Lecture 8.pdf
Transcript
Professional Scientific Writing Bio 881 LECTURE 8 HOW TO WRITE AND READ SCIENTIFIC PAPER BY: DR. RANIA ALI ELHADI WHAT IS A SCIENTIFIC PAPER scientific research is not complete until the results have been published and understood. A scientific paper is a written and published report...
Professional Scientific Writing Bio 881 LECTURE 8 HOW TO WRITE AND READ SCIENTIFIC PAPER BY: DR. RANIA ALI ELHADI WHAT IS A SCIENTIFIC PAPER scientific research is not complete until the results have been published and understood. A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. It must be the first publication of original research results, In a form whereby peers of the author can repeat the experiments and test the conclusions, and Published in a journal or other source document readily available within the scientific community IMRAD STORY (INTRODUCTION, METHODS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION) Early journals published descriptive papers (still used in case reports, geological surveys etc..) By the second half of the 19th century, reproducibility of experiments became a fundamental principle of the philosophy of science. The methods section became all important since Louis Pasteur confirmed the germ theory of disease. IMRAD organization of a scientific paper started to develop . IMRAD format slowly progressed in the latter half of the 19th century. IMRAD FORMAT I = Introduction, what question (problem) was studied M = Methods, how was the problem studied R = Results, what are the findings A = and D = Discussion, what do these findings mean and where they are interpreted. ORGANIZATION OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER The most common is the IMRAD. If a number of methods were used to achieve directly related results: M + R = Experimental section (Note: they differ between review and experimental papers). The results are so complex that they need to be immediately discussed: R + D = Results and Discussion section (Only disussion in review papers). CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Should assess observations. Should repeat experiments. Should evaluate intellectual processes. Must have an impact. Should be available to scientific community without restriction Should be available for regular screening by one or more of the major recognized secondary services such as: (Biological abstracts, Index Medicus, Pub Med etc…). SOME IMPORTANT LANGUAGE POINTS: Poor experimentation cannot be masked by brilliant writing; however, poor writing can mask brilliant experimentation. Avoid complex sentence structure. Use simple and clear English. Always keep in mind that the paragraph is the essential unit of thought. BEFORE STARTING TO WRITE THE PAPER Record your readings (results). Make tables. Draw graphs. Keep file to record summaries of results and any observation however insignificant. Date the files. Revise your readings, you may need to repeat an experiment while you still have the materials. Write ideas when ever they come to you. ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER Title: Describe concisely the core contents of the paper. Abstract: Summarize the major elements of the paper. Introduction: provide context and rationale for the study. Materials: Describe the experimental design so it is reproducible. Methods: Describe the experimental procedures. Results: Summarize the findings without interpretation. Discussion: Interpret the findings of the study. Conclusions: Summarize the findings. Acknowledgement: Give credit to those who helped the researcher. References: List all scientific papers, books and websites that you cited THE TITLE A good title is defined as the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents of the paper. The title is extremely important and must be chosen with great care as it will be read by thousands, whereas few will read the entire paper. Indexing and abstracting of the paper depends on the accuracy of the title. An improperly titled paper will get lost and will never be read. THE TITLE… Titles should neither be too short nor too long as to be meaningless. Waste words (studies on, investigations on, a, an, the etc) should not be used. Syntax (word order) must be very carefully considered. It should contain the keywords that reflect the contents of the paper. It should be meaningful and not general. It should be concise, specific and informative. It should capture the fundamental nature of the experiments and findings. AN EXAMPLE OF A PRECISE DESCRIPTIVE TITLE 1. Action of Antibiotics on Bacteria Action: should be defined Antibiotics: should be listed Bacteria: should be listed Mechanism of Suppression of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Mice Induced by azithromycin. HOW TO PREPARE THE TITLE Make a list of the most important keywords. Think of a title that contains these words. The title could state the conclusion of the paper. The title NEVER contains abbreviations, chemical formulas, or terminologies. Think, rethink of the title before submitting the paper. Be very careful of the grammatical errors due to faulty word order. Avoid the use of the word “using”. Avoid using weak words like study, learn, know etc. THE ABSTRACT An abstract can be defined as a summary of the information in a document . It is of fundamental importance that the abstract be written clearly and simply, as it is the first and sometimes the only part of the manuscript read. It should provide a brief summary of each of the main sections (IMRAD) of the paper: 1. State the principal objective and scope of the investigation. 2. Describe the methods used. 3. Summarize the results, and 4. State the principal conclusions . It is easier to write the abstract after completion of the paper. CRITERIA OF THE ABSTRACT It should not exceed 250 words. It should be written in one paragraph. It should be written in the past tense as it refers to work done. Long words should be followed by its abbreviation which would be used through out the abstract and paper. It should not cite any references (except in rare cases) It should never give any information or conclusion that is not stated in the paper. Must be accurate with respect to figures quoted in the main text. THE INTRODUCTION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The introduction should answer the following questions: What was I studying? Why was this an important question? What did I know about this topic before I did this study? What model was I testing? and What approach did I take in this study? SUGGESTED RULES FOR A GOOD INTRODUCTION: It should present the nature and scope of the problem investigated. Review the relevant literature. State the method of investigation. State the principal results of the investigation. State the principal conclusion(s) suggested by the results. GENERAL RULES Use the present tense when referring to work that has already been published, but past tense when referring to own study. Use the active voice as much as possible Avoid lengthy or unfocused reviews of previous research. Cite peer-reviewed scientific literature or scholarly reviews. Avoid general reference works such as textbooks. Define any specialized terms or abbreviations when appeared for the first time. HOW TO WRITE THE MATERIALS AND METHODS SECTION Provide full details so that the experiments are reproducible. If the peer reviewer has doubts that the experiments could be repeated, the manuscript will be rejected. Organize the methods under subheadings, with related methods described together (e.g. Study settings, experimental design, Sample size, Samples processing, statistical analysis, etc…). Describe the experimental design in detail. Do not mix some of the Results in this section Write in the past tense. MATERIALS Must identify accurately experimental animals, plants, and microorganisms used by genus, species and strain. The source of subjects studied, number of individuals in each group used, their sex, age, and weight must be clearly stated. If human subjects are used, the criteria for selection should be described, and consent. For chemicals used, include exact technical specifications and source or method of preparation. Avoid the use of trade names of chemicals, generic or chemical names are preferred. METHODS This part of the manuscript must be clear, precise and concise so that it can be repeatable. If the method is new, all details must be provided. If the method has been previously published in a scientific journal, only the citation should be given with some identification: e.g. “cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as previously described by …”….“. Questions such as “how” or “how much” must be answered and not left to be puzzled over. Methods used for statistical analyses must be mentioned; ordinary ones without comments, but advanced or unusual ones require literature citation. HOW TO WRITE THE RESULTS Results section is written in the past tense. It is the core or heart of the paper. It needs to be clearly and simply stated since it constitutes the new knowledge contributed to the world, The purpose of this section is to summarize and illustrate the findings in an orderly and logical sequence, without interpretation. The text should guide the reader through the findings, stressing the major points. Do not describe methods that have already been described in the M&M section or that have been accidently omitted. METHODS OF PRESENTING THE DATA 1. 2. 3. Directly in the text. In a table. In a figure. All figures and tables must be accompanied by a textual presentation of the key findings Never have a table or figure that is not mentioned in the text. TABLES AND FIGURES Tables are appropriate for large or complicated data sets that would be difficult to explain clearly in text. Figures are appropriate for data sets that exhibit trends, patterns, or relationships that are best conveyed visually. Any table or figure must be sufficiently described by its title and caption or legend, to be understandable without reading the main text of the results section. Do not include both a table and a figure showing the same information. HOW TO WRITE THE DISCUSSION It is the hardest section to write. Its primary purpose is to show the relationships among observed facts. It should end with a short summary or conclusion regarding the significance of the work. COMPONENTS OF THE DISCUSSION Try to present the principles, relationships, and generalizations shown by the Results. Point out any exceptions or any lack of correlation and define unsettled or confusing points. Show how your results and interpretations agree or contrast with previously published work (try to explain the contrasts only). Discuss the theoretical consequences of your work, and any possible practical applications. State your conclusions as clearly as possible. Summarize your evidence for each conclusion. HOW TO STATE THE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS You should acknowledge: 1. Any significant technical help that you have received from any individual in your lab or elsewhere. 2. The source of special equipment, cultures, or any other material. 3. Any outside financial assistance, such as grants, contracts or fellowships. Do not use the word “wish”, simply write “I thank …..” and not “I wish to thank…” Show the reason for acknowledging persons and how they helped you and added to your work. ETHICS, RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS Beware of originality and copyrights of others. Do not copy anything without giving the credit to the owner by referencing it. In some cases permissions are needed. Repetitive publication of the same data is considered plagiarism. HOW TO READ SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES When you do research, you will often find good academic articles that contain important information and opinions. What is an academic article? It is a piece of writing that has been written by experts in a particular field of study. Its reliable because its reviewed by other experts before they are publishe Importance of Writing paper: Experts write academic articles to share research information, and to make an opinion using their results. Academic article include references to other sources of information that the author has used to support her-his arguments. BEFORE YOU READ, THINK ABOUT… A. What information are you trying to get ? B. Focus on the important pieces of information. C. Be ready to ask questions about everything that you read. A critical reader is a more engaged reader. D. Be ready to have an opinion about what you read. Ask yourself “ what do I think about this reading?’ READ THE ABSTRACT FIRST THEN READ THE CONCLUSION… … Many academic articles have short summaries at the beginning. These short summaries are at the top of the first page of the article. The abstract will tell you what the author is going to talk about in the rest of the article. Conclusions comes at the end of an academic article, it is a good idea to read this part before reading the main body of the article. Conclusions contain many of the main points of the article. If you find anything in the abstract or conclusion that is important for you, then you should next search for this information in the body of the article . READ THE BODY (MAIN SECTION OF THE ARTICLE)… Skim the body of the article …. Skimming means reading through the article quickly, trying to get the main points without worrying too much about the details. Make a note of any parts that you think contain important details. ANATOMY OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER THANKS
