Scientific and Technical Translation PDF

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATION The American Translators Association Series is a hardcover monograph published periodically by John Benjamins Publishing Company (Amsterdam/Philadelphia). Contributions are solicited by the Editors, hence prospective contributors are urged to query the Managing Editor or the Theme Editor before submission. The theme editors for upcoming volumes are as follows: Volume VII: Professional Issues. Guest editor: Deanna Hammond, Library of Congress Volume VIII: Translation and the Law. Guest editor: Marshall Morris, New York University and University of Puerto Rico- Río Piedras Volume IX: World Languages vis-à-vis Linguistic Nationalism. Guest editor: Marian Labrum, Brigham Young University Back volumes of the ATA Series include the following: Volume I Translation Excellence. Editor: Marilyn Gaddis Rose, Binghamton University (SUNY) (Out of print) Volume II Technology as Translation Strategy. Guest editor: Muriel Vasconcellos, Pan American Health Organization Volume III Translation and Interpreter Training and Foreign Language Pedagogy. Editor: Peter Krawutschke, Western Michi gan University Volume IV Interpreting—Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. Guest editors: David and Margaret Bowen, Georgetown University Volume V Translation Theory and Practice: Tension and Interdepen dence. Guest editor: Mildred L. Larson, Summer Insti tute of Linguistics (Dallas, Texas) Managing Editor: Marilyn Gaddis Rose Center for Research in Translation Binghampton University, P.O.B. 6000 Binghamton, New York 13902-6000 USA Editorial Advisory Board: Deanna L. Hammond, Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.); Peter W. Krawutschke, Western Michigan Univer sity (Kalamazoo); Marian Labrum, Brigham Young University; Marshall Morris, New York University and University of Puerto Rico-Rio Pie- dras; and Sue Ellen Wright, Institute for Applied Linguistics, Kent State University (Kent, Ohio). Scientific and Technical Translation AMERICAN TRANSLATORS ASSOCIATION SCHOLARLY MONOGRAPH Series Volume VI 1993 EDITED BY Sue Ellen Wright and Leland D. Wright, Jr. JOHN BENJAMINS PUBLISHING COMPANY AMSTERDAM/PHILADELPHIA Library of Congress Cataloging Serial Number 87-658269 ® Binghamton University, 1993 John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia ISSN 0890-4111 / ISBN 90 272 31818 (Eur) /1-55619-625-3 (USA) All Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission from the Publisher. Printed in the The Netherlands American Translators Association Series SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATION Volume VI 1993 Contents Editors' Remarks: Technical Translation and the American Translator SUE ELLEN WRIGHT AND LELAND WRIGHT SECTION 1: STYLE AND REGISTER IN TECHNICAL TRANSLATION Technical Translation Style: Clarity, Concision, Correctness MARK HERMAN 11 Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register as a Translation Problem HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ABROGAST 21 The Challenges of Simplicity and Complexity: German-English Modes and Interrelationships RICHARD K. WATT 53 The Inappropriateness of the Merely Correct: Stylistic Considerations in Scientific and Technical Translation SUE ELLEN WRIGHT 69 SECTION 2: SPECIAL APPLICATIONS Translation, the Great Pollinator of Science: A Brief Flashback on Medical Translation HENRY FISCHBACH 89 Translating for the Small World WILLIAM PARK 101 Patent Claim Translation LEONARD MERAW 111 SECTION 3: TRAINING AND AUTODIDACTIC APPROACHES FOR TECHNICAL TRANSLATORS Linguistic and Technical Preparation in the Training of Technical Translators and Interpreters HENRY NIEDZIELSKI AND LEONID CHERNOVATY 123 Toward an Expanded Pedagogy of Specialized Translation CAROL MAIER AND FRANÇOISE MASSARDIER-KENNEY 151 "Retooling" as an Adaptive Skill for Translators BEN TEAGUE 161 SECTION 4: TEXT ANALYSIS AND TEXT TYPOLOGY AS TOOLS FOR TECHNICAL TRANSLATORS Text Typology and Translation-Oriented Text Analysis KLAUS GOMMLICH 175 The Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) Heuristic Textual Resources in Translation-Oriented Databases GREGORY SHREVE 185 SECTION 5: TRANSLATION-ORIENTED TERMINOLOGY ACTIVITIES New Trends in Translation-Oriented Terminology Management CHRISTIAN GALINSKI AND GERHARD BUDIN 209 Bibliography of Polish Terminology Resources ANNMARIE MITCHELL 217 Selected Elements from a Theory of Fractal Linguistics: Possible Implications for Machine Translation, Terminology Management, and Other NLP Applications ALEX GROSS 235 Translators and Interpreters as Adopters and Agents of Diffusion of Planned Lexical Innovations: The Francophone Case LAUREL BENHAMIDA 265 Contributors 277 ATA Corporate Members (1993) 281 ATA Institutional Members (1993) 287 American Translators Association, Officers and Board of Directors (1993) 289 Recipients of the Alexander Gode Medal 289 Subject Index Author Index 292 296 Editors' Preface: Technical Translation and the American Translator SUE ELLEN AND LELAND WRIGHT Technical translation, as defined for the purpose of this volume, encompasses the translation of special language texts, i.e., texts written using Languages for Special Purposes (LSP). As such, technical translation (and "technical terminology" as well) includes not only the translation of texts in engineering or medi cine, but also such disciplines as economics, psychology and law. These texts require not only a firm mastery of both the source and target languages, but also at least an informed layman's (or even journeyman's) understanding of the subject field treated by the text, coupled with the research skills needed to write like an expert on the leading edge of technical disciplines. Technical translators are typically either trained linguists who develop specialized research skills along with ancillary knowledge in selected technical areas, or engineers, scientists and other subject- area specialists who have developed a high degree of linguistic knowledge, which they apply to the translation of texts in their fields of specialization. Because of the diverse know-how demand ed for producing high-quality technical translation, collaboration among linguists and subject specialists is not uncommon. Ideally, a collection of articles on technical translation pub lished under the auspices of the American Translators Association would reflect a representative cross-section of technical translation in America. Instead, this volume more nearly reflects a cross- section of what is being written about technical translation on 2 □ Editors' Preface both sides of the Atlantic. The latter is not necessarily identical to the former. The final collection of articles reflects a high concen tration of interest in the translation of German to English and vice versa, which also reflects the flow of technology transfer. These articles are augmented by articles treating French and, interest ingly enough, Polish language as well. Despite the high incidence of activity in the translation of technical texts to and from Japa nese, into Spanish and from Russian, these language combina tions are not specifically treated here. The reason for this omission is not attributable to the editors' failure to encourage articles in a broader range of language combinations, but rather more likely to the fact that 1) many technical translators are simply too busy translating to find time to write about the process itself, and 2) Germanic sociolinguistic traditions favor reflective and even theoretical analysis more than some other traditions do. With a few exceptions (Polish bibliography, for instance), the true mes sage conveyed in these articles has more to do with the nature of translation per se than of translating any one language. Indeed, eclectic readers who venture beyond their own language combina tions will find they have much to learn about their own work reflected in the observations of translators working in other en vironments. Although the selections do not necessarily represent the widest possible range of language combination, they do present a broad sample of the types of research being conducted in North Ameri ca, by Americans with strong ties to European translation studies and, conversely, by Europeans with strong ties to North America. Almost all authors are themselves "bona fide" translators. Writers such as Teague, Park, Gerzymisch-Arbogast, Watt and Wright draw heavily on their experience in the translatorial trenches to illustrate general tactics and strategies that can be applied in recurring textual contexts. Maier, Massardier-Kenney, Niedzielski, Gommlich and Shreve address critical issues affecting their hands- on experience preparing the next generation of technical transla tors. Gommlich, Shreve, Galinski, Budin and Gross address issues that impinge on the organization of human knowledge and the development of systems to represent knowledge for the bene fit of human translators and the further development of more WRIGHT AND WRIGHT □ 3 effective machine translation systems. Niedzielski, Shreve and Benhamida all point to the role that empirical studies and socio- linguistic research methods can play in clarifying the conditions that affect the translation process. In the past some translators have maintained that technical translation is solely a matter of correctly transferring technical content and that style is not the province of the technical transla tor. Section 1: Style and Register in Technical Translation strongly contradicts this claim. Herman debunks the so-called "myth of literality," going on to stress that effective English language target texts must strive for clarity of English idiom and concision as well as correctness. Gerzymisch-Arbogast examines scientific and tech nical register in terms of differing culture-specific author-reader conventions, contrasting author-oriented German register types with the reader-oriented expectations of English target audiences. Watt leads the reader through a collection of translation problems, both deceptively simple and frustratingly complex, and provides sample master translations, together with commentary under scoring the recurring nature of specific translation problems and reliable strategies for addressing those problems wherever they may arise. S.E. Wright demonstrates the need for translators to address their attention to questions of style at the situation, macrocontextual, microcontextual and terminological unit levels in order to meet the differing expectations between the projected audiences for the source and target texts. The division of articles into sub-groups remains an inexact science at best. Section 2: Special Applications concentrates on dis tinct subject areas and could have claimed far more articles than appear here. As noted above, other authors draw on domain- specific examples, but their primary foci lie elsewhere. The articles grouped in this section concentrate on the history, features and challenges posed by translation in targeted areas. Fischbach out lines the contribution that translation has made to the dissemina tion of science, with particular emphasis on the role of ancient and Renaissance translators in the transfer and preservation of classical medical knowledge. Park describes the terminological and contextual problems involved in the translation of documentation for model-building, stressing the need to apply the same criteria 4 □ Editors' Preface of terminological accuracy and stylistic appropriateness to this field as are demanded for "real-world" topics. Meraw details the fundamentals of patent claim drafting as they pertain to the translation of patent materials and provides a concise overview of stylistic and grammatical considerations essential to the proper preparation of patent documents. (For further information perti nent to patent translation, see "Patent Terminology" in the January 1993 ATA Sci-Tech Newsletter.) Section 3 treats Training and Autodidactic Approaches for Technical Translators. All three of the articles in this section address the perennial concern that translators must master—or at least write as if they have mastered—a broad range of frequently unantici pated topics over the course of a career as a translator. Niedzielski and Chernovaty report on their empirical study of the relative effectiveness of linguistic versus technical training in the prepara tion of future translators and interpreters, concluding in the end that technical training provides a slight advantage for translation, whereas linguistic training definitely provides an advantage for interpreting. Interesting as Niedzielski and Chernovaty's findings may be, their subjects are students of linguistics and technical specialties, not advanced graduate level translation students or practicing translation professionals who have mastered special collaborative and research skills in order to compensate for any linguistic or technical lacunae that may plague the individual translator. Maier and Massardier-Kenney recount their efforts to establish a pedagogical model to be used in the preparation of specialized texts based on four key aspects of translation practice: research skills, technical writing skills, collaboration and theory. Based on this premise, they examine the extent to which parallels may be found in the literature for training specialized journalists in the research skills needed for non-specialists to write special ized texts accurately and effectively. Although Teague's article would also be highly useful as a pedagogical model for translation students, he proposes a methodology to practicing translators who must efficiently and effectively research unfamiliar special ized areas of knowledge in order to document terminological and text typological information needed to produce high-quality tech nical translations. WRIGHT AND WRIGHT □ 5 It is readily evident from the various articles contained in this volume that much of translator training and of translation studies rests on two pillars: text typology and terminology. It would be inappropriate to feature these "pillars" as solitary Greek columns, however; they should more readily be visualized as great multi- ribbed members supporting the complex stress system of a fan vault. As Wright indicates (see Section 1), terminology and text typology interface particularly at the level of phraseology and standard text blocks. Most of the articles in this book treat either terminology or text typology or both to some degree, but the articles contained in Section 4: Text Analysis and Text Typology as Tools for Technical Translators focus particular attention on the role that text typology can play in helping translators create high- quality translations. They both also examine potential method ologies for incorporating text typological information into com puter-assisted translation (CAT) systems and translation-oriented knowledgebases. Gommlich describes a text base system designed to aid translators, particularly student translators, in selecting appropriate TL text types based on computer-assisted, model- based text analysis. Shreve introduces the notion of using Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) to identify textual components within a text base/knowledgebase in order to facilitate computer-assisted textual analysis. Section 5, Translation-Oriented Terminology Activities, explores the different aspects of terminology work, addressing knowledge management, language planning, terminology resources and novel methods for representing concept systems. Galinski and Budin note the so-called information or knowledge crisis that has resulted in the parallel expansion of new terminology, a phenomenon that places special demands on the resources of translators. They indicate the advantages that concept-oriented multilingual terminology can provide to the working translator. Benhamida documents her sociolinguistic study into adoptive behavior on the part of Francophones outside of France with respect to the neologisms prescribed in connection with the Bas- Lauriol legislation and analyzes the role of translators and inter preters in disseminating official terminology; her statistical find ings would indicate that outside France, non-native speakers of 6 □ Editors' Preface French are more likely to accept "authoritative" terminology than are native speakers. This factor no doubt reflects the confidence (and deeply felt linguistic prejudice) of native speakers in deter mining their own usage as opposed to the urge of non-native speakers to accept authority in order to offset any perceived uncertainty or fear of being incorrect. People who write about doing terminology work are frequently criticized for not doing more of it. Unfortunately, the size restric tions placed on monographs such as this one simply do not allow for the inclusion of significant terminological material, nor does the highly specialized and ephemeral nature of most small termi nology collections, however well-done they may be, lend itself to inclusion in a collection designed to reach a broad audience over a protracted period of time. By preparing a detailed Bibliography of Polish Terminology Resources, Mitchell has attempted to do the next best thing: to provide translators working in a language of limited diffusion with a guide to existing resources. Her inclusion of a Subject Guide to Authors renders her bibliography truly useful as a research tool. The General Theory of Terminology defines three basic types of concept systems, partitive (part-whole), logical (generic) and thematic (associative). The two-dimensional line diagrams tradi tionally used to represent these concept systems have recently been declared inadequate by many serious terminologists who recognize the need for more comprehensive, multifaceted, multi dimensional methods for representing the complex conceptual and linguistic relations that exist in the real world and form the frame work for the kind of knowledgebases being developed for the next generation of computer-aided translation systems. Against this backdrop, Gross suggests a Theory of Fractal Linguistics. In an article treated as the introductory segment to a larger discussion, he introduces the notion of "linguistic space" and the validity of using fractal geometry as a model for visualizing the complex relations that exist within and among concept systems in both monolingual and multilingual environments. First and foremost, the editors of this volume intend it to be of use to working translators, as well as to highly practice-oriented translator trainers. The gap between practitioners and theorists WRIGHT AND WRIGHT □ 7 can only be bridged by thoughtful, goal-oriented writing on the part of translators and clear, accessible writing on the part of the theorists. Gerzymisch-Arbogast's analysis of author-reader expec tations clearly points the way not only for translators, but also for writers in translation studies who hope to reach a broad American and international audience. The "interactional aim" of this collec tion is to help close that gap. REFERENCE European Patent Office in Vienna, "Patent Terminology: INID Patent Codes," Sci-Tech Newsletter, A Publication of the Science and Tech nology Division of the American Translators Association, 9.1 (January, 1993): 5-8. Acknowledgement: The Editors acknowledge the support and assistance of the Institute for Applied Linguistics and the Department of Modern and Classical Language Studies at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio in the prepa ration of this volume. Section 1: Style and Register in Technical Translation Technical Translation Style: Clarity, Concision, Correctness MARK HERMAN Clarity, concision and correctness, the principal stylistic goals of technical writing, are simultaneously those of technical translation; an excellent technical translator is an excellent techni cal writer. This essay discusses some techniques to help achieve clarity, concision and correctness when translating technical documents from various languages into English. Included are breaking up the long sentences possible in inflected languages into the shorter sentences often required by uninflected English, substituting more specific or less specific English terminology for the more general or less general terms of other languages, and recasting the thought patterns of other languages into those of English. Also discussed is how a translator might deal with misstatements, incomprehensibilities and unknown words in the original. Types of Translation and the Myth of Literality To begin, it is useful to define just what is meant by technical translation and how it differs from translation of other types. Burton Raffel divides translation into three basic categories accord ing to the source text: nonliterary prose (including technical material), literary prose, and poetry. According to Raffel, all three require the translator to produce "a comprehensible document" in 12 □ Technical Translation Style the target language, to convey the context of the original docu ment, and to grapple "with syntactical and lexical features of both" the source and target languages. Knowing and conveying the context of the original document is crucial. A translation of French ballon into English as "balloon," "football," or even the technical-sounding "flask" will not do if the word in context means a storage sphere (such as for pressurized natural gas). All three of Raffel's categories imply a translation intended for an audience which will read only the translated version and not the original document, as opposed to ponies, trots and other versions intended to help an inexpert reader of the original text. No translation meant to stand on its own, even one of a technical document, can be literal in the word-for-word sense. A purposely far-fetched example will demonstrate this proposition. A well-known German pun is Der Mensch ist, was er iβt. The literal meaning is "The human being (the masculine form con notes either male only or both sexes) is, what he eats." The pun arises because ist and iβt, translatable as "is" and "eats" in Eng lish, are pronounced identically in German. Ignore the pun for the moment, and consider the statement to be written in non- literary technical prose, perhaps at the conclusion of a paper on the incorporation of various nutrients into muscle tissue. A correct translation, if the muscle tissue of both sexes has been studied, is "Man is what he eats." Modern usage, however, prefers the more inclusive "A human being is what he or she eats," or the less awkward plural "Human beings are what they eat." None of these three translations is literal. In the first, German der (English "the") must be eliminated before "man" or the English statement, even for old-fashioned usage, cannot apply to both sexes. In the second translation, the definite masculine der has been changed to the indefinite non-sexual "a" and the phrase "or she" added for clarity. In the third translation, the statement has been put into the plural form and der once again eliminated, which would not be allowed by German grammar even if the original had been plural {der would have been pluralized to die, but would not have been eliminated). If the German statement were found in a literary work rather than a technical document, a translator might consider its MARK HERMAN □ 13 proverbial tone or humor to outweigh denotation and try to re create one or the other in English even at the expense of literal meaning. For the German pun, a proverbial translation is "You are what you eat" or "We are what we eat." And a humorous translation completely sacrificing literal meaning is "GIGO-bytes aren't good for computers and other living things." A translation of technical prose, though non-literal, should convey the exact meaning of the original text as directly as pos sible. Purposeful ambiguities, ungrammatical constructions and sound combinations which call attention to themselves are the province of literary translation. Clarity If the syntactical and lexical features of the source and target languages differ, clarity often requires that the sentences in the target language be completely recast. For example, highly inflect ed languages such as Russian and, to a lesser extent, German can string together long chains of independent and dependent clauses, with many referents and antecedents, finite, infinitive and compound verbs, and still keep the whole meaning clear. English cannot. Consider a German sentence from a recent patent application: Hinzu kommt, daβ Anstriche ans Emulsionspolymerisaten bekannter- maβen aufgrund ihres Gehaltes an Emulgatoren und weiterer zvasser- löslicher Hilfsstoffe, die fiir die Lagerstabilitat dieser Anstrichstoffe meist erforderlich sind, wie Verdickungs- und Pigmentdispergiermittel eine starke Wasserquellbarkeit zurückbehalten. A literal translation into English, keeping all the nouns com pounded as they are in German, is: Moreover occurs, that coatings from emulsionpolymers well known on the basis of their content of emulsifiers and further watersoluble auxiliarymaterials, which for the storagestability of 14 □ Technical Translation Style these coatingmaterials mostly necessary are, as thickening- and pigmentdispersionmedia, a strong waterswellability retain. Obtaining this English "sentence," unreadable as it is, still requires work on the part of the translator beyond merely looking up words in a dictionary. The translator has already had to decide that kommt, usually translated "comes," here means "occurs"; that Anstriche, usually translated "paints," is better rendered here by the more general word "coatings"; that aus, usually translated "out," here means "from"; and that the first die is translated "which," while the second one is translated "the." But all these choices, necessary as they are, still do not allow the reader to determine with certainty what modifies and/or is the subject of what. The next step away from literality includes separating the compounds and recasting the grammar within each clause, but the result is still too literal for comprehensibility: Moreover occurs, that coatings from emulsion polymers well known on the basis of their content of emulsifiers and further water soluble auxiliary materials, which are mostly necessary for the storage stability of these coating materials, as thickening and pigment dispersion media, retain a strong water swellability. The sentence now sounds as though it may mean something. It does not. Not yet. The main noun for meaning, "coatings," is too far away from the main verb for meaning, "retain." Putting the two words closer together generally means throwing some of the intervening material into a second sentence and making additional changes. There are several ways to do this. One is: Moreover, coatings made from emulsion polymers retain a strong capability of swelling in water. These coatings are well known as thickening agents and pigment-dispersion media because they contain emulsifiers and additional water-soluble additives, both of which are necessary mainly to prolong shelf life. Now the translation is comprehensible, but it is far from literal. In addition to splitting the single German sentence into two English MARK HERMAN □ 15 sentences, the principal verb of the German sentence, kommt ("occurs") has been eliminated entirely. It is irrelevant whether the use of kommt is good or bad German technical style, or wheth er it is necessary or optional by the rules of German grammar. Since it is superfluous in English, obscures the clarity (and dimin ishes the concision), it should be eliminated. 1 In addition to breaking up and rearranging the original sen tence, clarity sometimes requires the use of English terminology with a different degree of specificity than that of the original. English has a larger lexicon than virtually any language that has ever existed. Therefore, in comparison with other languages, many English words carry comparatively narrower lexical mean ings. Further differences in ranges of meaning can also arise from differences in the thought processes embodied in different lan guages. Consider the French noun and adjective plat. As a noun, plat means something—anything—flat, such as a plate, a sheet, a dish, the flat part of a hand, or the scale of a balance; or a thing which is not really flat but the essence of which is found in its "flatness," such as a pan. There are some more specific words in French for various flat objects, and the word plat itself can have modifiers to clarify the meaning, but the fact remains that a French writer finds nothing wrong in writing only plat : the word, especially in context, is sufficient for the French speaker to draw a satisfactorily specific meaning. But a translator into English usually cannot simply write "flat object": English speakers find the concept too abstract to draw a satisfactorily specific meaning. The specific English term must be discovered from the context or accompany ing diagrams. If the context and diagrams are not helpful, the word, simple as it is, is essentially non-translatable, and the translator must provide a footnote to the reader with as much usable information as possible. Occasionally, the translator into English will use a term more general than that of the original. The translation of Anstriche in the above patent excerpt into "coatings" rather than into "paints" is not quite an example of this because the German word includes the lexical meaning of both English words; there is no meaning in either English word which is excluded from the German word. 16 □ Technical Translation Style But some German words do have a narrower lexical meaning than any English word; they are usually translated by English words which include meanings not present in the original. For example, Hawkins (30) has shown that German verbs are systematically restricted by prefixes in a manner which has no counterpart in English. A German verb taking an effected object, i.e., an object produced by the verb, usually does not take a prefix. Thus, brennen means "to burn" in the sense of burning a hole. The burning produces the hole. A German verb taking an affected object, i.e., an object pre-existing before the action of the verb, usually does take a prefix. Thus verbrennen means "to burn" in the sense of burning coal or oil. The distinction could be maintained in English by translating verbrennen as "to burn up," but it is often more idiomatic to leave off the "up." Thus two words with dif ferent meanings to a German speaker are translated by a single English word including both meanings. Finally, clarity in a translation into English may sometimes require less or more repetition than in the original. For example, French has the word réalisation and German has Realisierung, both of which are translatable into English as "realization." But such a translation is more problematic than it appears. In French, and to a lesser extent in German, the distinction between the plan, design or idea for something and the realization of that plan, design or idea is much sharper than in English, as any translator who has ever dealt with plans for new or modified facilities can attest. French speakers consider a plan to be a more or less ab stract idea, to be embodied later in the actual constructed and operating facility, the réalisation. A French speaker might consider illogical a literal translation of the statement, "This plant will double production while cutting costs," if what is being referred to is a drawing on a piece of paper. The French thought process is, "The plant which will come into being as a result of the realiza tion of this sketch will double production while cutting costs." And the French write the way they think, which sometimes requires repetition of the word réalisation and some word meaning "plan"—plan, dessin, projet—in almost every sentence. If at all possible, the translator should recast the sentences into English MARK HERMAN □ 17 thought patterns, eliminating unnecessary repetition. The result will be clearer and more concise. On the other hand, translators into English often need to repeat nouns or noun clauses where the original inflected lan guage has only one short pronoun. The inflections make the antecedent obvious in the original; repetition is required for similar clarity in English. Concision The first draft of any translation is likely to be wordy in order to ensure that every idea of the original is included. Concision requires an extra pruning step. Since most technical translators are paid by the translated word, it is doubly disadvantageous for them to take this extra step: more work earns less money. The profession would be better served by rates based on the number of words in the source document. However, until the economic facts of translation life are changed, each translator must decide how far he or she is willing to go to make the final result concise. One major step towards concision is beyond the usual scope of technical translation: that obtainable by improving the basic organization of the original document. Only rarely will a client ask and be willing to pay for technical editing as well as technical translation. Unfortunately, technical authors in any language are often chosen for what they know, not how well they write, and many write very badly. A poorly organized document does not efficiently carry the reader from section to section. It must con stantly remind the reader of previously stated information by repeating it. Such wordy documents are the technical translator's daily fare, and there is little he or she can do about it. Still, a translator can improve concision sentence by sentence. As for the previously cited example from the German patent, words which do not contribute to meaning or clarity can be elimi nated once the sentence has been recast from the source language into proper target-language word order. And, as also previously indicated, repetitions required by the source-language thought 18 □ Technical Translation Style processes can be eliminated if the target language does not require them. Correctness Correctness in a technical translation means two things. First, it means accurate re-creation of the ideas and technical terms of the original in the target language. This re-creation is usually impossible unless the technical translator has some detailed know ledge, preferably considerable detailed knowledge, about the subject of the document to be translated. "Accurate" re-creation also means suppressing obvious typographical and grammatical errors in the original if these do not impede comprehension. For example, French engineering reports sometimes include English- influenced constructions contrary to the rules of French grammar. A native English translator should find the meanings evident and need not point out the fractured French to the client. Finally, correctness in this first sense requires that words or grammatical constructions that are not totally understandable be footnoted as such. Non-footnoted guessing is impermissible in a technical translation. Correctness in the second sense means producing an accurate technical document in the target language despite mistakes in the original. Although the translator cannot be expected to discover and refute arcane errors or falsifications, no one else is likely to read the original technical document as closely. Therefore, no one else is as likely to discover misstatements, inconsistencies and even blatant errors of fact. Common errors in technical papers, which the translator's knowledge of the subject matter should allow him or her to detect, include inconsistencies between num bers listed in tables and the conclusions drawn from those num bers, textual references to one thing and accompanying diagrams clearly showing something else, parameters in the text referred to by their full names and the same parameters in the tables referred to by non-obvious symbols with no definitions of the symbols ever being given, and, of course, the inevitable statements violat ing the laws of thermodynamics. The translator should correct MARK HERMAN □ 19 such errors in square brackets or footnotes, both in order to render the client a service and to preclude the client's blaming such errors on the translator. Final Remarks It should be evident from this essay that technical translation requires more than writing down the dictionary equivalents of words. As for all translation, facility with the source language is important, but facility with the target language is crucial. Just as no one but a skilled poet is likely to make a good translation of a poem, no one but a skilled technical writer is likely to make a good translation of a technical document. But knowledge of the source language and writing skill in the target language are still insufficient. A technical writer must also know the subject matter of the original document. Only then is a clear, concise and correct translation possible. NOTE 1. There are some who argue that a certain amount of specific wording is necessary in a valid legal document, such as the patent application from which the German quotation is taken. If kommt is an example of this, it should not be eliminated by a translator. But, at least in English-speaking countries, the claim of necessary legalese is often a fraudulent excuse for poor writing. In the United States, some juris dictions have enacted laws requiring certain legal documents, such as insurance policies, to be written in "plain English." REFERENCES Hawkins, John A. A Comparative Typology of English and German. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986. Raffel, Burton. "The Translation of Poetry," Translation Theory and Practice. ATA Scholarly Monograph Series. Vol. V. Mildred L. Larson, ed. Binghamton (1991): 100-119. Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register as a Translation Problem HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST Introduction Scientific and technical (ST) register has been extensively treated as one of the specific features of LSP 1 communication (Sager, Dungworth 1980). However, descriptions of ST register, being traditionally limited to lexical-terminological and syntactic levels have usually not extended beyond the sentence level. Although the topic of ST discourse phenomena has become more prominent in recent LSP discussions (e.g., Hoffmann 1985), cross- cultural variance has only been marginally featured in contrastive register analyses (Ulijn 1989). Contrastive descriptions of varying discourse phenomena in ST register, however, are a prerequisite for making technical and scientific register transparent and acces sible as a problem of translation. Proceeding from the idea that ST register is related to the function of ST texts,2 the following article attempts to show that variant ways of presenting and sequencing information are regis ter phenomena that reflect cross-culturally different author-reader relationships. 3 After discussing the general notion of register, this paper describes differing arrangements of "given" information to "new" information with respect to differing author-reader relationships and conventions. Then an attempt is made to establish and classi fy criteria for describing discourse phenomena in ST register by 22 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register examining cross-cultural variation in "given"-"new" contracts between author and reader. The relevance of these differences as potential translation problems is shown on the basis of English- German examples, taken largely from the experience of co-trans lating Samuelson & Nordhaus, Economics into German. This article will thus be limited to English written ST register in the field of economics and the discussion of possible German equivalents. 4 Scientific and Technical (ST) Register There is considerable confusion when it comes to defining register in general. 5 For our purposes, we will follow Ulijn's illustrative explication (1989:185ff) since it specifically accommo dates ST register: "[register is the] verbal repertory of the speaker... a term originally drawn from music, suggesting the various drawers of a chest (the verbal repertory of the speaker) which are pulled out in any particular communication situation. One of such situa tions is inherent in technical and scientific register." Descriptions of scientific and technical (ST) register in LSP research have been largely systems- or langue-oriented,6 concen trating on such important lexical phenomena as frequency and distribution of terms and term-formation patterns resulting in neologisms and faux amis (misleading cognates; literally, "false friends"). On the syntactic level it was possible to isolate the more frequent use (in comparison with common language) of syntactic function words, participles, infinitives and the present tense. It was also established that sentences are likely to be lengthier, nominalizations more frequent, and the passive voice more popu lar in ST texts. 7 On a sentence-transcending, i.e., textual or discourse level, however, systematic comparative studies are almost non existent—a fact that may be largely due to the lack of linguistic criteria for description, which in turn results from the contro versial theoretical status of discourse phenomena in general. 8 HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 23 Most of the lexical and syntactic analyses have focussed on the dichotomy 'languages for special purposes (LSP)—common language' in the interest of teaching foreign ST languages (not translation), and have led to the general conclusion that "languages are apparently similar from the textual point of view as well" (Ulijn 1989: 212). The assumption or likelihood of com parative differences on the textual or discourse level, on the other hand, is a prerequisite for making the topic of ST register that exceeds the sentence level relevant to translation. For translation, a systems approach is a necessary but not a sufficient dimension since translation sets out from the parole level of language and consequently needs to encompass parole phenom ena. It is, therefore, a necessary precondition for translation purposes to identify and describe discourse phenomena on a parole level before cross-cultural differences can be discussed. The following section will attempt to identify translation-specific discourse phenomena in ST register in terms of Information Dynamics and Information Packaging as they reflect differing author- reader conventions. Discourse Phenomena as Expressions of Culture-Specific Author-Reader Conventions In describing ST discourse as Information Dynamics and Informa tion Packaging phenomena we will proceed from the idea that texts reflect language functions (Bühler 1934) and that the text function is manifested in the structure of the text,9 which in turn can be described as alternating sequences of "given" and "new" informa tion, "given" or "new" in the sense that the author perceives the reader to consider the information imparted as either "given" or "new" and organizes the information in a way that makes these chunks of information (more or less easily) identifiable to the reader. It is important to emphasize that a text contains both, "given" and "new" information for the reader, "given" or "new" not in 24 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register absolute but relative terms: "given" or "new" relative to what the author perceives the reader to know ( = "given") or not to know (= "new"). Information in the text is thus not per se "given" or "new," but is "given" in the sense that the author thinks it is "given" (= known) or "new" (= unknown) to the reader (i.e., classified according to the author's perspective). Whether the information is indeed "given" to the reader, i.e., whether the reader can identify the author's intended "given" information as "given," depends on the reader's knowledge of the (text) world (reader's perspective). More specifically, it depends on whether the reader's knowledge of the (text) world is similar to what the author perceives the reader's (text) world knowledge to be or, in linguistic terms, to what extent the two perspectives of author and reader overlap with respect to shared assumptions in a specific communicative situation (cf. Mudersbach 1981, as applied in Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987).10 Following Grice's cooperative principle of manner (Grice 1975:46),11 we can assume that ST register reflects an implicit agreement between author and reader about how (1) information that the author thinks is "given" or known to the reader and (2) information that the author thinks is "new" to the reader is pro portioned and alternately arranged in a discourse. We can further assume that the proportions of "given" and "new" information in texts and their alternate arrangement is determined by convention as an "author-reader contract" which varies cross-culturally. For the purposes of this article we will proceed from the hypothesis that contrastive ST registers vary cross-culturally according to different types of implicit author-reader contracts which are determined by different cultural norms and that depending on the type of "author-reader contract," "given" and "new" information in texts may be provided in different quantities and/or proportions and may be differently presented and se quenced. Author-reader contracts and their proportionate arrange ment of "given"-"new" information in texts can be categorized into an author-oriented contract form, stressing the expressive language function (Bühler's Kundgabefunktion) and a reader-orient ed contract form, stressing the vocative function of language HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 25 (Bühler's Appellfunktion). These two forms constitute the extremes on a scale of author-reader contracts, i.e., on a scale of cross- culturally varying ST register types, a phenomenon that manifests itself in the way the author presents his information to the antici pated reader in a closer (reader-oriented contract) or more distant way (author-oriented contract). Reader-oriented contracts or register types can be characterized by the author's intention to obtain the reader's "empathy" towards the information presented by trying to establish a "close ness" with the reader. This is generally achieved by providing a great deal of "given" information to enable the reader to relate the "new" information to a familiar situation or experience. The reader-oriented strategy proceeds from the assumption that if a reader can identify more readily with the message the author wants to impart, the text appears more understandable and thus more "interesting" to him (cf. "Information Packaging" below). Author-oriented register types, on the other hand, are less considerate of the reader, focussing on the author's knowledge and qualifications, which are presented with the primary intention to convince the reader of the importance of the "new" message the author has to convey. Being less concerned with the reader's interest or ability to identify with or understand the message, the author can afford granting less "given" information, focussing instead on the presentation and development of "new informa tion." Whether a more reader-oriented or a more author-oriented contract is the accepted norm in a particular culture depends on (1) the value system prevalent in a society with regard to the status of knowledge and science and technology (ST register) and (2) the relevant values of an individual vis-à-vis other individuals or the society as a whole. This may not be an "either/or" situation but rather measurable as values on a scale. 26 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register Describing Contrastive ST Register: Information Dynamics and Information Packaging Accepting the postulate that ST register can be classified according to differing author-reader contracts in terms of (more or less) "given" vs. "new" information, we can distinguish two dimensions for describing the differing arrangements of "given"- "new" units, (1) a macro-level dynamic perspective (Information Dynamics) and (2) a micro-level static perspective (Information Packaging): INFORMATION DYNAMICS On the macro-level of texts, Information Dynamics describes the way in which authors proportion and sequence the "given"- "new" information they want to convey to their readers. It is a dynamic measure in that it describes the arrangement and development of information throughout the text and is reflected in parameters such as: - Titling - Initiating - Sequencing Title Conventions Title conventions refer to what type of information is conveyed in what manner and how the title relates to the remaining text (Hellwig 1984). Based on "given"-"new" information, a title can serve the following basic functions: 12 - to indicate what the text following is about (reflecting Bühler's Darstellungsfunktion of language and the "informative" text function (Reiss 1976) based on Bühler's Darstellungsfunktion): Example: G. Brown & G. Yule, Discourse Analysis. Cambridge, 1983. HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 27 In these cases the title is a factual "reduced paraphrase of the text" (Dressier 1973), serving only to inform the reader about the contents of the text following. The title here is "new infor mation," signalizing the "new" information following in the text, i.e., is a "new-type" title. - to describe the author's attitude to the text following (reflecting Bühler's Kundgabefunktion of language and the "expressive" text function (Reiss 1976) based on Bühler's Kundgabefunktion): Example: L. Rosten, The Joys of Yiddish. New York, 1968. In this case the text following is characterized by the author from the author's perspective. The title here contains some "new" information, signalizing the text topic, but also "given" information—the author's attitude to the text—the attitude being "given" in the sense that the reader can identify with a (shared) feeling, value judgement or irony ( = given). These are "given/new-type" titles. - to attract or "lure" the reader into reading the text following (reflecting Bühler's Appelfunktion of language and the "vocative" text function (Reiss 1976)): Example: G. Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. Chicago, 1986. In this case the author intends to make the text interesting to the reader; the title contains primarily "given" information in the sense that the reader "knows" the objects and/or events referred to in the text following, i.e., it is a "given-type" title. The way in which a title relates to a text as a "new-," "given/new" or "given-type" title varies cross-culturally. ST text titles commonly have the primary function of being "informative" about the following text, i.e., are "new-type" titles. However, different ST registers may allow varying ranges of secondary, 28 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register superimposed functions, i.e., "given/new-" and "given-type" titles. Initiating Information Initiating refers to the type of information presented first at the beginning of a whole text or chapter and how it is presented and ties in with the remaining text segments. Here, again, we can distinguish three different types of "given"-"new" arrangements according to Bühler's language and Reiss' text functions: - to indicate what the text following is about, (Bühler's Darstellungsfunktion and Reiss' "informative" text function): Example: This study will touch on a variety of topics in syntactic theory and English syntax, a few in some detail, several quite superficially, and none exhaustively. It will be con cerned with the syntactic component of a generative grammar... Noam Chomsky, Aspects of a Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, 1965, p.3 (beginning of book). In this case the initiating statements are factual, indicating what the text following is about and how it is set up, inform ing the reader about the text contents. Initiating is done here via introducing "new information," i.e., "new-type" initiating. - to describe the author's attitude or relationship to the text following (Bühler's Kundgabefunktion and Reiss' "expressive" text function) Example: I have already and repeatedly presented you, my learned friends, with my new views of the motion and function of the heart, in my anatomical lectures: but having now, for nine years and more confirmed these views by multi plied demonstrations... I at length yield to the requests, HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 29 I might say entreaties, of many, and here present them for general consideration in this treatise. William Harvey, An Anatomical Disquisition on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals. Chicago, 1952 (originally published in 1628), beginning of book.13 In this case, initiating serves to express the author's perspec tive of the following text. It contains some "new" information, featuring the text topic, but also "given" information, featuring the author's perspective—an attitude being "given" in the sense that the reader can identify more readily with the per sonal relationship or attitude, a (shared) feeling, value judg ment allusion or irony. These are "given/new-types" of initiat ing. - to attract or "lure" the reader into reading the text following (Bühler's Appellfunktion and Reiss' "vocative" text function): Example: If I begin chopping the foot of a tree, its branches are un moved by my act, and its leaves murmur as peacefully as ever in the wind. If, on the contrary, I do violence to the foot of a fellow-man, the rest of his body instantly responds to the aggressions by movements of alarm or defense. The reason for this difference is that the man has a nervous system, whilst the tree has none. William James, The Principles of Psychology. Chicago, 1890/1952. Beginning of Chapter II. In this case the author intends to make the text interesting to the reader. The initiating statements contain primarily "given" information in the sense that the reader "knows" the objects and/or events, feelings, value-judgements, allusions and/or irony referred to in the following in the text, i.e., it is a "given-type" initiation. Like title conventions, the way in which a text is started, i.e., initiating is effected, varies cross-culturally. For ST texts, initiation typically serves the primary function of being "informative" about the text following, i.e., is "new-type" initiating. However, 30 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register different ST registers may allow varying ranges of secondary or flanking "given/new-type" or "given-type" initiating. Information Sequencing Information sequencing reflects an implicit author-reader contract in the way "given" and "new" information is chrono logically or alternately arranged on a macro-level, i.e., in the entire text. We can distinguish three basic types: - "new-type" information sequencing, which follows cultural norms that require established, fairly rigid sequencing routines, proceeding from a set pattern of (1) "new" information (in the form of an argument, thesis or definition) that is theoretically developed (2). It may be substantiated by evidence (3) obtained on the basis of an acknowledged methodology (4) depending on the norm prevailing in a particular domain of science (natural sciences vs. humanities). "Given" information is op tional or even uncommon. Texts like this are, therefore, diffi cult to follow, "hard to read." An example for such "new-type" information sequencing is Wittgenstein's Tractatus. - "given/new-type" information sequencing presents the thesis and/or arguments as well as other text segments embedded in "given" information e.g., in the form of examples, alternating "new" chunks of information with "given" portions, and mak ing the text easier to read. In Toulmin's argumentation chain (1958:104) the "thesis" element is typically embedded in "given" information. - "given-type" information sequencing typically begins with specific "given" information such as commonly-known phe nomena and develops the "new" information (thesis, general rule or definition) from there. An albeit extreme example is Bonheim's article "What German Students Call their Cars," (German Life and Letters, 4/1984), featuring 57 "messages" HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 31 ( = predications), including 33 Illustrative examples: more than 50% of the article's message is examples. Author-oriented ST register tends to follow "new-type 7 ' infor mation sequencing, starting with and developing "new" infor mation; reader-oriented contracts, on the other hand, typically use "given-type" information sequencing, starting from the known specific to the "new" information, with a possible use of alternate ly varying "new" with "given" information. 14 INFORMATION PACKAGING Just as Information Dynamics describes the flow of text infor mation, Information Packaging depicts the way in which authors "wrap up" the "given" and "new" information they want to convey to their readers; it is a static parameter, measuring how information is presented to the reader at a particular stage of the text. Information Packaging parameters include:15 - the frequent use of examples ( == illustrating the "new" mes sage, by "framing" it into "given" information with which the reader is familiar) - personalizing the message (==establishing direct contact with the reader by frequent use of direct addresses like "you," "imperatives," and/or "rhetorical questions") - redundancies ( = coating "new" messages with information already "given" in the text itself) - reference (= the use of specific "given" vs. general informa tion, which may create "closeness" vs. "distance") - terminological co-reference ( == the alternating use of quasi- synonymous terms or paraphrases ( = "given") for technical terms in an attempt to make the message more comprehensible to the reader) 32 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register - varying degrees of "formality" ( = the use of everyday speech and colloquialisms ( = "given") in ST texts, with which the reader can identify more easily than with Latin or Greek ex pressions commonly found in ST texts). On the basis of the Information Dynamics and Information Packaging parameters shown in Fig. 1 we can proceed to examine our central hypothesis, i.e., that the generally recognized more hermeneutic-abstract kind of knowledge generation of German uses a more author-oriented register when compared with the more positivistic-pragmatic orientation of English which employs a more reader-oriented ST register. We can describe and "measure" author-oriented ST register specifically in that it typi cally presents large "chunks" of "new" information, using "new- type" title-, initiating-, and information sequencing devices while reader-oriented ST register caters to the reader by Packaging the "new" information into "given" information via such devices as the frequent use of examples, personalizing the message, using specific reference, redundancies, terminological co-reference and varying degrees of formality. Information Dynamics Information Packaging (i.e., Macro/Dynamic) (i.e., Micro/Static) Title conventions Use of Examples Initiating Information Personalization Sequencing Information Redundancies Explicitness of Reference Terminological Co-Reference Formality Figure 1: Information Dynamics and Information Packaging Phenomena HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 33 The Translation Dimension These differences in ST register may necessitate a considerable amount of adaptation in the way "given" and "new" information is proportioned, sequenced and presented—i.e., "given" informa tion is expanded or reduced when it comes to translating ST texts involving culturally diverse ST registers. This can be illustrated using examples from the English original and the authorized German translation of the economic textbook Samuelson & Nord- haus, Economics. BASIC DECISIONS As stated previously, ST register phenomena have mostly been treated from the interests of teaching ST languages (Ulijn 1989) and have hardly been discussed as a cross-cultural translation problem (Reiss/Vermeer 1984, Newmark 1988, Hatim/Mason 1990). In fact, discourse phenomena in general—even without the ST dimension—have hardly been treated in their relevance to translation. Proceeding from the idea above, that a text's function is reflect ed in its structure, which can be described in terms of alternating "given" and "new" information arrangement, translating involves the basic decision as to whether the source text function must be kept constant or can be varied (Reiss/Vermeer 1984). Constancy or similarity of ST function would render a more "literal" or "faithful" translation while varying the ST function might imply a considerable restructuring of the information contained in the source text to make it fit the target ST register. Varying the translation function could possibly involve changes in one or both parameters—Information Dynamics and Informa tion Packaging—reflecting the different author-reader contracts. While Information Dynamics involves restructuring translation decisions on the macro-level of texts, i.e., regarding what type of "given" or "new" information in which logical arrangement is transferred from source to target text, Information Packaging as a static parameter involves decisions on the micro-level of texts, regarding the precise way in which "given" or "new" source text 34 □ Contraslive Scientific and Technical Register information is presented in the target ST register. It is clear that the macro-level decisions affecting Information Dynamics involve more re-structuring, i.e., possibly more adaptation than the micro- level decisions involved in Information Packaging. In concrete terms this means that translating ST texts from German into English may involve expanding or even newly creating ''given" information segments in texts, a problem that makes German→ English ST register translations much more difficult (one possible reason why it takes so long for German philosophical texts to be translated into English?). On the other hand, translations from English to German would involve adapting or reducing a lot of the "given" instances prominent in English ST register. For translation purposes, we therefore need to first establish the target text's function as being either source text- or target text- oriented before we can discuss possible ST register problems. If it is decided that the source text register is not to be maintained, Information Dynamics must be adapted to fit the target reader expectations, i.e., expanding (German→English translation) or reducing the "given" portions of information (English→German translation). If the source text register is to be maintained, no such restructuring on the macro-level has to occur. As far as Informa tion Packaging phenomena are concerned, contrastive ST register norms most probably do call for changes in the "given"-"new" arrangements but these are less fundamental since they affect the micro-level of the text, and can thus be effected ad hoc. It is important to note that the translation problems resulting from cross-culturally differing ST registers cannot be solved in absolute terms but only relative to the basic decision of whether the translation function is to be kept constant ( = no restructuring of "given"-"new" arrangements on the macro-level with possible ad hoc restructuring of Packaging phenomena) or is to be adapted to fit the target culture ( = restructuring of "given"-"new" units on the macro- and micro-levels). In many cases, such as in the following examples, these basic decisions are not left to the translator to make but are specified by publishing houses or authors who want the translation done in a certain fashion. In our case, with Samuelson being a Nobel prize winner, the German translation was to preserve as much of the HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 35 author's original "style" as possible. The following examples reflect this source-text orientation since no changes were made in Information Dynamics, but some changes were nevertheless necessary on the micro-level. Translation Examples of ST Discourse Phenomena INFORMATION DYNAMICS Title conventions As discussed above, a title or subtitle can serve various func tions in its relation to the following text with the function of the title usually depending on cultural conventions. In contrastive terms, it can be said that German ST register norms call for new-type titles (cf. Hellwig 1984:12), while English ST titles seem to be more flexible, serving the function of also attracting the reader by providing him with "given" information. The following examples of sub-titles from Samuelson & Nord- haus, Economics, clearly follow English ST register norms, expos ing the German reader to a different cultural norm. (The English original is followed by the authorized translation with page num bers from each given in parentheses.) English Original German Translation Inside the Black Box: Aggre- Die 'black box' Makro- gate Supply and Demand Ökonomie von Innen: Gesamt- (88) angebot und Gesamtnachfrage (157), To TIP or not to TIP (253f) TIP oder kein TIP - das ist die Frage (383f) Consumers as Wizards? (415) Jeder Konsument ein Hexen- meister? (639) Roundaboutness (653f) Der Produktionsumweg (357f) 36 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register Awash with profits (660f) Schwimmen die Unternehmen im Geld? (357f). In German, the "vocative" function inherent in the translated subtitles do not all conform to ST register norms, although they were largely preserved following the translation function of re flecting the source text-oriented register. Initiating Information English academic texts often seem to start out with a very general statement, a practical example or a rhetorical question to "hook up" the "new" information following in the text to some thing that is "given," i.e., to "tune in" the reader with the topic the author is about to discuss. They thus often feature "given/new" or "given-type" initiation. Although this may not necessarily always be the case, the English author seems to have the choice, whereas German ST register norms typically call for initiating an academic text with the object and aims of a study, i.e., with "new-type" initiation. A fitting example, therefore, is that Samuelson & Nordhaus start out their textbook with the rhetorical question: English Original German Translation: Why study economics? (3) Wozu soll man überhaupt Wirtschaftswissenschaft studieren. Erfahrungsgemäß... (27). This question would seem rather unusual to a German student who at the point when he starts reading an introductory textbook has already made his decision to study economics. Again, the German translation reflects the English reader- oriented ST register norms but resorts to German "Packaging" norms to make the text less "alien" to German readers: in the present case by avoiding the direct address of the reader and using the depersonalized general pro-form of man. HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 37 Information Sequencing ST register in German follows a fairly rigid "new-type" infor mation sequencing pattern, proceeding from information on the text's or study's object, aim and set-up to describing its metho dology and results, presenting large "new" chunks of information in an orderly sequence expected by the academic reader. In English ST register, on the other hand, information sequenc ing does not seem to necessarily follow such a rigid sequence, but arranges "new" chunks of information alternating with "given" information (examples, redundancies, specific reference; see below), thus helping the reader relate to and integrate the "new" messages with something already known. English ST register thus seems to give the author a choice between "new," "given/new" or "given-type" information sequencing. In Samuelson & Nordhaus, "given-type" information sequenc ing is primarily used as illustrated in the following passage, which appears under the subtitle "Transactions Demand": English Original: People and firms need money as a transactions medium. House holds need money to buy groceries and pay for electricity and fuel bills as well as occasional large consumer durables. Firms need money to pay for materials and labor. These elements constitute the transactions demand for money... (315) The author first talks about people and firms and their needs for money, thus progressing to explaining the concept of the transactions demand for money. The German reader would expect that "transactions money" be defined or at least be the topic of the subsequent paragraph or, in this case, the chapter. The translation reflects English ST register in terms of Informa tion Dynamics, although Information Packaging was adapted to reflect German ST norms by making more frequent use of nomi- nalizations. 38 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register German Translation: Die privaten Haushalte und die Unternehmen brauchen Geld zur Abwicklung von Transkationen: Die Haushalte zum Einkauf von Lebensmitteln, zur Begleichung von Elektrizitäts- und Benzin- rechnungen ebenso wie gelegentlich zum Kauf von langlebigen Konsumgütern. Die Unternehmen brauchen Geld zur Finan- zierung von Material und Arbeitskräften. Aus diesen Kompo nenten setzt sich die 'Nachfrage nach Transaktionsgeld' zu- sammen. (Vol. I, 488). We can see that target-text ST register norms do not neces sarily require information re-structuring on the macro-level, but that a certain adaptation to ST register norms can be effected by resorting to target-text Packaging norms. Varying ST registers can thus be treated in the sense of a "displaced equivalent" (versetztes Äquivalent, Reiss/Vermeer 1984:160). INFORMATION PACKAGING Use of Examples The use of examples can be viewed from the perspective of their relative, dynamic frequency vis-à-vis other segments of the text or in their absolute static function of illustrating a "new" message by "en-coating" it into "given" information. The following example from Samuelson and Nordhaus illus trates this category: English Original: But can misperceptions about wages and prices really lie behind deep depressions and persistent bouts of unemployment? Did it really take people a full decade to learn how hard times were in the Great Depression? Like Rip Van Winkle, did people fall asleep on the job in 1929 and not wake up until full employment returned in 1943? (342) Here, the use of the "given" information (Rip Van Winkle) is combined with a set of rhetorical questions, which have an addi tional personalizing effect on the reader. Original German ST HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 39 register would probably not provide such an example in an aca demic text, but in the present German translation, Information Dynamics was kept and English ST register maintained. German translation: Aber können Fehleinschätzungen über Lohn- und Preisentwick- lungen wirklich tiefgreifende Rezessionen und anhaltend hohe Arbeitslosenquoten heraufbeschwören? Brauchte man wirklich ganze zehn Jahre urn zu begreifen, wie schlecht die Zeiten während der Weltwirtschaftskrise waren? Schliefen die Leute 1929 über ihrer Arbeit ein und wachten, wie der nach 20 Jahren aus dem Tiefschlaf wiedererwachende Rip van Winkle, erst wieder auf, als 1943 wiederum Vollbeschäftigung herrschte? (Vol. 1, 529). Apart from the fundamental question of Information Dynamics and Information Packaging, the translation of examples is often complicated by the fact that they are culture-specific. They can only fulfil their function of providing the reader with "given" information, i.e., illustrative purposes, if the reader can relate to the quoted example. This may not be the case cross-culturally: Rip Van Winkle is a less prominent figure in Germany than in the U.S. Among the five strategies suggested by translation theory (Koller 1979 162-166), a "defining paraphrase" was chosen in the German translation (indicated in italics above). Personalizing a Message A statement can be made more personal by directly addressing the reader using "you," "imperatives" and/or "rhetorical ques tions." The combination of these devices to render a text more "readable" are particularly frequent in Samuelson & Nordhaus: English Original Example: Be skeptical of approaches that claim to have found the quick route to success. You can't get rich by consulting the stars (although unbelievably, some investment advisers push astrol ogy onto their clients). (291) 40 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register The German translation eliminates the imperative and the direct address, which are still very uncommon even in general, common language texts and uses the impersonal man instead: German Translation: Bei allen Aussagen, die für sich beanspruchen, einen schnellen Weg zum Erfolg zu weisen, ist Vorsicht geboten. Man kann nicht reich werden, wenn man auf die Sterne vertraut (obgleich es einigen Investment-Beratern wider besseres Wissen gelungen ist, ihre Kunden für die Astrologie zu erwärmen). (Vol. I, 455) Redundancies Redundancy of information typically exists when information that is already "given" earlier in the text is used to "coat" "new" information. English Original: While this view may have some microeconomic merit, it misses the larger point that 'the essence of monetary control is to set legal reserve requirements too high'. By setting them so high, the Fed can be assured that banks will not want to hold excess reserves and the Fed can thereby control the supply of money. (274) In the first sentence "to set legal reserve requirements too high" is "new" information upon being introduced, but "given" information once the reader gets to the second sentence which provides the reasons for such a Fed policy as "new" information. This "new" information in the second sentence is now explicitly "en-coated" into the reiteration of the previous sentence's infor mation. In German ST register, redundancies by reiteration of informa tion are generally avoided. Instead, pronominal adverbs are often used to resume "given" information, leaving it to the reader to make the "linking" hypothesis between two sentences. This phenomenon is reflected in the following translation: HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 41 German Translation: Während diese Betrachtung mikroökonomisch möglicherweise Vorteile bietet, geht sie insofern am Wesentlichen vorbei, als 'der Steuerung der Geldmenge der Grundsatz zugrunde liegt, daß die Mindestreservesätze bewußt zu hoch angesetzt werden.' Damit will die Zentralbank sicherstellen, daß die Banken kein Interesse haben, darüber hinaus Überschußreserven zu halten und kontrolliert so die Geldmenge. (432) Explicitness of Reference As a discourse p h e n o m e n o n , explicitness of reference features the choice between specific vs. general reference. It seems to vary with more or less reader-oriented contracts a n d influences "closeness" or "distance" between reader a n d author. Specific information provides security by increasing the reader's ability to identify, which leads to more closeness than a general statement that is o p e n to interpretation. Generalization opens room for doubt a n d t h u s insecurity, lowering the ability to identify a n d leaving a greater distance between reader a n d author. By this packaging parameter English ST register also seems to reflect a closer author-reader relationship, as the following high lighted examples of specific reference show: Original English Example: An efficient market is one where all new information is quickly understood by market participants and becomes immediately incorporated into market prices. For example, say that Lazy T-Oil Company has just struck oil in the Gulf of Alaska. This is announced at 12:30 a.m. on Tuesday. When will the price of Lazy T-'s shares rise? Wednesday morning after J.R. has read the Wall Street Journal. Or perhaps after lunch on Tuesday, when the stock analysts have had time to chew it over a bit? Or perhaps a week later, after Grandpa has placed his order to his St. Louis broker? No, says the efficient market theory. (288) In German, ST register calls for general reference—in analogy to the tenet that "good" theory needs to have a high level of generality a n d along with generality a high level of abstraction. 42 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register Following this precept, this whole example paragraph would probably be omitted, since the information (i.e., that all new information is incorporated into the market prices immediately) is already given in the first sentence. As a compromise between the German norm and the desire to keep the source-oriented register, the specific references to Lazy-T Oil Company and Grandpa were generalized. German Translation: Ein effizienter Markt liegt dann vor, wenn neue Informationen rasch von den Marktteilnehmers absorbiert und sofort in die Marktpreise integriert werden. Nehmen wir zum Beispiel an, eine Ölgesellschaft im Golf von Alaska sei gerade auf neue Ö1- vorkommen gestoßen. Diese Neuigkeit wird an einem Dienstag mittag um 11.30 bekanntgegeben. Wann würden die Aktien- kurse der Ölgesellschaft steigen? Am Mittwoch früh, nachdem J.R. Ewing die Nachricht im Wall Street Journal gelesen hat? Oder bereits am Dienstag nachmittag, wenn die Börsenexperten in der Mittagspause Zeit genug hatten, die Neuigkeit zu verdauen? Vielleicht auch erst nach einer Woche, wenn irgendwo irgendje- mand eine entsprechende Order beim Börsenmakler plaziert? Die Theorie des effizienten Marktes verneint all diese Fragen.... (Vol. I, 451) Terminological Co-Reference Using alternating paraphrases ( = "given" information) for technical terms in an attempt to make the message more compre hensible to the reader is very common in ST register but can also lead to vagueness (Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987, 1989). It is some times hard for the non-expert reader or translator to correlate alternating expressions to one underlying "meaning" of a term. English Original: We summarize as follows: The demand for M (Ml) arises from our need for a medium of exchange, that is from a transactions demand. We hold currency and checking accounts to buy goods and pay our bills. As our incomes rise, the value of the goods we buy goes up and we therefore need more money for HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 43 transactions, raising our demand for M. The transactions demand for M will be sensitive to the cost of holding money. (317) In this passage the demand for M (M1) is co-referent with demand for M and transactions demand for M, (with M being set equal with M l earlier). The resulting vagueness is kept in the following translation: German translation: Wir fassen also wie folgt zusammen: Die Nachfrage nach Geld (Ml) entsteht aus dem Bedürfnis nach einem Tauschmittel, das heißt, aus einem Bedarf an Transaktionsgeld. Wir halten Münz- und Papiergeld, ebenso wie scheckfähige Einlagen zum Kauf von Gütern und zur Begleichung unserer Rechnungen. Bei steigendem Einkommen steigt auch der Wert der gekauften Güter, und zur Abwicklung von Transaktionen brauchen wir zusätzliches Geld. Damit steigt unsere Nachfrage nach Ml. Die Nachfrage nach Transaktionsgeld reagiert empfindlich auf die Kost en für die Geldhaltung.... (Vol. I, 491). Varying Degrees of Discourse "Formality" In English ST register, the line between the written and spoken modes of language does not seem to be as clear-cut as it is in German, where the use of everyday speech and colloquialisms in ST texts is uncommon. Again, using "common language" can be viewed as presenting the reader with something familiar from everyday experience (= "given"), with which it is easier and more comfortable to identify rather than with abstract Latin or Greek terms. Examples of "formality" are numerous in Samuelson & Nord- haus: English Original: Those who have studied the performance of chartism say, 'The chartists generally end up with holes in their shoes. So forget it. ' (291) 44 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register German Translation: Erfahrene Investoren sind allerdings der Meinung, daß die Chartists auf verlorenem Posten stehen und ihre Methode wenig Aussicht auf Gewinn verspreche. (Vol. I,455) Or the description of the 1929 stock market crash: English Original: The bottom fell out of the market.... The market fell still further.... The soaring bull market was over. The sagging bear (declin ing) market had taken its place. And as the former had lived on its dreams, so the latter was consumed by its own nightmares. (286). German Translation: Die Kurse fielen ins Bodenlose.... Der Markt drückte die Kurse immer weiter.... Die phantastische Hausse war vorüber. An der Börse herrschte die Baisse. Und wie zuvor die Hausse vom Optim- ismus gelebt hatte, so wurde die Baisse von dem durch sie hervorge- rufenen Pessimismus genahrt. (Vol. I, 448). The more "formal" pattern in German is achieved by: - the use of "dissociated" terms (Leisi 1974:57ff) as in the case of the French terms Hausse and Baisse (for the metaphoric bull and bear markets) and expressions like Optimismus, Pessimismus) - substituting colloquialisms for more formal expressions (English: end up with holes in their shoes; forget it; German: auf verlorenem Posten stehen; wenig Aussicht auf Gewinn versprechen); - lengthy premodifiers instead of relative clauses (English: its own nightmares; German: den durch sie hervorgerufenen Pessi mismus). - "displaced" equivalents, i.e., using formal ST register features wherever possible to balance the "colloquial" effect of the English original (like using complex function verbs: 'keine zusätzlichen Mittel zur Verfügung haben' instead of just the verb verfügen). HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 45 Concluding Remarks The examples quoted are neither complete nor representative. Systematic analyses need to follow to include phenomena using the reverse direction, i.e., German→English translations which involve constant or varying translation functions and as such, ST register adaptations. It would be interesting to investigate cases when "given" information needs to be added or expanded in English to make original German texts more "readable." For instance, this might make it possible to substantiate (or reject) Bettelheim's criticism of the translations of Freud's works into English or at least explain why they impress the English reader as "abstract" and "scientific": [The erroneous or inadequate translation of many of the most important original concepts of psychoanalysis] makes Freud's direct and always deeply personal appeals to our common humanity appear to readers of English as abstract, depersonal ized, highly theoretical, erudite, and mechanized—in short, 'scientific'—statements about the strange and very complex workings of our mind.... the translations attempt to lure the reader into developing a 'scientific' attitude toward man and his actions, a 'scientific' understanding of the unconscious and how it conditions much of our behavior. (Bettelheim:5) Perhaps the problem lies in that Freud's excellent translators, for whatever reason, did not make the necessary switch to the more reader-oriented English ST register by providing more "given" information! (Gerzymisch-Arogast 1992) NOTES 1. LSP is the acronym for Languages for Special Purposes, referring to all scientific and/or technical communication. 2. For reasons of space, this cannot be discussed in detail in this paper. The interested reader will find detailed and formal "given"- "new" analyses in Gerzymisch-Arbogast (1987). 46 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register 3. It is a generally acknowledged fact that English scientific texts are "easier to read," i.e., less theoretical and abstract than their German counterparts. 4. Since no statistical material can be presented, the problems discussed are of an exemplary nature and can thus only have a heuris tic value. 5. Lewandowski (1985:833) still regards register to be "characteristic syntactical and lexical patterns, formed by speech events in similar situations" (translation by H. G.-A.). Some authors identify it with style (Stilgattungen, Benes 1969) or language variety. The most fitting discussion seems to be the London School's two-dimensional approach, differentiating between user-related language varieties (such as geo graphical, temporal, social or idiolectal dialects) and use-related varie ties, i.e., registers (Halliday, Mcintosh and Strevens 1964). Catford's example is also interesting in this context: "By register we mean a variety correlated with the performer's social role on a given occasion. Every normal adult plays a series of different roles—one man, for exam ple, may function at different times as head of a family, motorist, cricketer, member of a religious group, professor of biochemistry and so on, and within this idiolect he has varieties (shared by persons and other idiolects appropriate to these roles). When the professor's wife tells him to 'stop talking like a professor', she is protesting at a misuse of register" (Catford 1965:89) 6. Representative of this trend are Drodz and Seibicke (1973), Bungarten (1981), and Fluck (1985). 7. A detailed and systematic account of these LSP-markers in English can be found in Beier (1980:41-80). 8. This is typically epitomized by the theme/rheme, topic/comment, given/new controversy over the appropriate level on which the phe nomenon should be described (Is it a syntactic, semantic or pragmatic phenomenon?), resulting in a flood of inconclusive "definitions" of the concept. For reasons of space this will not be discussed here; a detailed account of the various approaches can be found in Lutz (1981); cf. also Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987:27-95). Cognitive "given-new" research in the US is largely process-oriented, focussing primarily on the psycho- linguistic dimension of the concept (Clark 1977) and the thematisation process in discourse (Brown/Yule 1983) while European approaches generally focus on the (formal) description of the phenomenon (Mudersbach 1981 as applied in Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987; Sgall/ Hajicova 1987). HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 47 9. This may be done by a variety of thematic progression types (Danes 1970, Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987) with the static constant theme progression being regarded as typical for LSP communication (Benes 1981). We expand this idea here by suggesting that, within the uni versal progression types, LSP texts seem to be differently "organized" in terms of "given-new" information chunks and that this variance is culture-specific. For instance, in German it is common practice to start out an academic text or article with "new information," i.e., proceeding from (1) (intended) subject area and (2) (intended) objective of the study, followed by its methodology, set-up and organization, which seems to be different in English. 10. This version of a "given-new" contract between author and reader extends the notion described by Clark/Havilland (1974) and Clark (1977), in that it proceeds from the relative parameter of indi vidual perspectives of the communicative partners (Mudersbach 1981 as applied in Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987) as a fundamental prerequisite for describing information processing in a successful communication process. 11. Grice proceeds from five conversational maxims: "Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged." (1975:45) Of the other four maxims (Quantity, Quality, Relation and Manner), at least the "manner" principle seems to be open to cultural variation: "Finally, under the category of MANNER, which I understand as relating not (like the previous categories) to what is said but, rather, to HOW what is said is to be said, I include the supermaxim - 'Be perspicuous' and various maxims such as: 1. Avoid obscurity of expression, 2. Avoid ambiguity, 3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixi ty), 4. Be orderly." (Grice 1975:46) We can see that 3.) and 4.) certainly are not absolute standards (does "being brief" have the same value in Spanish as in English and is what is considered "orderly" in German the same as in English?), but may vary with culture. It is interesting to note that the cooperative principle is sometimes intentionally violated to provoke the alienating effect in modern absurd plays (cf. Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1988). 48 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register 12. For a more detailed description of title functions and their relevance in translation, see Nord (1988). 13. This is—after dedications—the beginning of Harvey's famous book and must not be confused with "The author's motives for writing," which follows later as a separate Chapter I. 14. Examples for this parameter have been omitted here because of space restrictions. 15. Again for reasons of space, examples have been omitted. 16. The problems of cross-cultural specificity of objects and/or events or proper names is not limited to translation theory (Newmark [1981:70-83] provides a detailed account), but has interestingly also been raised in contexts that are not necessarily primarily translation- oriented such as in Hofstadter, D. (1979:379): Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid. 17. Using imperatives is particularly infrequent in German and is not even used in texts with a typical "imperative," i.e., directive message, like fire escape directions or cookbook recipes, which use infinitive or impersonal constructions instead. Un-restructured direct translation of English imperatives into German imperatives can typical ly result in unacceptability of the message. For example, the transla tions of US management guides or textbooks notoriously sell badly in German translation. This may be because it would belittle and offend the German reader to be directly ordered to do things, especially at the management level. As Güttinger (1963:138) puts it, "[der Leser möchte nicht] durch das ganze Buch hindurch mit 'du' angerempelt [werden]." 18. Lyons (1977:1) sets an example by his convention to use terms only in their defined sense and marking them accordingly, a strategy that would certainly be most welcome by translators of ST texts. REFERENCES Examples: The examples are largely taken from Samuelson, P. & W.D. Nord- haus, Economics. New York: McGraw Hill, 1985, and its German version, Volkszvirtschaftslehre, Band 1, Köln, 1987, translated by Johanna Frenzel and Heidrun Gerzymisch-Arbogast in collaboration with Dr. Gottfried Frenzel. HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 49 Dictionaries: Lewandowski, T. Linguistisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg, 1985. Linguistic References: Beaugrande, R. de and W.U. Dressler.. Einführung in die Textlinguistik. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1973. Beier, R. Englische Fachsprache. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1980. Benes, E. "Zur Typologie der Stilgattungen der wissenschaftlichen Prosa." Deutsch als Fremdsprache, 6 (1969): 225-233. —. "Die formale Struktur der wissenschaftlichen Fachsprachen in syn- taktischer Hinsicht," Bungarten, 185-212. Bettelheim, B. Freud and Man's Soul. New York: Knopf, 1982. Brown, G. and G. Yule Discourse Analysis. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Bühler, K. Sprachtheorie. Die Darstellungsfunktionen der Sprache. Stuttgart: G. Fischer, 1965. Bungarten, T.,ed. Wissenschaftssprache. Beitrage zur Methodologie, theoret- ischen Fundierung und Deskription. Munich: 1981. Catford, J.C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford Universi ty Press, 1965. Clark, H.H. "Comprehension and the Given-New Contract." Discourse Production and comprehension. Freedle, R.O., ed. Norwood: Ablex Publications Corporation, 1977. Clark, H.H. and S.E. Haviland. "What's New? Acquiring New Infor mation as a Process in Comprehension," in Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 13 (1974): 512-521. Daneš, F. "Zur linguistischen Analyse der Textstruktur." Folia Linguis tica. 4 (1971): 72-78. Drozd, W. and W. Seibicke. Deutsche Each- und Wissenschaftssprache. Wiesbaden: Oscar Brandstetter Verlag, 1973. Fluck, H.R. Fachsprachen. Einführung und Bibliographic Munich: UTB, 1985. Gerzymisch-Arbogast, H. (1987a) Zur Thema-Rhema-Gliederung in ameri- kanischen Wirtschaftstexten. Eine exemplarische Analyse. Tübingen: Narr, 1987. —. (1987b) "Passepartoutwörter als fachsprachliches Übersetzungs- problem." TEXTconTEXT. 1/2 (1987): 23-31. 50 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register —. (1988) "Das Absurde in den Dramen Harold Pinters. Versuch einer Erklärung aus linguistischer Sicht." Die Neueren Sprachen. 4/88 (1988): 405-421. —. (1989a) "The Role of Sense Relations in Translating Vague Business and Economic Texts." Translation and Lexicography. Bennani, B. and M. Snell-Hornby, eds. Missouri: Paintbrush, 1989. —. (1989b) "Standardisierte Wörterbuchartikel des allgemeinen ein- sprachigen Wörterbuches als Texte:Probleme der Kohärenz und der Thema-Rhema-Struktur." Wörterbücher- Dictionaries - Dictionaries. An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography. New York: de Gruyter, 1989. —. (1992) "Die wissenschaftliche Prosa Sigmund Freuds im Spiegel der englischen Übersetzungen" Unpublished habilitation lecture, Uni versity of Heidelberg. —. (1993) "Zur Erschließung und Übersetzung von Termini in fachlich- en Texten" Forum Fachsprache. Tübingen: Narr Verlag (in press). Grice, H.P. "Logic and Conversation," Syntax and Semantics III. Speech Acts. Cole, P. and J. Morgan, eds. New York: 1975. 41-58. Güttinger, F. Zielsprache. Zürich: Manesse, 1963. Hajicova, E. and P. Sgall. "Topic and focus of a sentence and the patterning of a text," Text and Discourse Constitution. J. Petoefi, ed. Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1988. 70-96. Halliday, M.A.K., A. McIntosch and P. Strevens The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. London: Longman, 1964. Hatim, B. and I. Mason. Discourse and the Translator. London: Long man, 1990. Hellwig, P. "Titulus oder über den Zusammenhang von Titeln und T

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