What Is Social Policy? PDF

Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction 1 139 [5 ] 24 Social Policy organisation) believe we can affect change...

Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction 1 139 [5 ] 24 Social Policy organisation) believe we can affect change in some form or another. We do not have policies about the weather because, as yet, we are powerless to do anything about the weather. But we do have policies (or we can have policies) about illegiti- What is Social Policy? mate children because we think we have some power to affect their lives — for better or worse depending on whether you are the policy-maker or the illegitimate child. The word 'policy' is used here in an action-oriented and problem-oriented sense. The collective 'we' is used to refer to the actions of government in expressing the 'general will' of the people — whether of Britain, Nigeria or China. The meaning and validity of a concept of the 'general will' is, of course, In the chapters that follow we look first at the term 'social hotly debated. policy' and ask a good many questions about it. In doing so, The greatest semantic difficulty arises, inevitably, with the we shall inevitably have to consider various definitions of word 'social'. Nor is it made any easier today by the fact that associated concepts and categorised labels — social administra- so many disciplines, professions and groups claim it as a tion, social services, social welfare, social security, welfare states Christian name and, indeed, flourish it about as something_ and so forth. We will have to ask ourselves why we should distinctly different. We have, for example, social geography, study social policy at all or, for that matter, society's response social planning, social psychology, social psychiatry, social as it identifies or fails to identify social needs and problems. administration, social work, social law, social linguistics, Are we concerned with principles and objectives about certain social history, social medicine, social pathology, and so on. areas of social life and organisation — or with social engineering: Even the Bank of America created in January 197a a new post with methods and techniques of action, management, organisa- of executive vice-president in charge of social policy! Why not , tion and the application of games theory? social theology? Is it really necessary to drive home so pon- Whatever the answer we arrive at, we cannot fail to become derously the fact that all these subjects and groups are con- heavily involved in the issues of moral and political values. cerned in some way with man in society — and particularly Indeed, political propaganda frequently masquerades under with the non-economic factors in human relations? Are they social policy labels. not all, in short, emphasising that man is a social being; that What do we mean by social policy? Connected with this is he is not solely Economic Man; and that society cannot be the equally important question: whose social policy? For our thought of in terms of mechanistic-organic models or physio- purposes the word 'policy' can be taken to refer to the prin- logical models? It may well be that much of the current fashion ciples that govern action directed towards given ends. The for 'social' is a reaction against the sillier models of man in concept denotes action about means as well as ends and it, society constructed in the past by economists, political philo- therefore, implies change: changing situations, systems, prac- sophers, experimental psychologists and sociologists. tices, behaviour. And here we should note that the concept of Take, for example, the attempts of the Victorian economists policy is only meaningful if we (society, a group, or an to establish a competitive, self-regulating total market  Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction I What is Social Policy? 25 1 -4 26 Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction I Social Policy economy,. or Radcliffe-Brown's doctrine (as one of the Women's Liberation Movement has pointed out, a private `fathers' of modern anthropology) that the organic nature of market for men). society is a fact. Such a doctrine implies that integration and All this is a rather roundabout way of saying that these solidarity must be 'natural' attributes of all social systems. mechanistic theories of orderly man and society consign a `Social structures', he wrote, `are just as real as are individual minor subsidiary role to social policy; indeed, not a `policy' organisms. A complex organism is a collection of living cells role at all; a role similar to that assigned to the State in nine- and interstitial fluids arranged in a certain structure....'l teenth-century Britain by Lassalle when he wrote about 'the This is what another anthropologist, a social anthropologist, Night Watchman State' (the law and Order State' in the Edmund Leach, had to say about this doctrine: `If you feel language of the 1970s). Only in a very restricted and contra- certain, on a priori grounds, that all forms of social stress must dictory sense could it be said that Night Watchmen have produce a reaction which will tend to restore or even reinforce policies — unless it can be argued that to watch and keep order the solidarity (i.e. organic health) of society then you will and not to act and change is a policy. quickly persuade yourself that war is peace and conflict At the other end of the spectrum of values is the rejection harmony.' 2 of the notion of a mechanistic or residual role for social policy. You might argue, if social stresses correct themselves auto- Social policy can be seen as a positive instrument of change; matically (on the analogy of the self-regulating market as an unpredictable, incalculable part of the whole political economy), then there is no place for an unpredictable concept process. like social policy. We must not, however, jump to the conclusion that social But it can, of course, be argued that social policy (or, to be policy as conceived in this or any other way is necessarily more precise, a system of social welfare) is simply part of the beneficient or welfare-oriented in the sense of providing more self-regulatory mechanisms built into a `natural' social system. welfare and more benefits for the poor, the so-called working- This would mean that the history of the development of the classes, old-age pensioners, women, deprived children and social services in Britain since the beginning of the twentieth other categories in the catalogue of social poverty. A redistri- century was, in a sense, predetermined; that it was bound to butive social policy can redistribute command over material happen because of a `natural' tendency in the social system and non-material resources from the poor to the rich; from toward equilibrium and order. Some part of the theory of one ethnic group to another ethnic group; from working life to Talcott Parsons sustains this equilibrium-order concept. 3 old age within income groups and social classes — as, for ex- Fundamentally, it is a conservative ideology akin to the ample, in middle-class pension schemes — and in other ways. philosophy that `All is for the best in this best of all possible There are social policies in South Africa today which many worlds,' — or akin, to take another analogy, to neo-classical people would not regard as being beneficent or welfare- economic theory with its conception of the best possible self- oriented. There are social insurance programmes in some regulating supply and demand private market (largely, as the Latin American countries, Brazil in particular, which function 1 Racielifre-lirown, A. R., Structure and Function in Primitive Society, Cohen & as concealed multipliers of inequality — they transfer resources West, London, 195. 2, p. from the poor to the rich. Hitler developed social policies in 2 Leach, E., 'Models', New Society, /4 May 1 9 64 3 See, for example, Talc= Parsons, The Structure of SocialAction, Allen & Unwin, Nazi Germany — they were in fact called social policies — con- London, 1949; and The Social System, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1964. cerning the mentally ill and retarded, the Jews and other ethnic 142 Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction 1 Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction 1 143 What is Social Policy? 27 28 Social Policy groups. World public opinion condemned these instruments Flume once said that the true sceptic should be as diffident of of social policy which had as their ultimate ends the use of his philosophical doubts as of his philosophical convictions. human beings for medical research, sterilisation and the gas Can we then say that a true believer should be as diffident of chamber. his philosophical convictions as of his philosophical doubts — When we use the term 'social policy' we must not, therefore, so a true sceptic and a true believer would be one and the same? automatically react by investing it with a halo of altruism, Is such a paragon possible? Can a man temper his doubts with concern for others, concern about equality and so on. Nor assertion, and his assertions with doubt, and yet act in pursuit must we unthinkingly conclude that because Britain — or any of certain social policy goals? Is this what in the ordinary other country has a social policy or has developed social ser- life of decision-making some people call wisdom — the power vices, that they actually operate in practice to further the ends to be both critical and practical, both speculative and of progressive redistribution, equality and social altruism. pragmatic?' What is 'welfare' for some groups may be 'illfare' for To return, however, to this tiresome business of defining others. social policy. Let us consider what some other writers have And, lastly, in guarding against the value implications of the said on the subject. At one extreme, we can find the most com- term 'social policy', I should point out that it does not imply prehensive definition in the statement by Professor Macbeath allegiance to any political party or ideology. We all have our in his 1957 Hobhouse Lecture: 'Social policies are concerned values and our prejudices; we all have our rights and duties as with the right ordering of the network of relationships be- citizens, and our rights and duties as teachers and students. At tween men and women who live together in societies, or with the very least, we have a responsibility for making our values the principles which should govern the activities of individuals clear; and we have a special duty to do so when we are dis- and groups so far as they affect the lives and interests of other cussing such a subject as social policy which, quite clearly, has people.' 2 no meaning at all if it is considered to be neutral in terms of It would be difficult to be more sweeping than that. It could values. Or as Nye Bevan, the architect of the British National easily be read as a grand definition of the scope of sociology; Health Service, was so fond of saying: 'This is my truth, now indeed, a definition that includes economics and all the social tell me yours: 1 science disciplines. However, one should point out that it was Gunnar Myrdal has had much to say in his writings on Professor Macbeath's purpose to state the central issue in economic and social policy about the dangers of deceiving social policy — or any policy determined by Government to ourselves and others about our values and biases. He has intervene in the life of the community. As he saw it, the central criticised sociologists and anthropologists for believing in the issue was between the self-regarding (egotistical) activities of possibility of a value-free approach in their studies of social man and the other-regarding (altruistic) activities. Professor organisation. 2 Ginsberg took much the same position. Arguing that some forms of social policy are based on the notion of moral pro- life with Nye, Jenny Lee, The Ohseryer Colour Supplement, to December gress, he then used criteria of moral progress which are to be 1 97 2- 2 He did so first in his book An American Dilemma: the Negro problem and modern democracy, Harper & Row, London, 1962, and more recently in The Challenge of See Corbett, P., Ideologies, Hutchinson, London, 19455, p. sog. World Poverty, Allen Lane, London, 15go (see Ch. 2, 'Cleansing the Approach from Macbeath G., 'Can Social Policies be Rationally Tested?', Hobhouse Memorial 2 Biases,. Trust lecture, Oxford University Press, 1957, p. a. 144 Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction I Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction 1 145 What is Social Policy? 29 30 Social Policy found 'in the growing power of altruism over egoism' 1 argues that 'in the main social policy is an attempt to steer brought about by a fusion of intelligence and concern for the life of society along channels it would not follow if left to social justice and equality. The Gift Relationship was an attempt itself'.' This is in some senses a more limited definition — but it to provide a concrete illustration of this philosophical view does imply a substantial interventionist role by Government in from an international study of blood donor systems. 2 the provision of a wide range of community facilities and At the other extreme, let us take Professor Hagenbuch's safeguards. definition of social policy. 'Stated in general terms,' he said, Professor Marshall is more practical and down-to-earth: `the mainspring of social policy may be said to be the desire to "Social Policy" is not a technical term with an exact meaning ensure every member of the community certain minimum... it is taken to refer to the policy of governments with regard standards and certain opportunities.' 3 This I think is typical of to action having a direct impact on the welfare of the citizens, many definitions offered by other writers in a large number of by providing them with services or income. The central core Western countries. It is similar also to the views expressed by consists, therefore, of social insurance, public (or national) 2 the United Nations in a series of studies and reports in recent assistance, the health and welfare services, housing policy.' years: for example, in the Report on the Organiration and Again, social policy is seen to be beneficent, redistributive Administration of Social Services 4 published in 1962. and concerned with economic as well as non-economic These and similar definitions, whether one views them as objectives. Like many of the other definitions, social policy (as limited or broad, all contain three objectives — and, of course, with economic policy) is all about 'what is and what might value judgements. First, they aim to be beneficent — policy is be'. It is thus involved in choices in the ordering of social directed to provide welfare for citizens. Second, they include change. economic as well as non-economic objectives; for example, As an aid to our inquiries, it is helpful to examine three con- minimum wages, minimum standards of income maintenance trasting models or functions of social policy. The purpose of and so on. Thirdly, they involve some measure of progressive model-building is not to admire the architecture of the building, redistribution in command-over-resources from rich to poor. but to help us to see some order in all the disorder and con- Dissenting somewhat from these views is Professor Lafitte fusion of facts, systems and choices concerning certain areas of of Birmingham — the only professor in Britain with the title bur economic and social life. Tentatively, the three models can `Social Policy'. He sees social policy as being more concerned be described as follows: with the communal environment — with the provision of social amenity (urban renewal and national parks, for example, and MODEL A The Residual Welfare Model of Social Policy measures against pollution, noise, etc.) which the individual cannot purchase in the market as a lone individual. He puts less This formulation is based on the premise that there are two emphasis on individual transfer payments (like pensions) and `natural' (or socially given) channels through which an individual's needs are properly met; the private market and the family. Only when these break down should social welfare Ginsberg, M., The Idea of Progress: a revaluation, Methuen, London, 1 9131 24. 2 Tinnuss, R. M., The GO Relationship, Allen & Unwin, London, 1971. 3 Hagenbuch, W., Social Economics, Nisbet, Welwyn, 1958, p. 205. 1 Lafitte., F., Social Policy in a Free Sodom Birmingham University Press, 1962, 4 Report on the Organkation and Administration of Social Services, Report by Group P. 9. of Experts to UN Secretary General (ST/S0A/4.4 and EXN.ThSoiRev. x), x962. 2 Marshall, T. H., Social Remy, Hutchinson, London, 1965, p. 7.  - vf 146 Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction I Welfare States: Construction, Deconstruction, Reconstruction 1 147.,. What is Social Policy? 31 32 Social Policy institutions come into play and then only temporarily. As approximations do serve to indicate the major differences — the Professor Peacock puts it: 'The true object of the Welfare ends of the value spectrum — in the views held about the means State is to teach people how to do without it.' I The theoretical and ends of social policy. All three models involve considera- basis of this model can be traced back to the early days of the tion of the work ethic and the institution of the family in English Poor Law, and finds support in organic-mechanistic- modem society. biological constructs of society advanced by sociologists like The three contrasting models of social policy represent Spencer and Radcliffe-Brown, and economists like Friedman, different criteria for making choices. We analyse the implica- Hayek and the founders and followers of the Institut?. of tions of Model A in the next chapter and refer to it and the Economic Affairs in London. other models in a number of other chapters later in the book. MODEL B The Industrial Achievement-Performance Model of Social Policy This incorporates a significant role for social welfare institu- tions as adjuncts of the economy. It holds that social needs should be met on the basis of merit, work performance and productivity. It is derived from various economic and psycho- logical theories concerned with incentives, effort and reward, and the formation of class and group loyalties. It has been described as the 'Handmaiden Model'. MODEL C The Institutional Redistributive Model of Social Policy This model sees social welfare as a major integrated institution in society, providing universalist services outside the market on the principle of need. It is in part based on theories about the multiple effects of social change and the economic system, and in part on the principle of social equality. It is basically a model incorporating systems of redistribution in command-over- resources-through-time. These three models are, of course, only very broad approxi- mations to the theories and ideas of economists, philosophers, political scientists and sociologists. Many variants could be developed of a more sophisticated kind. However, these Peacock, A., The Welfare Society, Liberal Publication Department, London, 1960, P.