Scholars who contributed to Geography in the Ancient time period.pptx

SCHOLARS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO GEOGRAPHY IN THE ANCIENT TIME PERIOD BACHELORS OF SCIENCES HONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES IN INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE BSSI 11033 FIRST YEAR FIRST SEMESTER Ms. Dhanushika Pilapitiya...

SCHOLARS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO GEOGRAPHY IN THE ANCIENT TIME PERIOD BACHELORS OF SCIENCES HONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES IN INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE BSSI 11033 FIRST YEAR FIRST SEMESTER Ms. Dhanushika Pilapitiya B.A. (Sp) in Geography, M.Sc. In Geoinformatics (Reading) Department of Indigenous Social Sciences Faculty of Indigenous Social Sciences and Management Studies 1 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © LEARNING OUTCOMES  Understand the progress of sciences, especially geography, during the ancient classical period  Learn about various contributions made by Greek and Roman, Dark age and Arab scholars and how these contributions led to the advancements in geography 2 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © INTRODUCTION Geography as a part of everyday life Geography as a Geography academic discipline as a subject 3 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  Geography can be traced back to ancient times and much before the development of any other sciences.  The history of geographical ideas is the accounts of human efforts to gain more logical and useful information of their habitat and their spread over the surface of the earth.  In earlier times, geography developed due to explorations, mapping of unknown areas and speculations about the resources allocated.  Mainly there can see 3 types of ancient periods, where the geographical thoughts were developed. 1. Geographical Thought of Greek and Roman (Ancient classical Period) 2. Geographical Thought in Dark Age 3. Geographical Thought in Arab period 4 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © ANCIENT CLASSICAL PERIOD (ABOUT 1200 B.C. - 500 A.D)  This period also called as Greek/Rome time period.  Classical era or Classical Period is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered in various locations around the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome.  The Greeks were pioneers in many branches of knowledge.  They are called as “Cardle of science”, because of the very early development of the methods of observations, measurements and generalization in that country.  In geography they are very special due to some findings such as developed ways to measure land areas, North – South Line and also they developed the concept of Astrology. 5 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © CONTRIBUTION OF GREEKS  Many of the basic concepts and paradigms in contemporary sciences, including geography were established by Greek scholars and continue to reflect strong inclination towards the tradition of ancient Greek scholarship.  As discussed in the previous section, Greeks borrowed many concepts and ideas from other ancient civilizations.  Yet, organising all this scientific knowledge in the form of concepts and paradigms was essentially achieved by various Greek scholars.  Among the ancient Greek scholars, we can trace two distinct traditions of geographical studies: 1. The mathematical tradition and 2. The literary tradition. 6 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  The Greek scholars produced topographical descriptions of places in the known world, discussing both natural conditions and the culture and the way of life of the people living there (Holt-Jensen 1981, p. 9). Greek explorations 470-310 BC. 7 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  Location of Greece is another point.  The location of Greece, situated on both sides of Aegean Sea, was also conducive to geographical study.  The great diversity in it’s topographical and physical features provided great impetus to the growth and development of geography such as, Hilly and undulating country Rivers are mainly torrents Numerous straits Limestone topography of the mainland 8 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © HORMER  Homer was credited with being the father of geography by Greek geographers, although his existence is not known for certain.  He was the composer of the epic poems namely Iliad and Oddesey.  Iliad primarily consists of historical accounts. Odyssey is a geographical account of the fringes of the known world that records the efforts of Odysseus to return home to Ithaca after the fall of troy.  Many historical geographers attempted to identify the places described in the Odyssey.  The Greek sailors in the 8th century BC referred to the winds and associated weather types in order to identify directions at sea.  Homer did not use Europe and Asia as the names of landmasses. 9 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © THALES  Among all the Greek scholars, Thales was the first one to be concerned about the measurement and location of things on the surface of the earth.  He was known as “The man who brought Geometry to the world”.  He applied principles of geometry to measuring land areas.  He proposed that world was based on water.  He also attempted to explain the universe in terms of new observations rather than the traditional explanations in terms of deities or astrological influences. 10 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © ANAXIMANDER  Anaximander was a younger cotemporary of Thales.  Anaximander is also credited by Greek historians to be the first scholar ever to draw a map of the world to scale.  This map had Greece in the centre and the other known parts of Europe and Asia were plotted around it.  The map was circular and surrounded by ocean in all directions.  Anaximander also provided his own explanation for the rising and setting of sun. 11 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © HERODOTUS  Herodotus is chiefly identified as a historian and often considered the father of history.  Herodotus’ geographical writings were based on his personal observations during his many years of travel.  In fact, he is credited with the very old idea that all history must be treated geographically and all geography must be treated historically.  He also pointed out that winds blow from colder to warmer places.  He reconstructed many of the ancient shorelines to show that many former seaports were now far inland.  He provided several proofs of observations to explain the process of delta-building- notably in the alluvial plains of the Meander River at Miletus. 12 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © PLATO  Plato is regarded as the master of deductive reasoning from the general to the particular.  Bring forward the idea of round earth located in the center of the universe with the other celestial bodies revolving around it in a circular motion.  Explanation of solar system, size, shape of sun, moon and the earth (round, circular),concept of revolution of sun, moon and planets in a circular way and the concept about position of earth at center of solar system. 13 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © ARISTOTLE  Aristotle known as the father of western philosophy and the 1st person to study biology systematically.  He was the first to prove the sphericity of the Earth and the Moon.  Author of the ‘Meteorology’ the first work in Physical Geography.  He put forward the concept of variations in habitability on the surface of the earth on the basis of latitudinal position.  Regions near the Equator were uninhabitable and named it as ‘Torrid Zone’  Parts of the earth which was away from the Equator and permanently frozen were also uninhabitable ‘Frigid Zone’  The population of the earth lived in the ‘Temperate zone’ existed between Torrid Zone and Frigid Zone’ 14 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © PYTHAGORAS  Pythagoras made two major contributions to geography.  His first contribution was his belief that the world was spherical, meaning that it was round rather than flat.  His second contribution was the Pythagorean theorem for the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle..  Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or ether is the arche of everything. 15 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  ERATOSTHENES  Eratosthenes is often identified as the ‘father of geography’.  He is the one who coined the term ‘Geography’ deriving from two words ‘ge’ meaning ‘the earth’ and ‘graphy’ meaning ‘to describe’.  He is also credited provide the definition of Geography as the ‘Study of Earth as the home of man’.  Eratosthenes is perhaps most famous for his calculation of the circumference of the earth.  He prepared a world map with respect to correct distance. 16 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  17 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © CONTRIBUTION OF ROMANS  Romans carried forward the Greek tradition of contributions to the development of geography.  The Romans produced very little of their own in the field of geography.  The Romans’ major contribution was mainly in the field of historical and regional geography but they also made contributions in the field of physical and mathematical geography.  Among the Romans, Strabo and Ptolemy contributed the most. 18 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  STRABO ‘Geography is an independent subject, which aims to get people to gain knowledge of world celestial bodies, sites, oceans, fauna, flora, fruits and every other thing seen in the terrains’. -Strabo- 19 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  He is considered as ‘Father of Regional Geography’, he stressed on the division of the world into natural and not into political boundaries.  His most important work is “Geographica’. In this he has tried to compile all the then knowledge of mathematical, physical, political and historical geography in form of general treatise. Geographica consisted of 17 volume – first 2 (1-2) volume about introduction, next 8 (3-10) volume about Europe, next 6 (11-16) volume about Asia and last 1 (17) volume about Africa (Libya)  Strabo was the first scholar who has led the foundation of chorological writings in geography. He was the first to declare geography as chorological science. 20 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © PTOLEMY  Ptolemy’s main contribution was in the field of Mathematical Geography.  He made use of the material of Marinus and Hipparchus in writings and cartographic work.  His most important work ‘The Geography’ also known as ‘The Guide to Geography’ deals with theory of map projection.  It consists of catalogue of places with their latitudes and longitudes and describes briefly each continent, country and tribe.  A major contribution of Ptolemy to cartography has been the use of the graticule of latitude and longitude and the mathematical construction of the projection for his map. 21 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  22 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © DARK AGE (FROM 476 CE TO THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE)  In European History from the collapse of Roman civilization in the 476 CE to the period of the Renaissance (variously interpreted as beginning in the 13th, 14th or 15th century.  Starting around the 14th century, European thinkers, writers and artists began to look back and celebrate the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.  Accordingly, they dismissed the period after the fall of Rome as a “Middle” or even “Dark” age in which no scientific accomplishments had been made in any field.  After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the West suffered continual invasion and warfare.  There was de-urbanization and a return to a patchwork of rural settlements. 23 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  The economy became more of a hard-scrabble agricultural economy.  There were no strong urban centres, no wealthy private or royal patrons for science and culture.  The Roman Empire had provided the basis of social cohesion for most of Europe.  This decline persisted throughout the period of time sometimes called the Dark Ages (also called Late Antiquity or the Early Middle Ages), from the fall of Rome to about the year 1000, with a brief hiatus during the flowering of the Carolingian court established by Charlemagne.  Apart from that, no large kingdom or other political structure arose in Europe to provide stability.  The only force capable of providing a basis for social unity was the Roman Catholic Church. 24 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © GEOGRAPHY IN DARK AGE  Scholars made sterile copies of the works of the ancients and rejected anything which did not conform to the dogmas of the Church.  Concepts of the world which had been developed during ancient times were reshaped to conform to the teachings of the Church.  However, the tradition of geographical scholarship flourished in the Muslim and Chinese world during these times.  Many Muslim and Chinese scholars undertook various journeys during medieval ages that made significant contributions to the development of geographical knowledge.  In contrast, the journeys undertaken by Europeans during this period made no significant contributions to the development of geographical concepts, models or paradigms. 25 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © GEOGRAPHY IN THE CHRISTIAN WORLD  Geography in the Christian world was confined to the process of translation of the earlier geographical ideas of the classical age.  Two medieval scholars– Martianus Capelle and Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius provided translation of Plato as early as the fifth century.  The medieval Christians came to know about the concept of spherical earth through the accounts of these scholars.  In 1138, Plato of Tivoli translated the works of Ptolemy that dealt with the effect of the positions of the celestial bodies on human affairs.  In 1175, Gerard of Cremona translated Ptolemy’s ‘Almagest’ into Latin. Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the universe remained the accepted model of universe for many centuries and this model was propagated by the Church as well. 26 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  Magnus, for the first time, translated the geographic ideas of Aristotle from Arabic in the twelfth century.  He emphasized the Greek concept of equating habitability with latitudes. He produced the first major attempt to interpret Aristotle’s philosophy in Europe.  Geographical and Astronomical Notions are some the popular notions regarding world geography as well as astronomy during the middle ages. 27 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © PTOLEMAIC THEORY & ARISTOTELIAN COSMOLOGY  Translations of Ptolemy’s Almagest were available by the end of the 12th century.  Teachers in universities soon produced their own accounts of Ptolemaic theory for example Johannes de Sacrobosco in mid-1200s wrote The Sphere, which was an elementary astronomy textbook.  A number of scholars objected to the Ptolemaic constructions and the way they violated Aristotle’s principles of motion and they tried unsuccessfully to find ways to harmonize Ptolemy with Aristotle.  Astronomy in the West didn’t make much progress in the Middle Ages. 28 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © POLO BROTHERS, MARCO POLO AND THEIR VOYAGES  The Polo brothers and Marco Polo did make valuable contributions to the Christian world about the Asian landmass.  Marco Polo’s book was thought to be a great record of geographic expedition filled with much information and stories.  The Polo brothers visited China and stayed there from 1260 and 1269.  They went across the great voyages; the Polo brothers touched the shores of Java and Sumatra and then continued to Ceylon and Southern India.  They moved along the west coast to the ancient port of Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. They finally returned to Venice in 1295.  They brought with them loads of information about the land and people of central Asia as well as China (which was considered the eastern limit of habitable part) the nature of the coastline and the people living there. 29 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © LATE MEDIEVAL PERIOD  Latter part of the medieval period, few scholars started to feel the need to confront the authority (of the established scholarly knowledge  William of Corches portrayed a universe governed by the law and also presented some remarkably logical ideas about the heating of the atmosphere from below and the formation of clouds by the cooling of the air (Kimble 1938, p.79).  Robert Grosseteste, the Bishop of Lincoln contradicted the concept of a torrid zone that was uninhabitable with the help of available Arabic reports of an inhabited east coast of Africa.  In early 15th century Cardinal Pierre d’ Ailly published a book- “Tractatus de Imago Mundi”, which represented a summary and review of the period. In 1414, he used the Latin translation of Ptolemy’s Geography and accepted the smaller estimate of the earth’s circumference 30 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  DARK AGE - THE CHRISTIAN WORLD  There LATE were notable MEDIEVAL improvements PERIOD in the art of map making. The Portolano charts (harbors and trade routes) became standard equipment for the sea captains.  The instrument astrolabe which was invented by Hipparchus had been improved and came into common use as an aid to navigation by making it possible to fix the altitude of the polestar more accurately.  The map-makers were a vital necessity in the field of navigation and thus most of the map-makers were working for the merchants and sailors though there were differences of opinion regarding the land beyond equator.  The famous Catalan Map of the World was the first map ever to give a proper outline of Ceylon and the Indian peninsula” (Kimble 1938, p. 193). 31 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © ARAB GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT  Arabs were the first to show their interest in Geography because of their special surroundings and they gave pictorial form to their conception of the universe on the basis of faith.  Arabs considered the earth as the centre of the universe, round which revolved the seven planets.  They have importance to knowledge and the study of natural phenomena.  They made outstanding contributions in the fields of mathematical, physical and regional geography.  Their achievements in climatology, oceanography, geomorphology, linear measurement, determination of cardinal points, limits of habitable world, sprawl of continents and oceans are highly appreciable. 32 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  Many factors contributed to stimulate Muslim interest in geography.  The large extend of Arabic Empire which stretched over so many different areas from the Atlantic to the borders of China.  The excellent system of roads, a legacy of Rome.  The desert routes which encouraged movement and facilitated the pilgrimages to Mecca demanded by the faith.  Trade, which naturally arose out of the diversity within the Empire and was further stimulated by the high rank of traders in Muslim society.  The conquest of Syria, Persia and Bactria where the Greek culture still flourished and gave to the Muslims a rich fruits of Greek learning and the cultural and economic ties with the Indian sub-continent. 33 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©   Arabs took keen interest in the size, geometry and puerility of the Earth; the oceans, particularly the causes of tides; geomorphologic processes; regional climatic divisions; the distribution of flora and fauna; and the creation and use of various tools – especially maps.  With the acquisition of mapping skills came the development of world maps called Mappa Mundi including Pslater, Marino, Sanuto, Borgain, East World, Fra Moura, and the Image de Munde 34 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © AL-BIRUNI  AL-Biruni was a great traveler interested Astronomy, Mathematics, Chronology, Physics, Medicines, History and Astronomy was his chief field of interest.  In geography, he also wrote on cartography, geodesy and surveying.  Al-Biruni took keen interest in the study of time and date and studied calendar of different nations and enquired into the differences in day and time in different regions.  He also emphasized that the moon did not go around the earth in a perfect circle and discussed the lunar month on a syndic basis.  He attempted to measure the longest and the shortest distance of the moon and the seen from the earth. 35 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  He also studied the relationship of tides with phases of moon. He showed interest in paleontology and geomorphology.  He compared the fossils discovered in the places of Arabia, Jurjan and Khwariyan along the Caspian sea and he was the first to provide correct information about the sources of Indus and also explained phenomenon of floods in its basis.  He has provided an accurate account of the seasons of India describing the nature of monsoon. 36 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  AL-IDRISI  He approached geography through a direct experience through travels.  Accounts of his travels indicate that he travelled over a great part of world including Spain, France, England, Sicily, morocco, Asia Minor and interior part of Africa.  Idrisi’s major contribution lies in medicinal plants as presented in his several books, especially Kitab-Al-Jamili-Sifat-Ashtata al Nabatat.  A large number of new drugs plants together with their evaluation became available to the medical practitioners.  He has given the names of drugs in six languages: Syria, Greek, Persian, Hindi, Latin and Berber. 37 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © CONTRIBUTIONS OF ARAB - AL-IDRISI (1304-1368 A.D)  The most important of Al-Idrisi to geography was his world map. He plotted the various geographical features based upon the text and not text on the maps.  He made original contributions to geography, especially related to economic, physical and cultural aspects.  His well known work Roger’s book practically a geographical encyclopedia of the time containing information not only on Asia and Africa but also western countries. 38 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  IBN-BATTUTA  One of the great Muslim travelers and he went to many parts of Africa never before visited by any person. He sailed along the Red sea, visited Ethiopia and then moved southward along the coast of East Africa.  He crossed the Asiatic mountain through Afghanistan and moved into India.  Ibn-Battuta has described the physical conditions of various regions that he visited.  He has his primary interest in people, his description of house types and building materials in desert is very interesting and informative.  His writings include many facts of anthropological interest. His book Rihla provides an insight into the soils, agriculture, economy and political history of the then Muslim world 39 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE © REFERENCES  GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT AND EVOLUTION. (n.d.). Retrieved from uou.ac.in: https://uou.ac.in/sites/default/files/slm/GE-301.pdf  DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT. (n.d.). Retrieved from kngac.ac.in: https://www.kngac.ac.in/elearning-portal/ec/admin/contents/2_18KP2G05_20210128023004 67.pdf  Mohita, N. (n.d.). contribution-of-romans-in-the-field-of-geography. Retrieved from yourarticlelibrary: https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geography/contribution-of-romans-in-the-field-of-geogra phy/12821#google_vignette  THE ROMAN GEOGRAPHICAL PERIODS. (n.d.). Retrieved from gcwk.ac.in: http://gcwk.ac.in/econtent_portal/ec/admin/contents/82_P18GC309_2020120605282462.pd f 40 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©  Thank you 41 GAMPAHA WICKRAMARACHCHI UNIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINE ©