological factors. Aggressive tendencies may be linked to evolutionary survival mechanisms. Explanation Evolutionary perspectives suggest that aggression has been shaped by survival needs, with men exhibiting higher aggression due to evolutionary pressures and biological factors like testosterone. 5. Conflict and Peacemaking Conflict and Peacemaking: Understanding the dynamics of conflict and strategies for peacemaking can help mitigate aggression and promote peaceful interactions. Key Points Conflict arises from various factors, including situational, cultural, and evolutionary influences. Peacemaking involves strategies to reduce aggression and promote harmony. Explanation Conflict and peacemaking are interconnected, with the former arising from multiple influences and the latter focusing on strategies to resolve disputes and reduce aggression. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for fostering peaceful relations. 6. Heat and Aggressive Action Heat and Aggressive Action: The relationship between heat and aggression, particularly how hot weather can increase aggressive behavior. Key Points Hot weather increases the likelihood of aggressive actions. Major League Baseball pitchers are more likely to hit batters on hot days, especially if their teammates have been hit earlier. The effect of heat on aggression is not due to loss of pitch control. Rising temperatures correlate with increased homicide rates. Explanation Heat can cause discomfort and arousal, which people may misattribute to other sources, leading to increased aggression. Major League Baseball Pitchers and Heat 1. As the weather gets hotter, Major League Baseball pitchers are more likely to hit batters with a pitch. 2. The study found that pitchers are more likely to hit batters when their teammates have been hit earlier in the game. 3. This effect is not due to a loss of pitch control, as wild pitches and walks do not increase with temperature. Temperature and Homicide Rates 1. Over the past 55 years, with every rise in annual temperature of 1 degree Celsius, there have been 7.5 more homicides per 100,000 people in the United States. 2. The study controlled for variables such as inequality, poverty, and incarceration rates. 3. The findings suggest a direct correlation between rising temperatures and increased homicide rates. 7. Media Violence Media Violence: The impact of media violence on aggressive behavior, including the effects of violent films and video games. Key Points Exposure to media violence can increase aggressive behavior. Media violence can lead to short-term increases in aggression. The effects of media violence are more pronounced when viewers identify with the perpetrator or see the violence as justified. There are limitations to lab studies on media violence, such as the short-term nature of the effects and the artificial measures of aggression used. Explanation Media violence can desensitize viewers to aggression and increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors, although real-world effects may differ from lab findings. Juvenile Delinquents and Aggressive Films 1. Watching aggressive films led juvenile delinquents in a minimum security prison to be more aggressive. 2. The study involved showing aggressive films to juvenile delinquents and observing their behavior. 3. The findings indicated an increase in aggressive behavior after viewing the films. 4. Violent Films and Crime Rates 5. On days when viewership of violent films in theaters rose, violent crimes actually dropped. 6. The study found a 1.1 to 1.3 percent drop in violent crimes for every million additional viewers of violent films.  7. The decrease in crime was attributed to potential offenders being occupied in theaters instead of engaging in criminal activities. 8. Violent Video Games Violent Video Games: The relationship between playing violent video games and aggressive behavior. Key Points Playing violent video games can increase aggressive behavior and thoughts. Violent video games can lead to physiological responses associated with aggression, such as increased blood pressure and heart rate. The effects of violent video games are observed in both children and adults across different countries. There is no direct evidence linking violent video games to extreme acts of violence like school shootings. Explanation Violent video games can influence players' thoughts and emotions, potentially increasing aggression, but other factors like social rejection and family environment also play a role. Mortal Kombat vs. Golf Game Study 1. Participants who played Mortal Kombat gave longer and more intense bursts of white noise to their competitor than those who played a golf game. 2. The study involved participants playing either a violent or non-violent video game. 3. The aggressive behavior was measured by the intensity of white noise administered to a competitor. Columbine High School Shooting 1. Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, who were avid players of violent video games, carried out a mass shooting at Columbine High School. 2. The incident led to speculation about the role of violent video games in extreme violence. 3. Research has not found a direct link between violent video games and such extreme acts. 9. Social Rejection and Aggression Social Rejection and Aggression: The impact of social rejection on aggressive behavior and the potential for violence. Key Points Social rejection can lead to increased aggression. Rejection can activate a threat defense system, leading to feelings of distress and aggression. Chronic rejection is linked to aggressive behavior in romantic relationships and other contexts. Social rejection is a common factor among school shooters. Explanation Social rejection triggers emotional and physiological responses that can lead to aggression, although it is not the sole cause of violent behavior. Ball-Tossing Paradigm 1. Participants who were excluded in a ball-tossing game experienced feelings of distress and shame. 2. The study involved participants playing a ball-tossing game with confederates who eventually excluded them. 3. The exclusion triggered negative emotions and a submissive posture in participants. School Shootings and Social Rejection 1. More than 85% of school shooters have had histories of profound social rejection.  2. Social rejection is considered a significant factor in the motivations behind school shootings. 3. The evidence linking rejection to violence is correlational, not causal. 10. Income Inequality and Aggression Income Inequality and Aggression: The relationship between economic inequality and violence. Key Points Higher income inequality is associated with increased violence. Regions with greater economic inequality have higher rates of homicide and other violent crimes. Economic inequality can lead to social rejection and distrust, contributing to aggression. Explanation Economic inequality creates social conditions that foster aggression, such as feelings of rejection and competition for resources. Income Inequality and Homicide Rates 1. Homicides are more likely to occur in countries with greater income inequality. 2. The study measured inequality in terms of differences between wealthy and poor residents. 3. Higher inequality correlated with higher rates of violence. 11. Biophilia Biophilia: Biophilia is a term coined by O. Wilson in 1984, referring to humans' love of life and living systems. This concept has inspired transcendentalist philosophers and the modern environmentalist movement. Key Points Biophilia refers to humans' innate love for life and living systems. The concept was introduced by O. Wilson in 1984. It has influenced transcendentalist philosophers like Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Explanation Biophilia suggests that humans have an inherent affinity for the natural world, which has been reflected in philosophical writings and environmental movements. 12. Psychological Benefits of Nature Psychological Benefits of Nature: Access to nature and green spaces has been shown to improve psychological health, enhance attention, and increase well-being. Key Points Easy access to nature and green spaces positively influences psychological health. A walk in the woods improves concentrated attention compared to urban walks. Nature experiences are better predictors of well-being than other recreational activities. Explanation Studies have shown that being in nature can enhance mental health and cognitive functions, as demonstrated by improved attention and well-being in various experiments. Rafting Study by C.L. Anderson, Monroy, and Keltner, 2018 1. High school students from impoverished urban areas and veterans with PTSD went rafting on a mountain river for a day, resulting in greater well-being, less stress, and stronger relationships for a week. 2. Participants engaged in a nature-based activity (rafting). 3. Post-activity assessments showed improved well-being and social relations. 4. The study highlights the therapeutic effects of nature experiences. 13. Impact of Green Spaces on Crime Impact of Green Spaces on Crime: Green spaces in urban a