Integrated Manufacturing System Guide PDF

**INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS** The globalized configuration of the current market, the internationalization of the manufacturing of world corporations, the constant expansion of the service sector, the ubiquity of the computer in all areas of the company and the generalization in the use of t...

**INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS** The globalized configuration of the current market, the internationalization of the manufacturing of world corporations, the constant expansion of the service sector, the ubiquity of the computer in all areas of the company and the generalization in the use of the network of networks (the Internet) represent changes in the field of business and industry, which should be considered in their economic aspects and from a practical point of view. Considering the previous points, you will realize the importance of good planning and administration of manufacturing systems, aspects that are critical for the survival of industrial organizations in a world that represents a globalized competition. Not only good planning and management of manufacturing systems are critical, but also their continuous improvement and enhancement. The latter, after all, is represented by the productivity that the organization is able to obtain from its manufacturing systems. Execution becomes a competitive advantage that must be continuously improved and the only way to lay the foundations of it is by designing the best possible manufacturing system.\ In this section you will study the fundamentals of design and control of manufacturing systems to later delve into integration techniques based on the intensive use of the computer. At the starting point of the system, you will have the inputs. On the other side/end you will have the finished products or outputs. Between these two extremes, as a connection between them, there is a set of activities, operations or processes to transform inputs into finished products. Different industries and companies use different manufacturing systems; however, they are all based on a series of general concepts and principles that give rise to different manufacturing systems. In this module you will learn about manufacturing planning as the basic pillar of a successful manufacturing model, you will learn about the activities that must be carried out in a manufacturing process, as well as their planning. You will also learn about manufacturing control, a tool that will allow you to monitor what is happening in the plant in real time. One more topic that you will learn about is process planning, in this topic you will discover that before starting to manufacture a product it is necessary to analyze the type and number of machines necessary for the manufacture of the same, as well as the labor requirements that will be used. In the final topic of this module, you will learn the principles of group technology, background, advantages and disadvantages of these manufacturing systems that have revolutionized the way of doing things in companies of the XXI century. In summary, the main objective of the design of a manufacturing system is the search for the most efficient way to produce items taking into account certain restrictions of raw material, equipment and labor, as well as the physical plant for which the system is made. **TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING** From a technological point of view, manufacturing is the application of various processes in order to modify the properties of the raw material and convert it into a finished product. From an economic perspective, manufacturing involves the act of adding value to a material or series of materials by transforming them, through various manufacturing or assembly processes (Groover, 2018). The core components of manufacturing systems are the activities related to work design, standards and methods. It is at these points more than anywhere else that the intervention of engineers influences the competitiveness of the manufacturing of a product through efficient design of the man-machine relationship, tools and workstations. The creativity of an engineer provides for the improvement of existing products and working methods. The objective of the manufacturing system is to lay the foundations for the production of quality products, at the lowest possible cost and on time, with the minimum use of capital and with the maximum self-fulfillment of the worker. When a manufacturing system has been finalized in its design and put into operation, the problems that its operation will present are those related to the analysis and control of the activities of such system. Generally speaking, there are issues related to the flow of products through the plant, the scheduling of production, the sequence of manufacturing orders, and how production activities should be kept on schedule. Another aspect that tends to generate problems is related to production volumes and the right time to start production. An additional problem related to production plans is the determination of the optimum production batch. In addition to the above, there are a number of other problems related to the operation of manufacturing systems that by their nature fall outside the scope of our discussion. However, you should not forget that there will always be a better method of doing the necessary work. The search for continuous improvement in the production activities of a plant is the task of the \"method analysis\". An element related to the operation that should not be forgotten within manufacturing systems is the measurement of work, whose methods include the time study with stopwatch, synthetic and the standard data method. **1.1 Basic definitions of a manufacturing system** A manufacturing system is an organized procedure that is executed to achieve the **conversion **of inputs in useful goods or services. A schematic representation of a manufacturing system is shown in Figure 1: \ Figure 1. Basic manufacturing system. The main characteristic of a manufacturing system is input **conversion **through a **productive process.** The definition of manufacturing requires that the produced product (goods or services) is different from the raw material. If there is no difference, it may be a storage or distribution system or some other, but it is not a production system. **In a manufacturing system there are three variables that determine the response of the system:**    The result at the end of the production process is the generation of new goods or services. **1.2 Design of activities in manufacturing systems** In the design of the activities of a manufacturing system, nine main analyses are used, which form a systematic method of analysis of the activities that will be included in the system, the nine main analyses are the following. **Purpose of the operation** It answers the questions: what is the operation for, is it necessary, can it be eliminated without consequences? can it be combined with another? **Design of the parts** It is necessary to review the design of the parts in search of improvements. **Tolerances and specifications** Closed tolerances are sought and opened where they are not really needed, there should only be closed tolerances where they are required for the correct functioning of the part. There is what is called economy of tolerances, the more demanding the tolerances of the parts, the higher the manufacturing cost. **Materials** The least expensive and easiest to process materials should be sought after, materials should be used in the most economical way, materials should be standardized, and the best supplier should be sought after in terms of price and availability. **Sequence and manufacturing process** When a change is made in one operation, possible consequences in other operations should be sought after, the mechanization of manual operations, the use of better machines and tools in mechanical operations, and the most efficient operation of mechanical devices and installations will be sought after. **Configuration and tools** This concept refers to scantlings, which is a pattern or guide to follow in the construction or manufacture of an object and the tools necessary to carry out a process. The main element to consider in all types of tooling and configuration (preparation) is economics. The optimal number of tools for the process depends on the number of parts to be produced, the possibility of repeating part production, the delivery conditions and the capital needed. **Material handling** The main objective of a material handling system is unit cost reduction, and it refers to having the material, at the right time, in the right amount and in the right place. **Distribution of the plant** The main objective of the effective *layout* of equipment in the plant is developing a production system that facilitates the manufacture of the desired quantity of products at the lowest possible cost. The type of plant layout depends on the type of process being used. **Design of the work** It has to do with improving the arrangement of the parts at the workstation, the movements required to perform the task and the design of the workstation itself, i.e., it is the natural field of application of ergonomics. The golden rule in job design is the following: \"The operation must adapt to the worker and not the worker to the operation\" (Niebel and Freivalds, 2013). **1.3 Planning and control of activities for manufacturing systems** The different activities that make up the system must be planned in terms of their **design**, whose rules were exposed, and in terms of the number of times they will be used in the different production processes of the organization. These activities should be controlled by the industrial engineering area in terms of their application, according to the design and improvement that can be made of them. The main control parameter of the activities of the manufacturing system will be the **standard times** determined for such activities and their proposed methods. The way to control these two elements is through periodic audits to ensure compliance with these, both times and methods. When monitoring is not used as a control method, it is very likely that the proposed methods deviate to inappropriate methods. Two other critical elements in the control of a manufacturing system are production and cost control. **Production control** it is the activity of the manufacturing system responsible for the programming, route determination, expediting and monitoring of production orders, trying to reduce costs and meet the requirements of the organization\'s customers. The basic control method for production control is scheduling. Production scheduling is handled on three levels: a. **Master scheduling:** b. **Scheduling of accepted orders:** c. **Detailed schedule of the operation or loading of machines:** Each of the three levels of production scheduling increases the level of detail of the program, being the operation the most detailed of all, it is the program that specifically assigns the operations to the different production lines or machines. It should be noted that none of the three types of production schedule would be possible without the existence of time standards. Time standards provide the information to determine the production flow and the **work in progress, **this information is necessary for scheduling with a good degree of accuracy. As in any other activity that is based on the management of information, the accuracy of it, provided by the standard times, determines the accuracy of the schedules that are generated from them. Without the existence of time standards, no production program of any level can be reliable. The **manufacturing costs** are classified into four groups: a. **Direct material cost: **the direct material cost is the unit cost assigned to the raw material that will be used in the manufacture of the products. The calculation of the direct material cost does not involve materials that are not part of the products, even if they have been used for their manufacture, the cost of the latter type of materials will be included in the manufacturing expenses. b. **Direct cost of labor, manufacturing expenses and overhead: **direct labor cost is the cost of personnel directly involved in the processes necessary for raw material transformation, meaning, it only includes the personnel who transform the raw material. It does not consider the cost of manufacturing support personnel, such as maintenance personnel, material handling, quality control, among others.\ \ The cost of this last type of personnel is quantified within the manufacturing expenses, which includes the non-productive inputs and energy used to produce the products. Overhead includes all expenses incurred for the operation of the plant, excluding direct costs and manufacturing expenses. Overhead includes administrative costs. The manufacturing cost results from the sum of the above four elements. c. **Standard cost**: it should be carefully determined from the manufacturing cost plus a normal variation factor. The standard costs become goals that must be achieved and that are used in the preparation of budgets and performance evaluation of **actual manufacturing costs.** d. **Actual costs: **they may differ from standard costs. The way to control these is through the comparison of standard costs with actual costs computed during a production period. The variations between these two costs can be favorable or unfavorable to the organization, if the actual cost is less than the standard, the variation will be favorable and vice versa. Knowledge of variations provides the organization with the necessary information on the changes required to operate the manufacturing system in a profitable manner. **Example:** A metal manufacturing company wants to add a new product line to its current catalog. The inputs of the new production line will be **the space to be used, the necessary equipment, raw material, labor, manufacturing methods, systems, administrative personnel, operating capital, and so on.** Manufacturing engineers determine the method, machinery, floor space and labor to be used. Based on the information above, they determine standard manufacturing times and costs along with the finance department. The materials department receives information from the sales department and together with the production department they draw up the detailed production schedules. Once the installation of the machinery and the initial tests of the manufacturing system have been carried out, the manufacture of the new products begins. At that moment the manufacturing engineers start the control of standard times and methods designed for manufacturing; the materials and production department start the production control and the finance department will compare the standard costs with the actual manufacturing costs to detect variations. Any variation that is found by the different control processes must be corrected immediately in order to maintain an efficient operation of the manufacturing system and achieve or exceed the different established goals. **GLOSSARY:** - **Standard time:** Time determined as necessary to perform an operation under normal conditions by a qualified worker for the performance of this. There are various methods for the determination of standard time. - **Master scheduling: **Long-term scheduling based on customer or market demand. No orders or sequences are scheduled and only the expected production volumes are considered and scheduled for the appropriate deadlines. - **Scheduling of accepted orders:** It is the scheduling of customer orders to be fulfilled in a cost-effective manner for the organization. - **Detailed schedule of the operation or machine load:** It is the daily scheduling of production, with the assignment of work for the different machines or production lines involved. It is the production program with the highest level of detail. - **Direct material cost: **It is the cost of the raw material required for the manufacture of a product. - **Direct labor cost: **It is the cost calculated from the amount of time required for labor to manufacture a product multiplied by the cost of that time. - **Manufacturing costs: **It includes the cost of indirect labor, tools, machinery and energy. - **General costs: **The costs of administrative staff, rent of premises, insurance and various services are included, everything necessary to support production. - **Standard cost: **It is the estimated cost from the estimation of the four elements of the total cost of manufacturing. - **Actual cost: **It is the cost determined from the accounting of the actual costs incurred during the production process. Generally, all costs related to the manufacture of a product are established as costs per manufactured unit. **CONCLUSION** The main element for the achievement of a good manufacturing system and its subsequent continuous improvement and, therefore, productivity it is the uninterrupted use of the fundamentals of methods, standards and design of work. It is the only way to achieve this and obtain a higher productivity from the manufacturing system designed and put into operation. The principles of operations analysis are in themselves a method and a system for the analysis and design of what we want to happen on the production floor. These principles are applied in the planning of a new job, as well as in the improvement of existing ones. As a result of this methodology, we can achieve waste reduction, increases in production and improvements in product quality. Regular and constant monitoring of the standard times and methods implemented ensures that the expected benefits of its implementation are achieved. This means that there must be a periodical inspection to ensure the implemented methods continue to be used on the shop floor, as this is the only way to ensure that this happens; thus, guaranteeing that the plant\'s efficiency is continually sustained. If the efficiency of the manufacturing system is not measured continuously, it will be impossible to improve it and it is very likely that it will deteriorate over time because it is not being controlled. The last thing that a manufacturing organization should allow is that its productivity does not continuously increase, since its competitiveness will immediately deteriorate with the negative consequences of such deterioration. Now that you know the general concepts of manufacturing systems, you will move on to the next topic, to review in greater depth the important concepts of manufacturing planning and control. **TOPIC 2. MANUFACTURING PLANNING AND CONTROL** Among the elements that determine the complexity of a manufacturing system is the ability to manufacture a wide range of products. Being such a complex system, it is exposed to a myriad of situations that can compromise its performance. Therefore, in order to maintain its correct operation, it is essential to adequately carry out planning and control tasks. These activities can be considered, in general terms, as the nervous system of a manufacturing operation, which involves the precise execution of a large number of specific functions. The various activities that make up the planning and control of production are different, according to the different companies and industrial branches where they are applied. However, there are a number of activities that, although performed in a similar way by each company, generate completely different results in each of them. This happens because the type of production planning and control that is effective in one company may not be so for another. Factors that allow one control system to be more effective than another include the size of the company, the amount of detail required for control, the type of manufacturing process used by the company, the type of products manufactured, and the type of market or markets to which the products are supplied. Production planning and control activities within manufacturing systems have evolved with the use of computers. From the simplest and least sophisticated to the most complex and precise procedures have been perfected for years with the help of computers. On the other hand, computers have enabled the industry to incorporate powerful software tools for production scheduling, capable of handling all the complexity of a company\'s manufacturing system with such systems. However, the great advantage of using computers lies in the fact that they are capable of handling complex simulation and mathematical analysis systems that help the optimization of very complicated production programs to be carried out without their support. The tools for simulation and mathematical analysis of production systems are also used very successfully in the design of modern manufacturing processes, in which the flexibility of computer-controlled equipment adds incredible degrees of complexity. Nowadays, the presence of new technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Data Science or Artificial Intelligence are revolutionizing the way of planning and controlling a production system. It will be amazing to see what the application of these novel tools will be able to achieve in a few years. **2.1 Procedures for the planning and control of manufacturing systems** In manufacturing systems, we can find a wide number of types of production control (Figure 1). The most common type is order control. This type of control is used in companies with intermittent production systems, the so-called batch shops. Orders are received in the shop floor in different quantities for different products. Because of this, production planning and control must be based on individual orders. **\ Figure 1. Types of production control.** A second type of production control is flow control. This type of control is applicable to the so-called process industries such as oil, glass, food, among others. In this type of systems, the route is traced, and the programming is made when the arrangement of the plant is made. The production line is built balanced and properly sequenced, scheduling and control is reduced to the scheduling and flow control of the production line. This method of control is most often found in continuous production systems. Another type of programming and production control is the so-called block control and is widely used in the garment making industry, book and magazine printing, among others. It is used where there is a need to keep separate parts, such as different parts of a garment or different pages of a book, in these cases a block control is essential to avoid mixing parts of different products. One more type of production planning and control is the load control. It is normally used where there is a bottleneck of machines in the process. An example of its use is in factories, where one machine has a lower capacity than the rest of the machines used to process the product. Batch control is very common in the food processing industry, this scheduling and control system usually operates where a set of ingredients or components that are related to the final product and that must be handled proportionally batch by batch at a time, are used. The last type of programming and production control is the so-called project control, which is used when producing unique and very expensive items. Instead of having sets of forms for product routing and scheduling this is done uniquely for each product, and this is done with a special set of material, human, and systems resources, managed by one person in charge of the project (Groover, 2018). **2.2 Planning of machine requirements** From a manufacturing point of view, the capacity of a production system is understood as the level of output (volume of production) that a system can achieve in a given period of time. When reviewing the capacity of a production system, it is necessary to consider the inputs (resources) and outputs (products), as both will affect the possible capacity of the system. The system resources are raw material, labor, machinery, facilities and methods. The combination of product resources and characteristics will dictate at a given moment the capacity of the system. It is of interest to know at this point, for a given production level and a known process time (standard time), the machinery requirements that must be met to achieve the desired production level. **Example:** A factory needs to machine 5000 parts in every 8-hour working day. The standard manufacturing time is one minute per 4 parts (0.25 minute/piece). It is known that there is a dead time of 40 minutes in each working day (associated with breaks, cleaning, transfers, among others) and it is considered that the plant operates with a performance or efficiency of 90%. How many machines are needed to ensure this daily pace of production? **Answer:** The 8-hour shift has 480 minutes. There are 40 minutes off per shift for breaks, cleaning and others. Therefore, 440 minutes are available for production for each production shift. The yield or efficiency of the plant is 90%, which leaves us 440x0.9=396 minutes at 100%. So, the production rate of the plant will be:  Therefore, the number of machines required to produce 5000 pieces in each 8-hour shift is:   **Algorithms and software applied in manufacturing** Given the complexity of many of today\'s manufacturing organizations and the need to respond to customer requirements quickly and economically, much of the research and development effort has been focused on perfecting techniques for analyzing complex manufacturing systems and digital tools for production scheduling, in order to replace classical methods that cannot meet the needs of these companies. Over the years, several proposals have emerged to digitize systems analysis. Among the most relevant is the implementation of the **Quick Response Manufacturing** technique by software. The pioneers in this type of application emerged at the end of the 1980s, with the Manuplan and MPX Rapid Modeling programs (now discontinued*) *being among its main exponents*. *This type of solutions and, in general, the Quick Response Manufacturing technique, were supported by the application of the **mathematical theory of queuing networks**. The trend in the manufacturing industry is to decrease the amount of work in process by making the batch size produced smaller. Reducing the production batch in some cases has adverse effects, as doing so requires more setup time on the machines. The use of algorithms based on the theory of queue networks helps in the determination of the optimal size of the production batch. An optimally sized and small batch is one of the requirements for the implementation of the philosophy of **just-in-time manufacturing**, so the use of manufacturing system analysis techniques can also help this purpose. One of the most widely used algorithms in queueing network theory for the solution of complex problems that can be modeled and analyzed with this technique was introduced in 1971 by J. P. Buzen, who originally proposed it for the analysis of service requests (accesses) to telecommunications networks and from there it was adopted for the analysis of complex manufacturing systems. Currently, most of the digital tools that focus on manufacturing have evolved towards cloud platforms, combining data processing techniques and artificial intelligence with a high distributed computing capacity. In the development of this course, you will learn a little more about these technologies and their impact on modern industry. **2.3 Planning of space and labor requirements** From the beginning, during the planning of an industrial plant project, it is necessary to know the total space that the plant will occupy, in order to design the building. A **total space requirements** sheet is used, analyzed and the space requirements of each department are listed. Production floor space, production support services, employee services, office space and outdoor areas are determined and then entered on the requirements sheet. The production floor space requirement is the total of the machines and manufacturing stations. The size and shape of the areas for each department can be changed to fit the final shape of the building. Most industrial layout designs concentrate on floor space, but not everything should be placed on the floor. Before converting the space requirements of each department into floor space, review the utilization of the cubic space the building may have. o calculate the labor requirement of a manufacturing system, it is necessary to know the **standard time **for the production of each product and the number of products to be manufactured per production shift, as well as the efficiency with which the factory is supposed to work. **Example:** A small industry is making inroads into the manufacture of video game accessories. After carrying out several checks they have concluded that the standard production time of an optical *mouse* is 15 hours per hundred units. Considering an 8-hour working day and a factory efficiency of 90%, how many workers do you need to hire to ensure the production of 1000 units per day?   **Solution:**  Therefore, it is necessary to hire 21 workers. **CONCLUSION** Modern manufacturing companies mix requirements that have always existed in all organizations, such as determining the space, machinery and labor requirements for a particular production situation. These requirements are determined with classic industrial engineering techniques and, although they are very important points for the organization to determine, there is no complication to do so. However, new computer-controlled machines or manufacturing centers and the existing complexity in the manufacture of many relatively recent generation products impose the use of sophisticated operations analysis and design programs that assist in the scheduling and control of production on the modern organization under such complex conditions. Once you have reviewed the topics of production planning and scheduling, in the next topic you will continue exploring the manufacturing engineering area with the topic of computer-aided process planning (CAPP). **TOPIC 3. COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING CAPP** CAPP is the acronym in English for \"computer-aided process planning\". CAPP is a highly effective technology when used by manufacturing organizations with a large number of products and process steps. Its objective is the automation of planning through the use of digital tools. CAPP is an alternative to the traditional way of process planning. Figure 1 shows the framework for the implementation of a CAPP system. Process planning involves the activities and functions necessary to prepare a set of procedures and instructions required for the production of a part. The process starts with engineering drawings, specifications, bill of materials and a projection of the quantity of parts to be produced. The result of process planning are the routing sheets with the necessary operations and their sequence, the machinery to be used, the standard operating times and the necessary tooling. Production planning and control can be performed on the basis of routings by different methods: manual or computer-assisted. Another product of process planning is detailed work instructions, fabrication drawings and assembly diagrams to assist in the manufacture of parts. This should happen regardless of whether it is done by manual or computer-assisted methods or a mixture of the two. Process planning is then concerned with selecting production methods, sequences of operations, machines and tools. This set of elements must be calculated in detail by the process planners before starting any production task. When planning is done manually, it requires a large number of man-hours of highly experienced personnel. Using the computer-aided methodology, generating roadmaps means managing the information, storing it and relating it to the relevant part in some way. Sometimes, this relationship is carried out by means of barcodes attached to the part. In addition to the advantage of CAPP, for the reduction of time spent in manual process planning, these systems perform their function considering the operation as a total system, so that all operations required by a part are coordinated with each other and performed efficiently. Despite the high technical requirements of this type of systems (software, coordination with other manufacturing platforms, among others.), it is unquestionable that they are of great help for the efficient planning and scheduling of highly complex manufacturing operations, proving to be a very useful tool when working with a large number of different parts and having a low demand for them. Explanation Imagine the following situation, which is real in many machined parts manufacturing industries with low production volume and large variety of models. The plant has more than 100 machine tools capable of performing multiple processes, such as turning, grooving, drilling, gear generation, flat surface grinding, cylindrical surface grinding, internal threading, external threading, mechanical cutting, plasma cutting, plate bending, among others. On the other hand, there are more than five thousand parts in the company\'s manufacturing catalog, of which there are usually five hundred types of parts that are manufactured in the same period of time. Every week 100 completed orders are delivered to customers and an average of 100 new orders are received. But that\'s not all, each piece in the production catalog has an average of fifteen different processes that normally must be performed on different machines. Now you have been tasked with planning the optimal sequence of processing for each part and next week\'s production of the plant. Achieving optimal process and production scheduling in the plant using conventional tools is virtually impossible. This is where the CAPP system comes in, which must be compatible (communicate) with the plant\'s computer-aided production planning system. The previous scenario is also present in the electronic card manufacturing industry with SMD (Surface Mounting Devices) components, only the processes and the type of machinery change, but the complexity scenario is the same as the one described above. Now imagine a company like the ones described above that doesn\'t use computer-aided planning systems competing against one that does. The disadvantage in terms of total plant efficiency and therefore in terms of manufacturing cost is obvious. Such a company, without the information that computer-aided systems can generate, will not even be able to determine its operating efficiency. From the above you can identify the importance of these systems in a company where the complexity of the manufacturing system is present. **Classification of CAPP systems** CAPP systems are classified into two large groups: in **variant (derivative) systems **or in** generative systems. **Similarly, if we consider the complexity of the tasks that these can perform, the variant type systems are the least complicated. Variant or derivative type systems basically work from a collection or database of standard processes for the parts to be manufactured, i.e., they are based on knowledge already existing within the manufacturing operation in which this type of system is installed. On the other hand, generative systems automatically build process plans from logical procedures, as a human programmer would do, i.e., they incorporate in their software the knowledge of traditional programmers about the manufacturing system they are working on. They are considered **expert systems **(Groover, 2018). **The future of CAPP systems** With the rise of artificial intelligence and machine learning, the capabilities of generative systems have reached a new level. However, an exclusively generative type of system that can develop a complete process plan from the classification of parts and other design data is a developing goal. These new systems that have made inroads with the instruction of these new tools have been given the name automatic computer-aided process planning (ACAPP) (Al-wswasi, Ivanov, and Makatsoris, 2018). **Evolution of process planning systems** **Manual sorting and standard process plans:** Prior to CAPP systems, manual scheduling problems were addressed by using a basic classification of parts into families and developing standard process plans for the part families. When new parts were introduced, the process plan of the family to which it belonged was manually retrieved, identified and reissued. Productivity in process planning improved a little, but there were still many points to be resolved. **Computer-driven process plans** CAPP systems started as tools to store process plans in a computer\'s memory, retrieve them, modify them and publish them again. Some other tools of standardization of calculations existed in this approach. For example: the use of standardized computerized formats for the creation of the processes themselves, but without greater intelligence, only performing basic mathematical operations, text editing and data storage. **CAPP systems variants** CAPP systems variants use a methodology similar to the manual approach. If it is needed, they develop a process plan for a new part, they identify an existing plan of a similar part and work on it to include the required modifications. The greatest innovation in these systems is based on the use of computing tools to manage, classify, and code the family of parts. It is an efficient system that simplifies the planning process by using part variants from preexisting families. **Generative CAPP systems** The next development was generative systems, in which decision rules are introduced for process planning. These rules are based on group technology or feature coding technology to produce a process plan that needs very little modification or manual intervention. **Automatic CAPP systems** In recent years, new tools have been introduced in the design of CAPP systems. Among the most outstanding are artificial neural networks, genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic or Petri nets. The core of ACAPPs lies in automatic feature recognition (AFR), which has been greatly simplified with image recognition and computer vision techniques. At present, there are several companies such as Siemens or Dassault Systèmes betting heavily on this type of initiative, so it is practically a fact that we will have them actively in the market in a few years (Al-wswasi, Ivanov and Makatsoris, 2018). **3.1 Selection criteria for CAPP systems** The only CAPP systems that are commercially active are the variant system and the generative system, let\'s take a little more detailed look at the way both work and their prerequisites:\ The sequence necessary for the installation of a **variant system** planning system is relatively simple, it is a matter of relating a code to a pre-established process plan stored in the system\'s memory. The initial difficulty lies in the development of the group technology classification and code structure for the families of parts and in the manual development of a standard basis of processes for each family of parts. For the implementation of a **generative system**, the first key step is the development of appropriate decision rules for the items to be processed. Such decision rules are specified using decision trees and programming languages. According to the complexity of the parts, the number and level of decision rules required for generative planning. The second key step, for generative planning systems, is the information available on the part that will be the center or core of the planning. Some generative planning systems can be implemented using group technology codes, the type of feature classification technology without numerical code can also be used to implement this system. This approach requires the user to answer a series of questions about the part, which ultimately capture the same information as the group technology or manufacturing technology codes (Groover, 2018). **The advantages of the CAPP variant system are as follows:** - The investment in hardware and software is lower. Companies that offer variant systems are more in demand compared to companies that offer generative systems. - Development time is shorter, and the staff required for implementation is also less. Installation is simpler than that of generative CAPP systems. - Currently, variant systems are more reliable for use in real production systems, especially for small and medium-sized companies. One of the main disadvantages of the CAPP variant system is that the quality of process planning still depends on the knowledge of the human process planner; and the computer is only a tool to assist in manual process planning activities. The advantage of generative CAPP systems, due to their operating architecture, is their ability to generate process planning by requiring only the input data and eliminating the need for decision making by human process planners and their ability to handle more complex parts than variant systems. The advantages of the variant CAPP system are the disadvantages of the generative CAPP system. In summary, depending on the degree of complexity that an organization is willing to handle, the type of CAPP system to be implemented will depend on the type of system chosen. **3.2 Access to process planning** The concept of access to process planning can be based on the following definition: Access to find information is a process that usually comprises six types of activities: - Locating - Selecting - Organizing - Interpreting - Synthesizing - Communicating relevant information Hence, the search for information is defined as the process through which the user and information seeker intentionally deals with modifying their state of knowledge. It is a higher-level cognitive process that forms an integral part of general learning, learning to learn, learning to solve problems and, processes involved in knowledge construction (Harman, 2019).   Access to process planning refers to the way in which the different types of process planning (the manual, variant CAPP and generative CAPP) retrieve and process the necessary information. The manual process planning method does a manual search, retrieval and processing of relevant information that has been stored, either physically or electronically, for the manual planning of the next process. The variant CAPP system searches and retrieves relevant information electronically for the planning of the next process, however, the planning itself still needs decision making by a human planner; the generative CAPP system searches, retrieves and processes relevant information electronically for the planning of the next process, with no human intervention other than feeding the necessary data about the product whose process is planned.       All the parts shown in the image need several mechanical processes before they look as shown. In addition, each piece has particular design and production characteristics. The processes involved in the different parts can be cutting, turning, milling, grinding, drilling, tapping, forming, bending, finishing, just to name a few. To perform process planning for a given part, the following steps are required, regardless of the method used for that purpose (Figure 2):  **3.3 Manual, variant and generative access** **Manual planning access:** all steps and decisions are made by human planners. The information in point two may be stored in a computer. Steps three through four are decided and ordered by a human planner (Figure 3). \ Figure 3. Representation of access to manual planning.   **CAPP variant access:** The first steps are ordered by the human planner. Steps three and four are performed by the variant CAPP, but human intervention may be required in making certain decisions. As a final step, the CAPP system communicates with the company\'s production planning system (Figure 4). \ Figure 4. Representation of the variant CAPP access.   **Generative CAPP access:** all steps are performed without human intervention. The information required for step zero is taken from the part drawings, by computerized visual inspection. The system can iterate between points two and five to comprehensively optimize the planning of the production process (Figure 5). \ Figure 5. Representation of generative CAPP access. **CONCLUSION** Process planning is the activities that determine the sequence of manufacturing processes that will be used to convert raw material or parts from an original state to a final state. Attached to the process sequence is a description of the procedures, process parameters, equipment to be used and equipment tooling. The planned processes must be optimal, ensuring that the production is carried out within the deadlines required by the client and at the lowest production cost. This implies the need for computerized systems that allow the process planning function to be performed fully or partially digitally and consistently produce optimized process plans consistently fast. The planning of processes by computer requires certain information regarding the product, the processes needed for its production and the machinery available to carry it out. Commercially available CAPP computer-based process planning methods are the variant or derivative type and the generative type. The variant CAPP is the simpler of the two and is basically considered to be a systematization of the work and information used by a human programmer and requires the skills and decision making of the human programmer. The generative CAPP belongs to the category of expert systems, since, based on product, process and machinery information, it is able to make decisions regarding its process planning task. Either way, the knowledge and experience of a human process programmer is incorporated into your system at the time of installation. Therefore, the generative CAPP is the more complex of the two systems and attempts to automate decision making and has higher hardware and *hardware and software* compared to the variant system. The advantages of computer-based process planning include reduced clerical work, fewer calculations, fewer forgotten details and immediate access to up-to-date information, consistent information at all times, rapid response to engineering and production changes, assurance that the latest revision of information is available, more detailed uniform planning, and more efficient use of resources. Once you have studied the topic of computer-aided process planning, I invite you to continue with the review of computer-aided process control, which is the next topic. **TOPIC 4. COMPUTER AIDED PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL** When a manufacturing organization uses computers to control its industrial processes, it is possible to obtain benefits of all kinds in all the processes involved controlled. Plant efficiency is increased, as well as productivity and capacity, product quality repeatability is ensured, material usage and energy costs are optimized, plant operation safety is enhanced and, as a result, the profitability of the organization is increased. From the technological point of view, computer process control represented a great advance, which has allowed the implementation of novel and complex control systems in the industrial field. Initially, computer process control was limited to imitating, with digital technology to analog controls, but given the capabilities of computers it was possible to achieve total control of a manufacturing plant, making feasible what we call integrated manufacturing systems today, where the concepts of process control and production management are mixed. The application of computers to industrial process control begins in the fifties. Its first appearance was in the so-called process industries, which, being very difficult to control, required a lot of personnel and new methods to implement it; therefore, the quality of control depended above all on the experience and decisions of such personnel. In the seventies, the application of computer control took a quantitative and qualitative leap with the mass introduction of microprocessors and integrated circuits. These extraordinary electronic components reduced the cost of computers and increased their processing capacity exponentially, both in quantity and in response time. The impact of computer process control has been very important in the evolution of industrial work, given that its field of application in industrial or manufacturing organizations has been very deep and wide. It has impacted, since its appearance, the control of hard processes, facilitating, optimizing and streamlining control actions, as well as the soft processes of the industry, through examples such as plant production scheduling, analysis and design of manufacturing processes, control of production machines, individually and in groups or manufacturing cells. In this topic you will review the fundamentals of computer control from the point of view of hard processes and you will study some examples of computer programs that can perform the programming of the production of a plant making use of simulation techniques. **4.1 Fundamentals of computer control** Components of a typical computer control system - **Plant:** They are all the elements that are part of a manufacturing process. - **Input mechanisms:** These are the devices used by the computer to acquire the relevant process data, which are necessary for the control program. - **Output mechanisms:** These are the devices used by the computer to send the necessary signaling to the plant so that the control system acts on some element of it. - **Systemsoftware:** It is responsible for carrying out the programmed actions in accordance with the objective of the control. - **Control actions:** These are the control algorithms that the system uses. - **Communications actions:** They are used to let the system operator know the status of the system and to modify the system status. - **Communications interface:** It is responsible for modifying the computer\'s output information for the communication devices which, in turn, are the interface between the machine and humans. Computer process control systems, in most cases, must be capable of operating in real time, which is defined as the response time necessary so that there is no degradation or malfunction of the system.,The programs of a control system can be of three types: a. **Sequential:** In the programming sequential the actions are executed in sequence, one after the other according to the programming order. b. **Multitasking:** In the programming multitasking, various activities they can be executed simultaneously. c. **Real-time:** In the programs of real time, the execution of the tasks does not depend on the order in which they are programmed, but their execution depends on the state of the system and its control requirements towards it. The ideal example of sequential control is the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC); this has been used for years in endless industrial applications. Its main characteristic is that it follows a sequence of instructions that become control actions, equally sequenced, which can be conditioned in different ways with information that the PLC receives internally or externally (Groover, 2018). The internal conditions can be scheduling rules: drums, clocks and calendars; the external conditions are information received from the plant usually through sensors or other information collection devices compatible with some PLC communication protocol. These devices are also used to control processes in which a high level of intelligence of the controller device is not required and the process is highly predictable; for example: the operation of mechanical and repetitive type machinery, such as die-cutting presses, conveyors, open-closed type valves, among others. PLCs use input signals and output signals that can be interpreted as binary (they are present, or they are absent). PLCs are programmed by means of human-machine interfaces, which can be interfaces dedicated to communication, specialized programmers, screens, keyboards, switches, etc. Or, they can be of more general purpose, such as PC or a laptop. Among the activities that a computer control system performs include: - Data acquisition - Sequential control - Direct digital control loops - Supervisory control - Data analysis and storag - Human-machine interface. The objectives that a control system pursues are the following: - Be efficient and facilitate the operation - Process safety - Quality in the product - Reduction of *scrap* - Reduction of production cycle times. In addition to sequential control, there is feedback control, which is based on the existence of a control loop. The control loop output is fed back into the system so that the control system control knows the state of some plant process and can make corrections to the relevant process to keep the output continuously controlled within a previously specified range. Feedback control is part of the direct digital control loop family, other components of which are inferential control, feedforward control and adaptive control (Figure 1). \ \ Figure 1. Representation of a feedback control system.   The feedback control family can control a plant or process continuously, that is, the input and output signals it handles cease to be binary only to handle signals of the continuous type. Its programming is no longer merely sequential but is based on complex control algorithms. The brain of this family of controls is a computer capable of processing the continuous signals it receives, making decisions based on the control algorithms and sending responses (output signals) of a continuous type. The feature of the system is the ability to compare the state of the plant (state of the monitored and controlled variables) with a programmed state called *set-point *and its performance as a result of the result of the comparison made. Examples of the type of processes controlled by this family are all those that involve continuous and non-repetitive variables (processes involving temperature, pressure, acidity, concentrations, resistivity, conductivity, position, speed, voltage, current, among others.). The signals from the plant are received by means of information collecting devices of the continuous variables involved in the system and compatible with the communication protocols of the controller. The output or control signals are sent to the actuators to be managed from the controller and must also be compatible with the communication protocols of these actuators.\ The human-machine interfaces of the feedback control family are those traditionally used by any computer, although they can also be devices dedicated to the visual monitoring of the variables or change of their *set-points*. Inferential control is that in which the response of the variable to be controlled is not measured directly, instead it is inferred from the measurement of other signals that have a known relationship with the variable to be controlled. In advance control certain signals that are present before the process to be controlled are measured in advance, thus making decisions in advance of the occurrence of the process, thus shortening the time required for the controlled process to be carried out. Adaptive control seeks to ensure that the variable response is always the same regardless of what happens in the process, the system continuously monitors the process parameters and self-adjusts so that the process response is always the same. Another type of computer process control is supervisory control. The idea behind it is that the system is only responsible for displaying the value of the relevant signal and allows the change of its reference value (*set-point*), but it is not directly responsible for its control, which is housed in a separate system. There is also the so-called hierarchical control system. In this type of systems, several control systems are linked in a pyramidal structure, where the main feature is that the lower hierarchy control systems are those that are in direct contact with the controlled variables, only have control over them and have a very fast response time. The higher the hierarchy of a system, the greater its range of control, so its response time is slower to act on the systems it controls and the calculations it must perform are more complex and its response is slower. Distributed control systems are those systems in which the control functions are distributed among several computers connected in a network, providing redundancy to the system, if one fails, the others will back it up. **Computer-aided Production Planning and Control (PP&C)** PP&C systems are computer programs in a graphical environment for decision support in scheduling and interactive control of production in a short-term period. Interactive programming takes advantage of the relationship between man and computer, the ability to recognize patterns, adaptation and decision making on the one hand, and the ability to store and process large amounts of information and display it graphically on the other hand. Interactive systems make possible the resolution of conflicting objectives of a manufacturing system, in that same direction goes the hybrid approach of automatic and interactive programming, with the support of techniques such as process simulation, artificial intelligence, among others. PP&Cs are characterized by being information systems for the production floor, capable of coordinating other production systems around the broadcast programming. The concept of PP&C is related to the hierarchical decentralization of planning, programming and production control activities that prioritize human intervention. The basic inputs for a computer-aided visual production scheduling and control system are the following: production orders (with quantities, start and end dates), availability of resources, tooling and machine loading status, process specifications such as routes and times related to setup or manufacturing (Figure X). **\ **Figure 2. Representation of a PP&C system. The basic components of this type of programs are the following: - Output interface of the graphical representation of the production. - Programming editor for generation and manipulation of production programs. - Database management system. - Evaluation component to measure the performance of the programs generated. - Automatic programming component. PP&C has also been successfully applied to other areas besides manufacturing. It can be found to be related to aircraft preventive maintenance scheduling, hospital operating room scheduling and construction sites. Representative examples of tools for computer-aided production planning and control simulation are PROMODEL Siemens Tecnomatix Plan Simulation. **4.2 PROMODEL simulation software** The simulation of a system allows us to observe parameters and variables in a certain time and thereby gather valuable information about its behavior. This technique is used to estimate system performance measures, and its application has been extended to several spheres: industrial problems, queuing systems, communication networks, equipment investment evaluation, inventory reduction, material handling, plant layout*,* chemical processes, area under curve station, evaluation of integrals, social problems, pricing, business, economics, and so on. Among the concepts that make up a simulation tool we can mention the following: - System: a set of interdependent components that are united in order to achieve the same objective. - Model: representation of a system. - Objective of the system: what you want to achieve or learn. - Scope: limits of system interactions and objects to achieve the goal. - Level of detail: determined by the desired goal, start at a high level. **PROMODEL** For manufacturing systems simulation, one of the iconic tools that has been used for a long time in both academic and professional environments is the ProModel software. According to its own description on its web portal, it can be classified as a general-purpose, open architecture system simulation program. Its main features include the ability to simulate Just in Time processes (JIT), Theory of Constraints, PUSH systems, PULL systems, logistics elements, customer service, service models, among others (Promodel, n.d.). Among the advantages presented by this software we can mention: - Simple, fast and flexible generation of optimizable models. - The implementation of logistics and materials management elements. - A library with a large number of preconfigured manufacturing operations. - Integration with internationally recognized CAD and CAE tools. A screenshot of the ProModel user interface is shown in Figure 3: **\  ** **4.3 Siemens Tecnomatix Plan Simulation Software** Tecnomatix Plan Simulation belongs to the Siemens PLM family, which is a suite which integrates several simulation tools. Plan Simulation focuses on the work and optimization of manufacturing systems and processes such as assembly lines, molding areas, manufacturing cells, among others. *Plan Simulation *allows you to analyze and optimize the flow of materials through the plant, as well as the resources used in the manufacturing process. This type of software, by means of simulation, allows to analyze the costs of different strategies that can be implemented in order to select the most economical and efficient one. Likewise, it integrates among its functionalities the simulation of other strategies, such as JIT systems (*Just in time*) or Kanban systems. Plan Simulation allows you to create digital models of logistics systems, such as assembly lines. In turn, it allows you to explore them and optimize each of the stations involved in the manufacturing processes. To do so, it models and executes different scenarios analyzing and comparing the results, which is very beneficial before purchasing expensive equipment. One of its most relevant features is that it allows introducing cycle times, waiting times, set up times, dead times, as well as statistical models that describe the system behavior. Among the sales offered by Siemens Tecnomatix Plan Simulation we can mention: - Productivity analysis of a manufacturing system. - Inventory reduction. - Reduced investment in manufacturing equipment and technologies. - Optimization of the size of in-process inventories. - Resource maximization. - Improvements in the design of manufacturing lines. - Material flow analysis. A screenshot of the Plan Simulation user interface is shown in Figure 4: **\ \ **Figure 4. Siemens Tecnomatix Plan Simulation user interface. **CONCLUSION** An engineer who is familiar with control technologies, their methodology and related techniques is indispensable for operating an industrial plant. At the same time, it is highly desirable that the engineer is trained in the activities of the control processes that take place in the manufacturing system in which he/she is working, so that he/she can communicate smoothly with the rest of the experts in the different areas that make up the plant. Among the activities performed by the control engineer we can mention the following: the definition of the control strategy that needs to be applied so that the system requirements are covered, determining the details of the control system to be implemented (relevant system variables, their treatment and handling), specifying the equipment needed (controllers and the type of interconnection), performing the adjustment of all selected devices, defining the necessary sequential control protocols for the operation, and specifying and implementing the supervisory control that the manufacturing process needs. Control engineering is a wide field of development for a professional who has the necessary knowledge to progress, since practically all manufacturing industries will need their services on more than one occasion. You have finished reviewing the introductory topics of manufacturing, planning and control. In the following topics you will study group technology, whose concepts are very interesting from a practical point of view, I invite you to continue with enthusiasm this learning process. **TOPIC 5. INTRODUCTION TO GROUP TECHNOLOGY** The basis of a group technology manufacturing system is the location, identification and nomination of part families within the universe of products handled by the organization and their subsequent assignment to a given group of equipment or machines for processing. The main objective of group technology is to optimally exploit the characteristics that the grouped parts have in common: design, manufacturing methods and processes to create sets of machines called manufacturing cells, thereby improving the movement of parts within the plant during processing. The concepts of group technology can be applied in different industrial areas, such as design and manufacturing. In the design of the parts, the grouping of form factors and other similar design elements is used to facilitate the creation of new parts, since it is only necessary to modify an existing part in the family to which it will belong, or to use the characteristics of some parts that also already exist in the family. In the manufacturing part it is possible to group the parts, according to the processes and operations that are required for their manufacture, creating production families. In this topic you will address the background, advantages and disadvantages of group technology. By delving deeper into the family of parts concept, you will identify its positive impact on production economics when running medium volumes and with a wide variety of models, which contrasts with the time and effort required to classify and code the parts produced by an organization into families. **5.1 Group technology background** **Group technology** is a production methodology for medium-volume parts. In the medium volume range, the production of pieces and parts is carried out in batches; this type of production, in batches, requires downtime to make adjustments for the change of the type of pieces in production and has high costs for the maintenance of the necessary inventories. Group technology helps to reduce these disadvantages, knowing that, although the parties are different from each other, they also have points in common. Group technology takes advantage of the common and similar points in the design and manufacturing processes of parts, precisely using similar processes and tool settings to carry out their production. Group technology implementation is feasible in the industrial organization using manual or automated techniques (Figure 1). The use of automation in a manufacturing system is also known as **flexible manufacturing** **system**. \ \ Figure 1. Types of group technologies.   Group technology is a manufacturing system that identifies and groups parts with similarities in their design and manufacturing processes. The similarities of the parts make it possible to classify them into production families. By grouping the parts into families, a ratio between the number of parts and the number of families of the order of 500 can be achieved, for example, in some cases 1000 parts could be grouped into only two families. The idea is that in each family the processing route is similar. By taking advantage of this similarity in the processes, significant improvements in the operation of the system are achieved. To make such improvements possible, the arrangement of equipment, machines and processes is carried out in the form of manufacturing cells within the plant, where each cell is designed to manufacture a family of parts, which means that the principle of specialization of operations is used. Each manufacturing cell should include the machinery, tools and personnel necessary to optimally perform the production of parts in that cell, to the point of having the concept that each cell is a small factory within the factory. Figure 2 shows how cellular manufacturing and group technology have been adapted, together with the evolution of the assembly process on a production line. \ \ Figure 2. Evolution of the assembly process in a production line.   **Concept of family** The **family of parts** it is defined as a group of parts that have similar geometric characteristics or that have similar operations in the manufacturing process.\ However, the above is not enough to include parts in the same family, the fact that two parts do not belong to the same family may be established by tolerances, the volume of production and the materials that make them up. For example, two parts that are geometrically identical do not necessarily belong to the same family, since one of them may be made of plastic, manufactured in high quantities and with very wide tolerances; while the other may be made of iron, with low production and very close tolerances. This can be clearly seen by imagining the machines that would manufacture these parts, although they are the same in shape, the machinery for processing plastic will not be the same as that for processing iron, and the tighter the tolerances accepted, the more expensive and complex the machinery will be. **5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of group technology** Figure 3 shows the set of advantages that the application of group technology brings in a manufacturing system: \ \ Figure 3. Advantages of Group technology.   The application of group technology makes it possible to **standardize the design of the parts**, thus preventing the designs from being duplicated. It is possible to **develop new designs** of parts using designs already made of similar or similar parts as a basis, taking design features of parts that have already disappeared from production. This can translate into saving a lot of time and labor. When you have a digital database, it is possible to quickly determine if you have similar parts from which to reuse their design features. The part designer experience and the process planner can be stored in the database. Therefore, the experience information possessed is easily retrievable and made available to personnel new to the organization in the form of past process designs and plans. Once a database is available, it is very easy to make cost calculations and obtain statistical information about material usage, processes, production volumes, among others. It is also possible to achieve standardization and scheduling of process plans, production orders can be organized by groups for efficient manufacturing and equipment utilization is increased. Preparation times can be drastically reduced by better planning; in addition, the quality and consistency of the products is improved. By using the part families, the tools and machines necessary for their manufacture can be shared and the programming can be designed to automate the process in greater depth. Combining manufacturing by production families, also known as **highly repetitive manufacturing**, with other technologies (such as **CAD/CAM** and computer integrated systems) offers the great opportunity to greatly improve productivity and reduce the costs involved in batch production, bringing them to levels similar to those of mass production. The potential savings from implementing this type of systems can reach up to 75% of the original costs (Groover, 2018). Although several advantages of group technology have been mentioned, it is important to consider some key elements that must be solved to achieve its implementation in industrial organizations: **The identification and coding of part families**: there is a large number of parts that are manufactured in the plant, so achieving their identification and coding involves a great effort of the personnel in charge of it. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **The task can take considerable time.** **A cost of proportional magnitude** associated with such an effort. **Reorganization of physical arrangement of machines:** it poses another drawback on the production floor, since, depending on the type of equipment used, it will also have a cost associated with such a reorganization, which can sometimes be very high. **Scheduling the movement and relocation of machines**: it is important to carry out this planning in such a way that it does not disrupt current production. Below is the process of generating a part family with Siemens NX 12.0 software: Step 1. Have a part model. Step 2. Click on the Part Family Tool. Step 3: Select with a double click the dimensions that will help you to form the family of parts. Also choose the folder where these components will be saved. Then click on Create a spreadsheet. Step 4: In the spreadsheet you add the data that the variation of dimensions needs. Step 5: Once the new dimensions have been added, click on ADD-ONS-PartFamily-Save Family. And now you already have a family of parts. **CONCLUSIONN** Now you know the necessary premises for the establishment of group technology in a manufacturing system, the identification of families of parts among all the products of the organization, in order to group them in such a way that a family can be manufactured in a manufacturing cell, which is nothing more than a physical grouping of machines, equipment and processes that are capable of producing from start to finish the parts grouped in the family that has been assigned. When group technology is unified with supporting technologies (such as CAD/CAM and computer integrated systems), the manufacturing system can reach very high productivity levels, improving system operability, shortening design times and simplifying this task, increasing product quality, decreasing delivery times and improving workers\' job satisfaction levels. 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