Social Psy Chapter 9 & 14 Test Material PDF

Social Psy Chapter 9- Relationships and Attraction Relationships Social Connections Attachment Styles Key Learnings - The core of this lesson is understanding the Need to Belong. It\'s recommended to start with a reflective journal activity to grasp the Need to Belong through personal reflection and analysis of your own relationships. - Core content of Need to Belong: This concept is rooted in evolutionary psychology, suggesting that forming social connections is essential for survival. It emphasizes the biological and psychological drive to form and maintain strong, stable relationships. - Additionally, here are some extracurricular resources: - Practical application of Need to Belong: [[https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/belongingness]](https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/belongingness) - The core of this lesson is understanding the \[Investment Model of Commitment\]. It\'s recommended to start with analyzing case studies of long-term relationships to grasp the Investment Model of Commitment through practical examples and discussions. - Core content of \[Investment Model of Commitment\]: A model explaining why some romantic partners remain committed to their relationships. It emphasizes the importance of satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investment size in determining commitment levels. **1. Characterizing Relationships** Characterizing Relationships: The fundamental need for belonging drives the formation of relationships, distinguishing between communal versus exchange relationships, and discussing cultural variations in the prevalence of each type of relationship. **Key Points** - Fundamental need for belonging in relationships. - Difference between communal and exchange relationships. - Cultural variations in relationship types. **Explanation ** The need for belonging is a fundamental human motivation that drives individuals to form relationships. Communal relationships are characterized by mutual care and concern, while exchange relationships are based on reciprocity and equity. Cultural variations influence the prevalence and nature of these relationships. **2. Importance of Relationships** Importance of Relationships: Relationships are essential for survival and well-being, with evidence supporting the biological need for belonging and the benefits of social connections. **Key Points** - Biological need for belonging in relationships. - Evolutionary basis of relationships for survival. - Health benefits of strong social relationships. **Explanation** Relationships have an evolutionary basis, aiding in survival and reproduction. Strong social connections are linked to better health outcomes, including lower mortality rates and improved well-being. The need to belong is comparable to basic needs like food and water. - 1. Harry Harlow raised baby rhesus monkeys with two mother surrogates: one covered in cloth for comfort and one made of wire that provided food. The monkeys preferred the comfort-providing surrogate but showed social deficiencies when raised in isolation. 2. Monkeys preferred comfort over food, indicating the importance of emotional bonds. 3. Isolation led to social impairments, highlighting the need for social interaction. **3. Health Effects of Loneliness** Health Effects of Loneliness: Loneliness negatively impacts health, with increasing prevalence due to factors like the COVID-19 pandemic. **Key Points** - Negative health effects of loneliness. - Increasing prevalence of loneliness. - Impact of technology on social connections. **Explanation ** Loneliness is linked to negative health outcomes, and its prevalence has increased, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Technology plays a dual role in either strengthening or replacing social connections. **4. Universality of Relationships** Universality of Relationships: The concept that interpersonal relationships, such as those between siblings, parents, friends, and romantic partners, exhibit universal behaviors across different cultures, though the specifics may vary. **Key Points** - Siblings in all cultures engage in play, support, and conflict, though the specifics vary. - Parents across cultures show similar attachment behaviors, such as touch and eye contact. **Explanation ** The universality of relationships is observed in the consistent patterns of behavior seen in various types of relationships across different cultures. While the specific expressions of these behaviors may differ, the underlying principles remain similar. **5. Need to Belong** Need to Belong: An evolutionary basis for the need to belong, highlighting the importance of social connections for survival and social behavior. **Key Points** - Elephant parents teach social behavior to their young, which is crucial for living in groups. - Young elephants without adult guidance become antisocial and aggressive. **Explanation ** The need to belong is rooted in evolutionary psychology, where social connections are essential for survival. This is exemplified by the behavior of elephants, where parental guidance is crucial for the social development of the young. **6. Communal and Exchange Relationships** Communal and Exchange Relationships: Two fundamentally different types of relationships that arise in different contexts and are governed by different norms. **Key Points** - Communal relationships involve a special responsibility for one another and are often long-term. - Exchange relationships are trade-based, short-term, and governed by equity and reciprocity. **Explanation ** Communal relationships are characterized by a sense of oneness and shared identity, where individuals give and receive based on need. Exchange relationships, in contrast, are more transactional and focus on equity and reciprocity. - 1. East Asian businesspeople tend to treat employees like family members, while Western businesspeople view the relationship as contractual. 2. East Asian cultures emphasize communal relationships, leading to a family-like treatment of employees. 3. Western cultures emphasize exchange relationships, focusing on contractual obligations. **7. Social Exchange Theory** Social Exchange Theory: A theory that posits humans seek out rewards in their interactions with others and are willing to pay certain costs to obtain those rewards. **Key Points** - People prefer relationships where rewards exceed costs. - Comparison level and comparison level for alternatives are standards used to evaluate relationships. **Explanation ** Social exchange theory suggests that individuals evaluate relationships based on the rewards and costs involved. The comparison level reflects expectations from a relationship, while the comparison level for alternatives considers potential other relationships. **8. Equity Theory** Equity Theory: A theory that maintains people are motivated to pursue fairness in their relationships, where the ratio of rewards to costs is similar for both partners. **Key Points** - Equity is achieved when both partners receive roughly what they put into a relationship. - In individualistic cultures, equity is a common goal, while in collectivist cultures, hierarchy and imbalance may be more acceptable. **Explanation ** Equity theory focuses on fairness in relationships, where both partners should have a balanced ratio of rewards to costs. This balance is more emphasized in individualistic cultures. **9. Attachment Styles** Attachment Styles: Attachment theory explains how early attachments with caregivers shape relationships throughout life, leading to distinct attachment styles. **Key Points** - Secure attachment involves comfort with intimacy and dependence. - Avoidant attachment involves discomfort with closeness and dependence. - Anxious-ambivalent attachment involves fear of rejection and abandonment. **Explanation ** Attachment styles are developed based on early interactions with caregivers. Secure attachment is characterized by comfort with closeness, avoidant attachment by discomfort, and anxious-ambivalent attachment by fear of rejection. - 1. Ainsworth\'s experiment observed infants\' reactions to separations and reunions with caregivers to classify attachment styles. 2. Securely attached infants were comfortable exploring and sought comfort from caregivers. 3. Anxiously attached infants were distressed and less comforted by caregivers. 4. Avoidant infants showed little interest in seeking comfort from caregivers. **10. Attachment Styles** Attachment Styles: Attachment styles refer to the patterns of attachment behavior exhibited by individuals in relationships, influenced by early interactions with caregivers. **Key Points** - Attachment styles are influenced by early interactions with caregivers. - Different cultures have varying norms regarding child-rearing practices, which can affect attachment styles. **Explanation ** Attachment styles are shaped by early experiences with caregivers. Cultural norms, such as sleeping arrangements, can influence these styles, leading to differences in independence and interdependence. - 1. In Japan, children often sleep with their parents until adolescence, whereas in North America, children typically sleep in their own rooms. 2. In Japan, co-sleeping is common and reflects interdependent cultural values. 3. In North America, independent sleeping arrangements reflect individualistic cultural values. **11. Proximity and Attraction** Proximity and Attraction: Proximity refers to the physical closeness between individuals, which significantly influences the formation of friendships and romantic relationships. **Key Points** - Physical proximity increases the likelihood of forming friendships and romantic relationships. - Functional distance, or the layout of physical spaces, can influence social interactions more than mere physical distance. **Explanation ** Proximity facilitates chance encounters, which can lead to friendships. Functional distance, such as the layout of buildings, can enhance or hinder these interactions. - 1. A study conducted at MIT in the 1940s found that residents of a housing project were more likely to form friendships with those living in the same building or nearby. 2. Residents were randomly assigned to apartments, minimizing prior acquaintance. 3. Two-thirds of friendships were with people in the same building, highlighting the role of proximity. 4. Functional distance, such as stair placement, influenced friendship formation more than physical distance. - 1. Students randomly assigned to sit next to each other at two-person desks were more likely to become friends, regardless of gender or ethnicity. 2. Proximity at desks increased interaction opportunities. 3. Functional distance overcame barriers of gender and ethnicity. **12. Mere Exposure Effect** Mere Exposure Effect: The mere exposure effect is the psychological phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an individual\'s preference for it. **Key Points** - Repeated exposure to a person or object increases liking. - The effect explains why proximity can lead to attraction. **Explanation ** The mere exposure effect suggests that familiarity breeds liking. This principle helps explain why people often form friendships with those they encounter frequently. **13. Mere Exposure Effect** Mere Exposure Effect: The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. This effect has been supported by various studies and experiments. **Key Points** - The mere exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an individual\'s preference for it. - There is a strong correlation between the frequency of exposure to items and the liking of those items. - The effect is observed in various contexts, including words, faces, and even music. **Explanation ** The mere exposure effect occurs because familiar stimuli are easier to process, leading to a more fluent cognitive experience, which is inherently pleasurable. Additionally, repeated exposure without negative consequences leads to a positive association with the stimulus. - 1. Zayens created a set of Turkish-sounding words unfamiliar to participants and exposed them to these words varying numbers of times. Participants rated the words more positively the more they were exposed to them. 2. Participants were shown words 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, or 25 times. 3. The more frequently a word was shown, the more positively it was rated. 4. This demonstrated that increased exposure led to increased liking. - 1. Albino rats were exposed to either Mozart\'s classical music or Schoenberg\'s atonal music for 12 hours daily. When given a choice, rats preferred the music they were exposed to more frequently. 2. Rats were raised with either Mozart or Schoenberg music. 3. When placed in a box, rats could choose to listen to new selections of either composer. 4. Rats moved more often to the side playing the music they were familiar with, supporting the mere exposure effect. **14. Similarity and Attraction** Similarity and Attraction: Similarity between individuals is a significant determinant of attraction. People tend to be more attracted to others who share similar characteristics, values, and backgrounds. **Key Points** - People are more likely to form relationships with those who are similar in social class, education, and religious background. - Similarity leads to consensual validation, enhancing attraction. - The similarity effect is observed in both face-to-face and online interactions. **Explanation ** Similarity leads to attraction because it provides consensual validation of one\'s beliefs and values, making interactions more rewarding and comfortable. It also increases the likelihood of being liked by others. - 1. A study of 1,000 engaged couples found that they were more similar on 66 of 88 characteristics compared to random pairings. 2. Couples rated themselves on various characteristics. 3. Engaged couples showed greater similarity in demographics and physical characteristics. 4. This supports the idea that similarity predicts romantic attraction. - 1. Participants rated a \'bogus stranger\' based on fabricated questionnaire responses that were similar to their own. The more similar the responses, the more the participant liked the stranger. 2. Participants were given fake responses to attitude questionnaires. 3. They rated the stranger on several dimensions, including liking. 4. Higher similarity in responses led to higher liking ratings. **15. Complementarity Hypothesis** Complementarity Hypothesis: The complementarity hypothesis suggests that individuals with different characteristics may be attracted to each other if their differences complement each other\'s needs. **Key Points** - Complementarity is more applicable to traits where one person\'s needs can be met by the other\'s differences. - The hypothesis is mixed in support, with some evidence for complementarity in social status. **Explanation ** Complementarity may lead to attraction when individuals offer each other elevated status in areas where they themselves are lacking, such as family wealth or education. - 1. A study examined couples\' family class backgrounds and educational achievements, finding that partners often complemented each other\'s social status. 2. Couples were analyzed based on family class and education. 3. Partners often had complementary social statuses. 4. This supports the idea that complementarity in status can predict attraction. **16. Physical Attractiveness** Physical Attractiveness: Physical attractiveness is a powerful determinant of interpersonal attraction, influencing initial impressions and social interactions. **Key Points** - Attractive individuals are more popular and better liked as friends and romantic partners. - Physical attractiveness affects immediate gut reactions and judgments. - There is variability in what is considered attractive across cultures and over a person\'s lifetime. **Explanation ** Physical attractiveness influences attraction because it affects immediate perceptions and judgments. However, perceptions of attractiveness can change based on behavior and relationship satisfaction. - 1. Research shows that physical attractiveness correlates with dating frequency and friendship ratings, and influences judgments in speed dating and online dating contexts. 2. Studies correlate attractiveness with popularity indicators. 3. Attractiveness influences judgments in blind dates and speed dating. 4. Attractive individuals are rated more favorably in various social contexts. **17. Physical Attractiveness and Economic Benefits** Physical Attractiveness and Economic Benefits: The impact of physical attractiveness on economic outcomes, such as salary and career earnings. **Key Points** - A one-point increase in physical attractiveness on a five-point scale can lead to an increase of about \$3,500 in annual salary. - Attractive individuals can earn nearly a quarter of a million dollars more over their careers compared to less attractive individuals. **Explanation ** Studies have shown that physical attractiveness can significantly impact economic outcomes. For example, a one-point increase in attractiveness can lead to a substantial increase in annual salary. Over a career, this can accumulate to a significant financial advantage for more attractive individuals. - 1. These studies quantified the economic benefits of physical attractiveness, adjusting for inflation to current dollars. 2. West and Brown (1975) initially identified the correlation between attractiveness and salary. 3. Fries, Olson, and Russell (1991) adjusted these findings for inflation. 4. Hammermesh and Biddle (1994) further confirmed these results, showing the long-term career earnings impact. **18. The Halo Effect** The Halo Effect: The phenomenon where physically attractive individuals are perceived to have other positive qualities. **Key Points** - Attractive people are often assumed to have positive qualities beyond their appearance. - This effect varies across cultures, with different traits being emphasized. **Explanation ** The halo effect leads people to attribute positive characteristics to attractive individuals, such as intelligence and social skills. This perception can influence social interactions and opportunities. - 1. These studies explored how attractiveness influences perceptions of personality and competence. 2. Dionne et al. (1972) found that attractive individuals are perceived as happier and more successful. 3. Eagley et al. (1991) confirmed these findings, noting cultural variations in the halo effect. **19. Cultural Variations in Attractiveness Perceptions** Cultural Variations in Attractiveness Perceptions: How perceptions of attractiveness and associated traits vary across cultures. **Key Points** - In independent cultures, attractiveness is linked to dominance and assertiveness. - In interdependent cultures, attractiveness is associated with generosity and empathy. **Explanation ** Cultural context influences the traits associated with physical attractiveness. In some cultures, attractiveness is linked to assertiveness, while in others, it is linked to empathy. - 1. This study examined cultural differences in the traits associated with attractiveness. 2. Wheeler and Kim (1997) found that cultural values shape the traits attributed to attractive individuals. **20. Evolutionary Perspectives on Attraction** Evolutionary Perspectives on Attraction: The evolutionary basis for preferences in physical attractiveness and mate selection. **Key Points** - Symmetrical faces are preferred as they indicate health and reproductive fitness. - Average faces are considered more attractive due to genetic diversity and health signals. **Explanation ** Evolutionary theory suggests that physical features indicating health and genetic fitness are preferred in mate selection. Symmetry and averageness are key indicators of these traits. - 1. These studies explored the evolutionary basis for preferences in facial symmetry. 2. Scheib et al. (1999) found that symmetrical faces are linked to better health. 3. Thornhill and Gangestad (1993) confirmed the preference for symmetry as a signal of reproductive fitness. **21. Gender Differences in Mate Preferences** Gender Differences in Mate Preferences: Differences in what men and women seek in romantic partners, explained by evolutionary and sociocultural perspectives. **Key Points** - Men prioritize youth and physical attractiveness in mates. - Women prioritize resources and status in mates. **Explanation ** Evolutionary psychology suggests that men and women have different mate preferences due to reproductive roles. Men seek youth and beauty, while women seek resources and status. - 1. Studies examining gender differences in mate preferences across cultures. 2. Buss and Schmidt found consistent patterns in mate preferences across cultures. 3. Peplau and Fingerhut (2007) noted similar trends in same-sex relationships. **22. Varieties of Love** Varieties of Love: Different types of love categorized by social psychologists. **Key Points** - Companionate Love: Experienced with friends and family, characterized by trust and shared interests. - Compassionate Love: A communal relationship focusing on responding to another\'s needs, like a parent\'s care for a child. - Romantic Love: Associated with intense emotion and sexual desire, often referred to as passionate love. **Explanation ** Researchers categorize love into three main types: Companionate, Compassionate, and Romantic. Companionate love involves trust and shared activities, Compassionate love focuses on caring for others\' needs, and Romantic love is characterized by passion and desire. - 1. Undergraduates listed 216 different kinds of love, with almost half mentioned by more than one person. 2. The study highlights the diversity in perceptions of love. 3. It shows that while there are commonalities, individual experiences of love can vary widely. **23. Investment Model of Commitment** Investment Model of Commitment: A model explaining why some romantic partners remain committed to their relationships. **Key Points** - Satisfaction: Based on the rewards and costs associated with the relationship. - Quality of Alternatives: Fewer available alternative partners increase commitment. - Investments: Time, effort, and shared experiences increase commitment. **Explanation ** The Investment Model of Commitment suggests that commitment in relationships is determined by satisfaction, the quality of alternatives, and investments. Satisfaction is influenced by the perceived rewards and costs, while fewer alternatives and greater investments lead to higher commitment. - 1. Participants indicated their level of agreement with statements about commitment and its determinants every six months. 2. The study measured satisfaction, alternatives, and investments to predict commitment. 3. Findings showed that these determinants are often correlated, influenced by perceived partner responsiveness. **24. Predictors of Relationship Dissatisfaction and Divorce** Predictors of Relationship Dissatisfaction and Divorce: Factors that contribute to dissatisfaction and the likelihood of divorce in romantic relationships. **Key Points** - Personality: Neuroticism and low self-esteem are linked to less happy relationships. - Socioeconomic Status: Lower SES is associated with higher divorce rates. - Age: Marrying at a younger age increases the likelihood of divorce. **Explanation ** Research indicates that personality traits like neuroticism and low self-esteem, as well as demographic factors such as socioeconomic status and age, can predict relationship dissatisfaction and divorce. These factors influence how partners interact and manage relationship challenges. - 1. Identified four negative behaviors (criticism, stonewalling, defensiveness, contempt) that predict relationship dissatisfaction. 2. The study involved observing couples\' interactions and coding for specific behaviors. 3. Findings showed that these behaviors are detrimental to relationship satisfaction and longevity. **25. Gottman and Levinson\'s Studies on Divorce** Gottman and Levinson\'s Studies on Divorce: Gottman and Levinson\'s research focuses on the relationship between negative communication patterns and divorce, particularly examining the \'four horsemen\' behaviors: criticism, stonewalling, defensiveness, and contempt. **Key Points** - Negative communication patterns can directly contribute to divorce. - The \'four horsemen\' behaviors are critical indicators of potential divorce. - Stonewalling during conflict discussions is linked to the development of musculoskeletal symptoms. **Explanation ** Gottman and Levinson\'s studies suggest that negative emotions and behaviors in a marriage, such as contempt and criticism, can lead to divorce. Their research involved observing couples and identifying patterns that predict divorce. Stonewalling, one of the four horsemen, has been linked to physical health issues, indicating the broader impact of negative relationship behaviors. - 1. In a study of 79 couples, Gottman and Levinson used measures of the four toxic behaviors to predict which couples would stay together and which would divorce 14 years later. A large fraction of the couples who showed these behaviors during a 15-minute conversation were divorced by the end of the study. 2. The study involved observing couples\' interactions and coding their behaviors. 3. Couples exhibiting the four horsemen behaviors were more likely to divorce. 4. The study highlights the predictive power of these negative behaviors on marital outcomes. - 1. Haas et al. followed 156 married couples over 20 years, examining the link between stonewalling during conflict discussions and the development of musculoskeletal symptoms. 2. Stonewalling was found to elicit high arousal and physical tension. 3. Over time, this tension contributed to musculoskeletal symptoms, particularly in husbands. 4. The study controlled for other health factors like exercise and smoking. **26. Dangerous Attributions in Relationships** Dangerous Attributions in Relationships: Certain attribution styles, particularly those involving blame, can weaken romantic bonds and affect relationship satisfaction. **Key Points** - Distressed couples often make negative attributions about their partners. - Negative attributions are linked to lower marital satisfaction. - External factors like financial stress can exacerbate the impact of negative attributions. **Explanation ** Research by Bradbury, Carney, and colleagues shows that distressed couples tend to attribute positive events to unstable, selfish causes and negative events to stable, global causes. This attribution style is linked to lower relationship satisfaction, especially in couples with limited financial and social resources. - 1. Nguyen et al. assessed the attributions and marital satisfaction of an ethnically diverse, mostly Latino and Black, sample of 231 newlywed couples with relatively low incomes. 2. The study found a stronger link between negative partner attributions and lower marital satisfaction among couples with fewer financial resources. 3. The researchers hypothesized that external stressors exacerbate the negative impact of blame attributions. **27. Creating Stronger Romantic Bonds** Creating Stronger Romantic Bonds: Strategies for building healthier romantic relationships include avoiding negative behaviors, engaging in positive communication, and fostering playfulness and idealization. **Key Points** - Avoid partners with high anxiety, rejection sensitivity, and neuroticism. - Engage in active, constructive capitalization of good news. - Maintain playfulness and idealization in the relationship. **Explanation ** To strengthen romantic bonds, individuals should avoid partners prone to negative behaviors and instead focus on positive interactions. Capitalizing on good news and maintaining playfulness can enhance relationship satisfaction. Idealizing one\'s partner also contributes to a more satisfying relationship. - 1. Gable and colleagues found that individuals reported greater relationship satisfaction when their partners responded to their good news with engaged enthusiasm. 2. Active, constructive responses to good news foster relationship satisfaction. 3. Engagement in each other\'s positive experiences strengthens bonds. - 1. Aaron et al. conducted an experiment where married couples engaged in playful tasks, such as moving a softball while tied together, which increased marital satisfaction. 2. Playful activities enhance relationship satisfaction by introducing novelty and excitement. 3. Shared laughter and play foster perceptions of similarity and strengthen bonds. **28. Love and Marriage Across Cultures** Love and Marriage Across Cultures: Romantic love is not always a prerequisite for marriage in many cultures, where arranged marriages are common and may offer certain advantages. **Key Points** - Arranged marriages avoid some pitfalls of marrying for romantic love. - They often involve respect between in-laws and avoid mismatches in socioeconomic status or religion. - **The lack of expectation for romantic love can prevent disappointment.** **Explanation ** In many cultures, marriages are arranged by parents, focusing on compatibility and family respect rather than romantic love. This can lead to more stable marriages by avoiding mismatches and unrealistic expectations. Social Psy Chapter 9 Lecture Notes Attraction Interpersonal Attraction Motivation Strategies Attachment Styles Key Learnings - The core of this lesson is understanding Interpersonal Attraction. It\'s recommended to start with observing social interactions in various settings to grasp Interpersonal Attraction through real-world examples and reflection. - Core content of Interpersonal Attraction: Interpersonal attraction is influenced by factors such as proximity, exposure, physical characteristics, and personality, which determine the formation of friendships and romantic relationships. **3. Interpersonal Attraction** Interpersonal Attraction: Interpersonal attraction refers to the factors that lead individuals to form friendships or romantic relationships. It is influenced by various factors including proximity, exposure, physical characteristics, and personality. **Key Points** - Proximity: The physical closeness between individuals can increase the likelihood of forming relationships. - Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure to an individual increases the likelihood of attraction. - Physical Characteristics: Physical appearance and symmetry can influence attraction. - Personality: Personality traits can enhance or diminish attraction. **Explanation ** Interpersonal attraction is a complex process influenced by multiple factors. Proximity suggests that individuals are more likely to form relationships with those who are physically close to them, as seen in dormitory studies where neighbors are more likely to become friends. The mere exposure effect indicates that repeated exposure to a person increases their attractiveness. Physical characteristics, such as symmetry and adherence to cultural beauty standards, play a significant role in initial attraction. Personality traits can either enhance or reduce attraction, sometimes overriding physical appearance. - 1. A study conducted in college dormitories showed that 41% of friendships were formed between individuals living next door to each other, while only 10% were formed between those living three doors apart. 2. The study demonstrated that physical proximity increases the likelihood of forming friendships. 3. The convenience of interacting with those nearby facilitates relationship development. - 1. A confederate attended several classes across a campus, and students rated her attractiveness based on the number of classes she attended. The more classes she attended, the higher her attractiveness rating. 2. The study manipulated the number of class attendances as the independent variable. 3. Results showed a positive correlation between class attendance and attractiveness ratings, supporting the mere exposure effect. - 1. The golden ratio is used to assess facial symmetry, which is associated with attractiveness. Symmetrical features are perceived as more attractive. 2. The golden ratio involves specific facial measurements that align with perceived beauty. 3. Symmetry is linked to evolutionary preferences for healthy and fertile partners. - 1. A study found that men rated women wearing red as more attractive. This effect is linked to evolutionary signals of fertility and health. 2. The independent variable was the color of the woman\'s clothing. 3. Red clothing enhances perceived attractiveness due to associations with fertility. **4. Initial Attraction and Evolutionary Standpoint** Initial Attraction and Evolutionary Standpoint: The concept of initial attraction involves both physical appearance and sensory components such as touch, taste, and sound. It is influenced by evolutionary factors aimed at longevity and reproduction. **Key Points** - Initial attraction is often subconscious and based on physical and sensory components. - Evolutionary standpoint focuses on reproduction and survival rather than finding a soulmate. - Initial attraction can change as one gets to know the personality of the other person. **Explanation ** Initial attraction is a complex process involving subconscious evaluations based on physical appearance and sensory experiences. These evaluations are rooted in evolutionary needs for reproduction and survival, which may not align with modern concepts of romance. **5. Contrast Theory** Contrast Theory: Contrast theory suggests that the perceived attractiveness of an individual is influenced by the attractiveness of those around them. **Key Points** - Perceived attractiveness is relative and influenced by surrounding individuals. - Seeing someone less attractive can make an average person seem more attractive. - Conversely, seeing someone more attractive can make others seem less attractive. **Explanation ** Contrast theory explains how our perception of attractiveness is not absolute but relative to the attractiveness of others in our environment. This can affect self-esteem and social interactions. - 1. When comparing individuals to celebrities like J-Lo, the perceived attractiveness of others can decrease. 2. Seeing a highly attractive person first sets a high standard. 3. Subsequent individuals are judged against this standard, affecting their perceived attractiveness. **6. Cheerleader Effect** Cheerleader Effect: The cheerleader effect posits that individuals appear more attractive when they are in a group. **Key Points** - Being in a group can enhance an individual\'s perceived attractiveness. - Assumptions about social traits like kindness and friendliness may contribute to this effect. **Explanation ** The cheerleader effect suggests that group dynamics can enhance individual attractiveness due to perceived social validation and assumptions about positive social traits. **7. Similarity and Attraction** Similarity and Attraction: Similarity in interests, values, and socioeconomic status enhances attraction and relationship stability. **Key Points** - People prefer others who share similar interests and values. - Similarity contributes to relationship satisfaction and longevity. - Socioeconomic status and lifestyle compatibility are important factors. **Explanation ** Similarity fosters attraction by providing comfort and validation, reducing conflict, and enhancing relationship satisfaction. This applies to both friendships and romantic relationships. - 1. A study found that people could match dogs with their owners based on physical resemblance. 2. Participants matched dogs to owners with a high degree of accuracy. 3. This suggests a preference for similarity even in pet choices. **8. Reciprocity and Attraction** Reciprocity and Attraction: Reciprocity in attraction involves mutual liking and shared interests, enhancing interpersonal connections. **Key Points** - Mutual liking increases the likelihood of attraction. - Reciprocity involves both shared interests and personal liking. **Explanation ** Reciprocity enhances attraction by creating a positive feedback loop where mutual liking and shared interests reinforce each other, leading to stronger interpersonal bonds. **9. Complementary Personalities** Complementary Personalities: Complementary personalities, rather than opposites, support long-term relationship success. **Key Points** - Complementary traits can enhance relationship dynamics. - Opposites may attract initially but are less likely to sustain long-term relationships. **Explanation ** Complementary personalities provide balance in relationships by allowing partners to fulfill different roles and support each other\'s strengths and weaknesses, leading to greater harmony and stability. **10. Attachment Styles** Attachment Styles: Attachment styles refer to the patterns of how individuals relate to others in relationships, initially identified by John Bowlby. These styles can change over time and are influenced by relationships and counseling. **Key Points** - Attachment styles can change over time. - Secure attachment can be learned through relationships and counseling. - Individuals may exhibit different attachment styles in different relationships. **Explanation ** Attachment styles are not fixed and can evolve. Secure attachment can be learned by being in a relationship with someone who is securely attached or through counseling. People may display different attachment styles depending on the relationship context. - 1. If someone is insecurely attached but enters a relationship with a securely attached person, they can learn to be securely attached. 2. Being in a relationship with a securely attached person provides a model for secure attachment. 3. Counseling can help change behaviors in relationships, promoting secure attachment. **11. Attachment Style Questionnaire** Attachment Style Questionnaire: A questionnaire developed by Cindy Hazan and Philip Shaver to identify attachment styles, based on John Bowlby\'s theory. **Key Points** - The questionnaire identifies three main attachment styles: secure, anxious, and avoidant. - Option A indicates secure attachment, Option B indicates anxious attachment, and Option C indicates avoidant attachment. **Explanation ** The questionnaire helps individuals identify their predominant attachment style, which can inform their approach to relationships. Understanding one\'s attachment style can help in recognizing potential relationship challenges. - 1. A questionnaire published in the Rocky Mountain News in 1985 asking readers to identify which of three statements best described their feelings in love. 2. Option A: Secure attachment - comfortable with closeness and trust. 3. Option B: Anxious attachment - desire for closeness but fear of abandonment. 4. Option C: Avoidant attachment - discomfort with closeness and reliance on others. **12. Avoidant and Anxious Attachment Dynamics** Avoidant and Anxious Attachment Dynamics: The interaction between avoidant and anxious attachment styles in relationships, and strategies for managing these dynamics. **Key Points** - Avoidant individuals may emotionally withdraw when faced with closeness. - Anxious individuals may seek closeness too directly, triggering avoidant partners. - Understanding and managing these dynamics can improve relationship outcomes. **Explanation ** Avoidant individuals often withdraw emotionally to protect themselves, while anxious individuals may seek reassurance aggressively. Recognizing these patterns and adjusting behaviors can help mitigate conflicts and improve relationships. - 1. Avoidant individuals should recognize their tendency to withdraw and offer reassurance, while anxious individuals should approach closeness requests more lightly. 2. Avoidant individuals should understand their fear of closeness and work on extending reassurance. 3. Anxious individuals should recognize that their partner\'s distance may not be intentional and adjust their approach to seeking closeness. Social Psy Social Psy Chapter 14 Text Notes Morality, Altruism, and Cooperation Keywords Altruism Morality Cooperation Key Learnings - The core of this lesson is understanding Altruism. It\'s recommended to start with observing and reflecting on everyday acts of kindness to grasp Altruism through real-life examples and personal reflection. - Core content of Altruism: Altruism refers to selfless actions taken to benefit others, often at a personal cost. It is prosocial behavior that benefits others without regard to the consequences for oneself and arises from feelings of sympathy and compassion. - The core of this lesson is understanding the influence of cultural and evolutionary factors on altruistic behavior. It\'s recommended to start with analyzing case studies of altruistic behavior in different cultural contexts to grasp the impact of cultural factors through practical examples. - Core content of Culture and Altruism: The influence of cultural factors such as geographical region, social class, and religiousness on altruistic behavior. - Core content of Evolution and Altruism: The evolutionary explanations for altruistic behavior, including kin selection and reciprocity. **1. Morality** Morality: Morality involves our intuitions about what is right and wrong, which guide our moral judgments and actions. **Key Points** - Social intuitionist model of moral judgment - Five foundations of moral foundations theory - Differences in moral views between conservatives and liberals **Explanation ** Morality is guided by our intuitions and feelings about right and wrong, which influence our reasoning and judgments. The social intuitionist model suggests that moral judgments are primarily driven by emotional intuitions rather than deliberate reasoning. - 1. Mark and Julie, siblings, decide to make love while on vacation in France. They take precautions to avoid pregnancy and both enjoy the experience, deciding not to repeat it and keeping it a secret. 2. Most people react with disgust and deem the action wrong, despite the lack of harm or risk. 3. This reaction is an example of moral dumbfounding, where people have strong moral convictions without rational explanations. 4. The scenario illustrates how moral judgments are often guided by gut feelings rather than reason. **2. Altruism** Altruism: Altruism refers to selfless actions taken to benefit others, often at a personal cost. **Key Points** - Sacrificing for the welfare of others - Examples of altruistic behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic **Explanation ** Altruism is demonstrated through actions that prioritize the well-being of others, often involving personal sacrifice. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many individuals displayed altruistic behavior by helping those in need. - 1. Joseph Zolida, a former Marine, created the Black Six Project to provide humanitarian relief. During the COVID-19 pandemic, his organization received a surge in donations, which were used to supply food and build rest tents for healthcare workers. 2. Zolida\'s actions exemplify altruism by providing support and resources to those affected by the pandemic. 3. His efforts helped healthcare workers recharge and continue their critical work. - 1. Pat, a nurse in New York City, volunteered for hospice care during the COVID-19 pandemic, ensuring that patients died with dignity despite the risk to her own health. 2. Pat\'s decision to work in hospice care reflects altruism, as she prioritized the comfort and dignity of dying patients over her own safety. 3. Her actions were driven by a strong moral conviction to care for those in need. **3. Cooperation** Cooperation: Cooperation involves coordinating actions with others to achieve better social outcomes. **Key Points** - Working together to address challenges - Examples of cooperation during the COVID-19 pandemic **Explanation ** Cooperation is essential for addressing complex social challenges, as it involves collaboration and coordination among individuals and groups. During the COVID-19 pandemic, cooperation was crucial in delivering aid and support to affected communities. - 1. Raj Chaudhry coordinated over 100 volunteers in Minneapolis to deliver meals to food shelters, ensuring cultural sensitivity in meal preparation. 2. Chaudhry\'s efforts demonstrate cooperation by organizing a large group of volunteers to address food insecurity during the pandemic. 3. The culturally sensitive approach ensured that the meals met the dietary needs of diverse communities. **4. Altruism** Altruism: Altruism is prosocial behavior that benefits others without regard to the consequences for oneself. It arises from feelings of sympathy and compassion. **Key Points** - Altruistic acts are motivated by feelings of sympathy and compassion. - Empathic concern is a cause of altruism. - Altruism can be inhibited by self-preservation tendencies. **Explanation ** Altruism involves acting to benefit others without personal gain. It is often driven by empathic concern, where individuals feel compassion and sympathy for others in need. However, self-preservation instincts can sometimes inhibit altruistic actions. - 1. Alfredo Anguera, after facing bankruptcy due to the pandemic, decided to deliver food that was going to waste to first responders. This act of generosity caught the attention of the non-profit World Central Kitchen, which supported Anguera and his partner in serving over one million meals to first responders and the hungry during the pandemic. 2. Anguera\'s actions are a clear example of altruism as he provided food for those in need without regard for his own financial situation. 3. His actions were driven by feelings of sympathy and compassion for first responders during the pandemic. **5. Motives for Altruistic Behavior** Motives for Altruistic Behavior: There are several motives for altruistic behavior, including social reward, personal distress, and empathic concern. **Key Points** - Social reward: Being esteemed and valued by others can motivate altruistic acts. - Personal distress: Helping others can reduce one\'s own distress. - Empathic concern: A selfless motive where the intention is to enhance another person\'s welfare. **Explanation ** Altruistic behavior can be motivated by different factors. Social rewards involve acting altruistically to gain esteem and recognition from others. Personal distress involves helping others to alleviate one\'s own discomfort. Empathic concern is a more selfless motive where the focus is on improving the welfare of others. - 1. Ballet dancer Gray Davis jumped onto New York City subway tracks to save a fallen man in the face of an oncoming train. 2. Davis\' actions were motivated by empathic concern, as he risked his own life to save another person. 3. His bravery was recognized, highlighting the social reward aspect of altruism. - 1. During the social unrest in Los Angeles in 1992, Bobby Green and several other local residents rushed to rescue Reginald Denny, who was pulled from his truck and severely beaten. 2. Green\'s actions were driven by empathic concern and personal distress, as he acted to alleviate the suffering of another person. **6. Empathic Concern and Altruism** Empathic Concern and Altruism: Empathic concern is the feeling people experience when identifying with someone in need, accompanied by the intention to enhance the other person\'s welfare. **Key Points** - Empathic concern is a selfless, other-oriented state that motivates altruistic behavior. - It involves taking the perspective of someone in need and feeling sympathy or compassion. - Empathic concern can lead to altruistic actions even when there are no social rewards or personal distress involved. **Explanation ** Empathic concern is a key driver of altruistic behavior. It involves identifying with someone in need and feeling a desire to help them, often at one\'s own expense. This form of concern can lead to altruistic actions even when there are no external rewards or personal benefits. - 1. In a study by Batson et al., participants were asked to help a confederate receiving electric shocks. Those who felt empathic concern volunteered to take more shocks even when they could leave the study. 2. The study demonstrated that empathic concern can motivate altruistic behavior independent of egoistic motives. 3. Participants who felt empathic concern were willing to endure discomfort to help another person. **7. Anonymous Altruism** Anonymous Altruism: Anonymous altruism refers to altruistic actions taken without the expectation of social rewards or recognition. **Key Points** - Altruistic actions can occur even when they are anonymous and not recognized by others. - Empathic concern can drive anonymous altruism. **Explanation ** Anonymous altruism occurs when individuals engage in altruistic actions without expecting recognition or social rewards. This type of altruism is often driven by empathic concern, where the focus is on helping others rather than gaining esteem. - 1. In a study by Batson et al., participants were asked to spend time with a confederate named Janet. In the high empathy condition, participants volunteered to spend more time with Janet even when their actions were anonymous. 2. The study showed that empathic concern can lead to altruistic actions even when there is no expectation of social rewards. 3. Participants in the high empathy condition were motivated by a desire to help Janet, not by external recognition. **8. Empathic Concern and Volunteerism** Empathic Concern and Volunteerism: Empathic concern and sympathy are primary determinants of altruistic and other prosocial behaviors, increasing the likelihood of helping those who are suffering. **Key Points** - Feelings of empathic concern and sympathy increase altruistic behavior. - Volunteerism is defined as unpaid assistance with no expectation of compensation. - Close to 30% of people in the United States engage in volunteerism. - Motives for volunteerism include social rewards and reducing personal distress. - Self-reports of empathic concern predict the likelihood of volunteerism. - Volunteerism can provide a sense of purpose and is enhanced by a sense of community. - Volunteering is associated with increased longevity and health benefits. **Explanation ** Empathic concern leads to altruistic actions, such as volunteerism, which is unpaid assistance without expecting compensation. Studies show that empathic concern predicts volunteerism, and volunteering is linked to health benefits and increased longevity. - 1. In the United States, estimates indicate that close to 30% of people volunteer in some way, whether providing companionship to older adults, mentoring troubled children, feeding those in poverty, teaching classes in prison, or assisting the sick and dying. 2. Volunteerism is a widespread activity in the United States. 3. It includes various forms of unpaid assistance. 4. The motivation behind volunteerism can be diverse, including social rewards and personal satisfaction. - 1. Stephanie Brown and her colleagues studied 423 elderly married couples over the course of 5 years and found that volunteerism increases longevity. 2. Participants reported how often they offered help to others. 3. Those who volunteered more were less likely to die during the study period. 4. The study controlled for initial health, gender, and social contacts. **9. Situational Determinants of Altruism** Situational Determinants of Altruism: Various situational factors influence whether people act on their empathic impulses to help others in need. **Key Points** - Presence of other people can inhibit helping behavior due to diffusion of responsibility. - Bystander intervention is less likely when others are present. - Victim characteristics, such as similarity to the helper, influence helping behavior. - Construal processes affect whether people perceive a situation as requiring help. **Explanation ** The presence of others can lead to diffusion of responsibility, reducing the likelihood of helping. Victim characteristics and how people construe situations also play roles in determining whether help is offered. - 1. Kitty Genovese was attacked and murdered in 1964 while many witnesses failed to intervene, highlighting the bystander effect. 2. The presence of multiple witnesses led to diffusion of responsibility. 3. Witnesses assumed others would intervene, reducing individual responsibility. - 1. College students participated in an experiment where they believed they were discussing urban living problems. A confederate simulated a seizure, and the likelihood of helping varied based on the number of perceived bystanders. 2. Participants were more likely to help when they believed they were the only witness. 3. The presence of more bystanders reduced the likelihood of intervention. **10. Pluralistic Ignorance and Altruism** Pluralistic Ignorance and Altruism: Pluralistic ignorance occurs when people misinterpret a situation as non-emergency because others appear unconcerned. **Key Points** - Pluralistic ignorance can prevent people from helping in emergencies. - Seeing others\' initial expressions of concern can reduce pluralistic ignorance. - Making one\'s need for help clear and selecting a specific person to help can overcome pluralistic ignorance. **Explanation ** In ambiguous situations, people may not help because they assume nothing is wrong if others appear calm. Clear communication of distress and selecting a specific helper can counteract this effect. - 2. Participants were in a room filling out questionnaires when smoke began to fill the room. Their reactions varied based on whether they were alone or with others. 2. Participants alone were more likely to report the smoke. 2. In groups, participants were less likely to report due to pluralistic ignorance. - 1. Participants heard a worker cry out in pain. Their likelihood of helping varied based on whether they could see others\' reactions. 2. Participants who could see others\' concerned reactions were more likely to help. 3. Seeing spontaneous emotional expressions helped overcome pluralistic ignorance. 4. **11. Culture and Altruism** Culture and Altruism: The influence of cultural factors such as geographical region, social class, and religiousness on altruistic behavior. **Key Points** - Altruism varies significantly with cultural influences. - Urban and rural settings show different levels of altruistic behavior. - Social class impacts the proportion of income donated to charity. - Religious concepts can increase altruistic behavior. **Explanation ** The class discusses how different cultural factors influence altruistic behavior. It examines the differences in altruism between urban and rural settings, noting that rural areas tend to exhibit higher levels of altruism. The impact of social class is also explored, with findings indicating that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds tend to donate a larger proportion of their income to charity. Additionally, the role of religious concepts in promoting altruism is analyzed, showing that exposure to religious ideas can enhance altruistic actions. - 1. Nancy Steeplay reviewed 35 studies comparing helping rates in rural and urban environments. The studies involved 17 experimental opportunities to offer assistance, such as giving the time of day, intervening in a crime, or helping an injured pedestrian. 2. Steeplay\'s analysis showed that strangers are significantly more likely to be helped in rural communities than in urban areas. 3. The effect of population size was particularly pronounced in towns with populations between 1,000 and 50,000. 4. Once the population rises above 50,000, increasing population has little effect on helping behavior. - 1. A study by the Organization Independent Sector found that people making less than \$25,000 per year gave away an average of 4.2% of their income, whereas those making more than \$100,000 per year donated only 2.7%. 2. Research suggests that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more empathically attuned to others. 3. Wealthier individuals tend to be more independent and less empathically in tune with others. 4. Empathic concern can be triggered in wealthier individuals to increase altruistic behavior. - 1. Participants were shown sequences of five words, including religious words, and then asked to give some amount of money to a stranger. Those primed with religious concepts were more likely to give half of the money to a stranger. 2. Religious priming increases generosity and altruistic behavior. 3. Non-religious concepts related to civility and ethics can also promote altruism. 4. The sense of being watched, common in religious contexts, can enhance altruistic actions. **12. Evolution and Altruism** Evolution and Altruism: The evolutionary explanations for altruistic behavior, including kin selection and reciprocity. **Key Points** - Altruism is challenging to explain from an evolutionary perspective. - Kin selection favors behaviors that increase the survival of genetic relatives. - Reciprocity and cooperation form the basis for helping non-kin. **Explanation** The class explores how evolutionary theories account for altruistic behavior. Kin selection suggests that individuals are more likely to help those who share more of their genes, thereby ensuring the survival of their genetic material. Reciprocity and cooperation explain altruistic actions towards non-kin, as these behaviors can lead to mutual benefits and increased chances of survival. - 1. Studies of several non-human species have found that helping is more likely to be directed toward kin than toward non-kin. For example, mockingbirds feed their own hungry nestlings first and then will feed hungry nestlings that are not their own but are more closely related to them. 2. Kin selection theory posits that helping genetic relatives increases the likelihood of one\'s genes being passed to future generations. 3. Humans also exhibit kin selection, as they are more likely to help close relatives than distant relatives or strangers. - 1. People often help friends and even total strangers, engaging in behaviors such as donating money anonymously or helping someone cross the street. 2. Reciprocity involves helping others with the expectation of future mutual benefits. 3. Cooperation and reciprocity are key evolutionary strategies for explaining altruistic behavior towards non-kin. **13. Altruism and Empathy** Altruism and Empathy: The study of altruism involves understanding the motives behind helping behaviors, particularly focusing on empathy as a driving factor. **Key Points** - Empathy can influence altruistic behavior. - Participants in high empathy conditions are more likely to help. - Social reward can be ruled out as a motive when empathy is isolated. **Explanation ** In the study, participants were divided into low and high empathy conditions to assess their willingness to help Janet, a student feeling out of place. The study aimed to determine if empathy, rather than social reward, was the primary motivator for altruistic behavior. - 1. Participants received notes from Janet, a student feeling out of place. They were divided into low and high empathy conditions. High empathy participants were asked to imagine Janet\'s feelings, while low empathy participants were asked to remain objective. Participants then indicated how much time they would spend with Janet. 2. Participants in the high empathy condition were more willing to spend time with Janet. 3. The study controlled for social reward by varying whether responses were anonymous or visible to Janet and the experimenter. **14. Evolutionary Theory and Cooperation** Evolutionary Theory and Cooperation: Evolutionary theory explains cooperation and reciprocity as strategies that have evolved to enhance survival and reproduction. **Key Points** - Reciprocal altruism is a key concept in evolutionary theory. - Cooperation reduces conflict and helps manage scarce resources. - Cooperation is a defining attribute of humans and non-human species. **Explanation ** Evolutionary theorists propose that cooperation evolved through reciprocal altruism, where individuals help others with the expectation of future help. This behavior is observed in both human and non-human species and is essential for survival. - 1. During World War I, enemy soldiers participated in an informal Christmas truce in 1914, where they fraternized in no man\'s land. 2. This example illustrates how adversarial relationships can shift to cooperative ones. 3. The truce demonstrated the potential for cooperation even in hostile environments. - 1. Vampire bats share blood meals with others who have not fed, ensuring mutual survival. 2. This behavior exemplifies reciprocal altruism in non-human species. 3. Bats that share are more likely to receive help in the future, enhancing survival chances. **15. Reciprocal Altruism** Reciprocal Altruism: Reciprocal altruism is a behavior where an organism acts in a manner that temporarily reduces its fitness while increasing another organism\'s fitness, with the expectation that the other organism will act in a similar manner at a later time. **Key Points** - Vampire bats regurgitate blood to feed starving bats that have previously helped them. - Primates like chimpanzees and bonobos share food and groom each other based on past interactions. - In hunter-gatherer societies, meat is shared with the expectation of future reciprocation. **Explanation** Reciprocal altruism is observed in both human and non-human species. It involves acts of generosity with the expectation of future reciprocation. This behavior is seen in various species and cultures, indicating its evolutionary significance. - 1. Vampire bats will regurgitate blood to feed starving bats that have given blood to them in the past, but they will not give blood to bats that haven\'t previously helped them. 2. Bats remember past interactions and choose to help those who have helped them before. 3. This behavior ensures mutual survival and strengthens social bonds within the group. - 1. Researchers mailed Christmas cards to numerous complete strangers. About 20% reciprocated by sending their own Christmas cards back to the senders, whom they had never met. 2. The norm of reciprocity compels individuals to respond to acts of kindness. 3. This experiment highlights the human tendency to reciprocate even in the absence of prior interaction. **16. Prisoner\'s Dilemma** Prisoner\'s Dilemma: The Prisoner\'s Dilemma is an experimental paradigm used to study cooperation and competition. It involves two participants who must choose to either cooperate or defect, with their payoffs depending on the combination of their choices. **Key Points** - If both cooperate, they receive moderate rewards. - If one defects while the other cooperates, the defector receives a higher reward. - If both defect, they receive lower rewards than if they had both cooperated. **Explanation ** The Prisoner\'s Dilemma illustrates the conflict between individual self-interest and mutual benefit. It shows how rational individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interest to do so. - 1. India and Pakistan have been engaged in an arms race, which is structured like the Prisoner\'s Dilemma. Each country must decide whether to spend more on armaments or enjoy economic peace dividends. 2. Both countries would benefit from mutual cooperation (not increasing arms), but fear of the other gaining an advantage leads to continued arms buildup. 3. This results in a wasteful expenditure that could have been avoided through cooperation. **17. Cooperation and the Brain** Cooperation and the Brain: Cooperation is a social strategy that can incur costs but is vital for human survival. The brain is wired to enable cooperation, with reward-related regions activating during cooperative acts. **Key Points** - Cooperation activates reward-related brain regions such as the nucleus accumbens. - These regions are rich in dopamine receptors and are associated with various rewards. **Explanation ** The activation of reward-related brain regions during cooperation suggests that cooperation is inherently rewarding. This neural basis for cooperation may explain why humans are inclined to cooperate despite potential risks. - 1. In a study, 36 women played an online version of the Prisoner\'s Dilemma game. Using fMRI technology, researchers found increased activation in reward-related brain regions when the women cooperated. 2. The study demonstrates that cooperation triggers neural responses similar to those elicited by other rewarding stimuli. 3. This finding supports the idea that cooperation is inherently rewarding and may be a natural human inclination. **8. Reputation and Cooperation** Reputation and Cooperation: Reputation refers to the collective beliefs and evaluations about an individual\'s character within a group. It influences levels of cooperation, as individuals are more likely to cooperate with those known to be cooperative. **Key Points** - Reputations spread through social networks and influence cooperative behavior. - Gossip is a mechanism through which reputations are communicated and assessed. **Explanation ** Reputation plays a crucial role in cooperative interactions. Individuals with positive reputations are more likely to receive cooperation from others, while those with negative reputations may be excluded from cooperative opportunities. - 1. In a study, participants played an economic game where they could gossip about each other\'s generosity. Groups that could gossip became more cooperative over time. 2. Gossip serves as a social tool to enforce cooperative norms by making individuals aware of the potential impact on their reputations. 3. The threat of gossip encourages individuals to act cooperatively to maintain a positive reputation. **19. Cultural Influence on Cooperation** Cultural Influence on Cooperation: The study of how cultural factors influence the inclination to cooperate or defect, particularly through the ultimatum game. **Key Points** - Cultural factors can influence cooperation levels. - The ultimatum game is used to study cooperation across cultures. - Different societies have varying levels of cooperation based on their cultural practices. **Explanation ** Joseph Henrich and colleagues conducted a cross-cultural study using the ultimatum game to explore how different societies approach cooperation. They found that the level of cooperation is influenced by how much individuals in a culture depend on each other for survival. - 1. Joseph Henrich and his colleagues recruited individuals from 15 small societies around the world to play the ultimatum game. Participants included foragers, slash-and-burn farmers, nomadic herders, and settled agriculturalists in Africa. The goods offered varied by culture, such as money or tobacco. 2. The study found that allocators offered, on average, 39% of the good to anonymous strangers. 3. In Western cultures, allocators typically offered 40-50% of the money. 4. The study suggests that cooperation is more prevalent than expected, influenced by cultural interdependence. - 1. The Makigenga of Peru, who rarely collaborate outside their family, offered 26% in the ultimatum game. The Lamerla of Indonesia, who fish in collaborative groups, offered 58%. 2. The Makigenga\'s low cooperation is linked to their limited collaboration outside family. 3. The Lamerla\'s high cooperation is due to their reliance on collaborative fishing. **20. Influence of Economics on Cooperation** Influence of Economics on Cooperation: The impact of studying economics on individuals\' propensity to cooperate or act selfishly. **Key Points** - Economics theory promotes self-interest and independence. - Economics majors are more likely to defect in cooperative games. - Economists are less likely to contribute to charity compared to other disciplines. **Explanation ** Studies show that training in economics, which emphasizes self-interest, leads to more selfish behavior. Economics majors are more likely to defect in the prisoner\'s dilemma game and less likely to donate to charity. - 1. In a study, 72% of economics majors defected in a prisoner\'s dilemma game, compared to 47% of students from other disciplines. 2. The study suggests that economics training encourages self-interested behavior. - 1. Economists were found to be twice as likely to take a free ride on public contributions compared to other disciplines. 2. This behavior reflects the self-interest promoted in economics. **21. Tit-for-Tat Strategy in Cooperation** Tit-for-Tat Strategy in Cooperation: The tit-for-tat strategy as a model for cooperation, emphasizing initial cooperation and reciprocation. **Key Points** - Tit-for-tat involves initial cooperation and reciprocation. - It is cooperative, non-envious, non-exploitable, forgiving, and easy to read. - It is effective in promoting cooperation in competitive situations. **Explanation ** The tit-for-tat strategy, which starts with cooperation and reciprocates the opponent\'s previous move, is effective in fostering cooperation. It is based on principles that encourage mutual support and discourage exploitation. - 1. Robert Axelrod conducted a tournament where the tit-for-tat strategy, submitted by Anatole Rappaport, won against various strategies. 2. The strategy\'s success is attributed to its cooperative and forgiving nature. 3. It promotes long-term cooperation by reciprocating the opponent\'s actions. **Social Psy ** **Lecture Notes Chapter 14** **11/6/24** Keywords Attachment Styles Relationship Theories Pro-Social Behavior Key Learnings AI Suggestion - The core of this lesson is understanding Attachment Styles. It\'s recommended to start with observing and reflecting on your own relationships to grasp Attachment Styles through self-analysis and journaling. - Core content of Attachment Styles: Attachment styles are learned from primary caregivers and influence romantic and other relationships. - Additionally, here are some extracurricular resources: - Practical application of Attachment Styles: \[Link to a quiz or assessment on attachment styles\] **1. Attachment Styles** Attachment Styles: Attachment styles theory suggests that we learn our attachment styles based on the relationships we had with our primary caregivers. These styles influence how we relate to others in romantic and other relationships. **Key Points** - Attachment styles are learned from primary caregivers. - They influence romantic and other relationships. - Secure attachment develops from consistent caregiving. - Insecure attachment can change over time. **Explanation ** Attachment styles are formed based on early interactions with caregivers. Secure attachment arises from consistent and responsive caregiving, leading to trust and stability in relationships. Insecure attachments, such as avoidant, anxious, and disorganized, result from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving. These styles can evolve with new relationships. - 1. A child whose parents consistently respond to their needs develops a secure attachment style, feeling worthy of attention and trusting others. 2. The child cries, and the parents respond by feeding or comforting them. 3. The child learns that they are valued and that people are reliable. 4. This leads to stable and trusting relationships in adulthood. - 1. A child with parents who are emotionally unavailable or work excessively may develop an avoidant attachment style, believing they don\'t need relationships. 2. The child receives little emotional support from parents. 3. They convince themselves that relationships are unnecessary. 4. This can lead to self-reliance and emotional distance in relationships. **2. Types of Love** Types of Love: Different types of love include passionate love, which is based on physical attraction, and companionate love, which is deeper and more enduring. **Key Points** - Passionate love is driven by physical attraction. - Companionate love involves deeper emotional connections. - Consummate love combines passion, intimacy, and commitment. **Explanation ** Passionate love is characterized by intense physical attraction and is often short-lived. Companionate love is based on deep emotional bonds and mutual respect, leading to long-term relationships. Consummate love is the ideal, combining passion, intimacy, and commitment. - 1. Passionate love is like a quick, intense attraction, while companionate love involves a deeper understanding and acceptance of the partner. 2. Passionate love focuses on physical attraction and immediate gratification. 3. Companionate love grows over time, emphasizing emotional connection and mutual respect. 4. Consummate love aims to balance both passion and companionship. **3. Equity and Social Exchange Theories** Equity and Social Exchange Theories: Equity theory focuses on fairness in relationships, while social exchange theory considers relationships as transactions aiming to maximize rewards and minimize costs. **Key Points** - Equity theory emphasizes equal contribution in relationships. - Social exchange theory views relationships as cost-benefit analyses. - Matching hypothesis suggests people seek partners of similar attractiveness. **Explanation ** Equity theory suggests that satisfaction in relationships comes from equal contributions by both partners. Social exchange theory posits that individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in relationships. The matching hypothesis indicates that people prefer partners who are similar in attractiveness to themselves. - 1. A couple where both partners contribute equally to household chores and decision-making feels satisfied and balanced. 2. Both partners share responsibilities equally. 3. This balance leads to mutual satisfaction and stability. 4. Imbalance can lead to dissatisfaction and conflict. - 1. A person evaluates their relationship based on the benefits they receive versus the costs they incur, deciding whether to stay or leave. 2. The individual assesses the rewards and costs of the relationship. 3. If costs outweigh rewards, they may consider leaving. 4. The theory highlights the transactional nature of relationships. **4. Factors Influencing Relationship Decisions** Factors Influencing Relationship Decisions: The decision to stay or leave a relationship is influenced by several factors including rewards, costs, comparisons, alternatives, and the level of investment and commitment. **Key Points** - Rewards and costs are evaluated to determine satisfaction in a relationship. - Comparison levels and available alternatives influence the decision to stay or leave. - High satisfaction, commitment, and investment increase the likelihood of staying in a relationship. - Low satisfaction and investment, coupled with high alternatives, may lead to leaving a relationship. **Explanation ** Individuals unconsciously evaluate their relationships based on what they gain versus what they lose. Satisfaction is derived from rewards outweighing costs. Comparison levels involve assessing the relationship against personal standards and available alternatives. High investment and commitment often result in staying, while low satisfaction and high alternatives may lead to leaving. **5. Communal vs. Exchange Relationships** Communal vs. Exchange Relationships: Communal relationships focus on mutual satisfaction and empathy, while exchange relationships are based on equity and reciprocity. **Key Points** - Communal relationships prioritize the health and happiness of both partners. - Exchange relationships focus on keeping score and ensuring equity. - Empathy and compassion are key components of communal relationships. - Communal relationships are more securely attached and less focused on individual needs. **Explanation ** In communal relationships, partners are responsive to each other\'s needs without keeping score, fostering a deeper connection. Exchange relationships, on the other hand, involve a transactional approach where partners expect reciprocation for their contributions. Communal relationships are characterized by empathy and compassion, leading to a healthier dynamic. **6. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Relationships** Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Relationships: Expectations and perceptions can influence behavior and outcomes in relationships, often leading to self-fulfilling prophecies. **Key Points** - Perceptions of attractiveness can influence behavior and treatment in interactions. - Expectations can lead to behaviors that reinforce initial perceptions. - Self-fulfilling prophecies can affect relationship dynamics and satisfaction. **Explanation** Individuals\' expectations about their partners can shape their interactions. For example, believing someone is attractive may lead to more positive and engaging behavior, which in turn elicits a favorable response from the other person. This cycle reinforces the initial perception, demonstrating the power of self-fulfilling prophecies in relationships. - 1. A study showed that men who were told a woman was attractive behaved more positively during phone conversations, leading the woman to perceive them as more likable. 2. Men were either shown pictures or told about a woman\'s attractiveness before a phone conversation. 3. Those who believed the woman was attractive were more engaging and humorous. 4. The woman, unaware of the manipulation, rated these men more favorably. 5. This demonstrates how expectations can influence behavior and perceptions in relationships. **7. Playing Hard to Get** Playing Hard to Get: The strategy of playing hard to get can sometimes increase attractiveness if applied selectively. **Key Points** - Playing hard to get can create a sense of scarcity and increase perceived value. - Selective application of this strategy can make an individual more attractive. - Being unavailable to most but making exceptions for certain individuals can enhance desirability. **Explanation ** The concept of playing hard to get involves creating a sense of scarcity, which can make an individual appear more desirable. However, this strategy is effective only when applied selectively, showing interest in specific individuals while remaining unavailable to others. This selective availability can enhance attractiveness by making the individual seem special. **8. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Relationships** Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Relationships: The self-fulfilling prophecy is a psychological phenomenon where a person\'s belief or expectation about another person can influence their behavior towards that person, which in turn can cause the expected behavior to manifest. This concept is particularly relevant in relationships, where one\'s perception of another\'s attractiveness can alter their interaction. **Key Points** - The self-fulfilling prophecy affects how individuals interact based on their perceptions of attractiveness. - Both men and women can exhibit different behaviors based on their beliefs about the attractiveness of the person they are interacting with. **Explanation ** In relationships, if a person believes that someone is attractive, they may behave more positively towards them, which can lead to a reciprocal positive interaction. Conversely, if they perceive someone as unattractive, they might behave less favorably, which can lead to a negative interaction. **9. Pro-Social Behavior** Pro-Social Behavior: Pro-social behavior refers to actions intended to benefit others. It can be motivated by altruism or self-interest, and is influenced by various factors including environmental and situational contexts. **Key Points** - Pro-social behavior is about helping others, but can be motivated by selfish reasons. - The distinction between pro-social behavior and altruism lies in the motivation and potential self-benefit. **Explanation ** Pro-social behavior involves helping others, but often includes a self-serving component, such as gaining social approval or feeling good about oneself. Altruism, on the other hand, involves helping others at a cost to oneself, without expecting anything in return. - 1. An individual donates to charity and then tells others about their donation. 2. The person is helping by donating, but also gains social recognition and self-satisfaction from sharing their action. **10. Altruism** Altruism: Altruism is the selfless concern for the well-being of others, often involving personal sacrifice. It is considered a higher form of pro-social behavior where the helper does not expect any benefit in return. **Key Points** - Altruism involves helping others even at a personal cost. - It is considered selfless and is often contrasted with pro-social behavior that has self-serving motives. **Explanation ** Altruism is demonstrated when individuals help others without expecting any form of compensation or benefit, often at a personal cost. This behavior is driven by empathy and the desire to alleviate others\' suffering. - 1. A family takes in a homeless young man, helps him succeed in life, and he becomes a professional football player. 2. The family\'s actions are seen as altruistic because they helped the young man without expecting anything in return, despite the personal costs involved. **11. Kin Selection** Kin Selection: Kin selection is an evolutionary strategy that favors the reproductive success of an organism\'s relatives, even at a cost to the organism\'s own survival and reproduction. **Key Points** - Kin selection is based on evolutionary principles and the survival of genetic lines. - Individuals are more likely to help relatives to ensure the continuation of their genetic material. **Explanation ** Kin selection suggests that individuals are more likely to help relatives in life-threatening situations to ensure the survival of shared genes. This behavior is instinctive and rooted in evolutionary biology. **12. Norm of Reciprocity** Norm of Reciprocity: The norm of reciprocity is a social rule that suggests people should repay, in kind, what another person has provided for them. It is a fundamental principle in social interactions and relationships. **Key Points** - Reciprocity involves mutual exchange of actions or benefits. - It is a key element in maintaining social relationships and cooperation. **Explanation ** The norm of reciprocity dictates that if someone does something for you, you feel obligated to return the favor. This principle helps maintain social bonds and encourages cooperative behavior. **13. Altruistic Behavior** Altruistic Behavior: Altruistic behavior refers to selfless actions intended to benefit others without expecting anything in return. It is often exemplified by individuals who dedicate their lives to helping others, such as Mother Teresa. **Key Points** - Altruism involves selfless actions for the benefit of others. - Mother Teresa is a prime example of altruistic behavior. - Altruism can be contrasted with actions that serve self-esteem or self-image. **Explanation ** Altruistic behavior is characterized by actions that are intended to help others without any expectation of personal gain. In the class, Mother Teresa was highlighted as an example of someone who devoted her life to helping those in need, illustrating the essence of altruism. - 1. Mother Teresa dedicated her entire life to helping homeless people and those who were suffering. Her actions were driven by a selfless desire to improve the lives of others. 2. Mother Teresa\'s work with the poor and sick is a classic example of altruism. 3. Her actions were not motivated by personal gain but by a genuine concern for the welfare of others. **14. Prosocial Behavior** Prosocial Behavior: Prosocial behavior refers to actions intended to benefit others, which may also enhance the individual\'s self-esteem or public image. **Key Points** - Prosocial behavior can be motivated by a desire to look good to others. - It involves helping others but may also serve the individual\'s self-esteem. **Explanation ** Prosocial behavior is often driven by a combination of altruistic motives and self-interest. In the class, it was discussed how people might donate more when observed by others to enhance their public image. - 1. An experiment from 1975 examined how much money people would donate anonymously versus when being watched. On average, anonymous donations were 5.5 cents, while observed donations increased to 42 cents. 2. The experiment demonstrated that people donated more when they were being watched, suggesting a desire to appear generous. 3. This behavior indicates that prosocial actions can be influenced by the presence of an audience. **15. Mood and Helping Behavior** Mood and Helping Behavior: A person\'s mood can significantly influence their likelihood of engaging in helping behavior. Positive moods increase the likelihood of helping others. **Key Points** - Positive moods enhance the likelihood of helping behavior. - Finding money can elevate mood and increase the propensity to help others. **Explanation ** The class discussed how mood affects helping behavior, with studies showing that people in a good mood are more likely to help others. This was illustrated by an experiment where individuals who found money were more likely to assist someone in need. - 1. Participants who found dimes were more likely to help a confederate who dropped papers in a mall. Those who found coins had an elevated mood, increasing their likelihood of helping. 2. Finding money improved participants\' moods, making them more likely to engage in helping behavior. 3. The experiment highlighted the link between positive mood and increased prosocial actions. **16. Negative State Relief Hypothesis** Negative State Relief Hypothesis: The negative state relief hypothesis suggests that people are motivated to help others to alleviate their own negative feelings, such as guilt or sadness. **Key Points** - Helping behavior can be a way to relieve negative emotions. - People reminded of their sins are more likely to donate to alleviate guilt. **Explanation ** The hypothesis posits that individuals may engage in helping behavior to improve their own mood by alleviating negative emotions. This was discussed in the context of people donating more when reminded of their sins, as a way to relieve guilt. - 1. People who were reminded of their sins during church services were more likely to donate to the collection plate, using the act of giving to alleviate feelings of guilt. 2. The observation supports the idea that helping others can serve as a means to relieve personal negative emotions. 3. This behavior aligns with the negative state relief hypothesis, where individuals seek to improve their mood by doing good deeds.

Social Psy Chapter 9 & 14 Test Material PDF

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