De Tijd van de Koude Oorlog - Maatschappijleer PDF

# De Tijd van de Koude Oorlog ## De blokvorming in Oost en West ### De tijd van de Koude Oorlog - De Koude Oorlog was een periode van vijandschap tussen de Sovjet-Unie (SU) en de VS en hun bondgenoten, waarin veel conflicten en oorlogen voorkwamen. - Er was echter geen sprake van een rechtstreeks...

# De Tijd van de Koude Oorlog ## De blokvorming in Oost en West ### De tijd van de Koude Oorlog - De Koude Oorlog was een periode van vijandschap tussen de Sovjet-Unie (SU) en de VS en hun bondgenoten, waarin veel conflicten en oorlogen voorkwamen. - Er was echter geen sprake van een rechtstreekse oorlog tussen de VS en de SU. - In Europa liep de vijandschap tussen de communistische en de niet-communistische staten zo hoog op, dat op bevel van de SU, Oost en West bijna volledig van elkaar werden gescheiden. - De grenzen tussen Oost en West bestonden uit een kale strook land ('niemandsland') met veel prikkeldraad en wachttorens. - De Engelse minister-president Churchill noemde deze grens het IJzeren Gordjin. - De Tijd van de Koude Oorlog laat men meestal beginnen na afloop van de Tweede Wereldoorlog. - Omstreeks 1989 kwam er een einde aan de vijandschap tussen de SU en de VS en hun bondgenoten. - De gevolgen van de Koude Oorlog bleven nog lang zichtbaar. - De laatste jaren zijn nieuwe tegenstellingen de wereld gaan beheersen. - De conservatieve regering van de VS en haar bondgenoten staan tegenover moslimfundamentalisten. - Nu spannen zowel aan westerse als aan moslimzijde veel staten zich in om tegenstellingen te verminderen en nieuwe oorlogen te voorkomen. ## Wantrouwen tussen Oost en West vanaf het ontstaan van de SU - Al sinds de oprichting van de SU was er wantrouwen tussen de SU aan de ene kant (Oost) en de VS en West-Europa aan de andere kant (West). - In 1917 had er in Rusland een communistische revolutie plaatsgevonden. - In 1918 hadden de westerse Geallieerden troepen naar Rusland gestuurd om de communistische regering ten val te brengen. - Dat mislukte. - De SU bleef nu het Westen wantrouwen. - De SU voelde zich 'omsingeld' door vijandige, 'kapitalistische' landen. - De SU had in 1919 de Komintern (Communistische Internationale) opgericht. - Deze had tot doel de wereldrevolutie te bevorderen. - Bijna alle communistische partijen in het Westen sloten zich bij de Komintern aan. - De westerse regeringen waren bang voor een communistische revolutie in hun staat, die door de SU zou worden geleid. - Kort na de Eerste Wereldoorlog vonden er in verschillende staten (bijvoorbeeld in Duitsland en Hongarije) pogingen tot een communistische revolutie plaats. - Deze mislukten. - In 1939 sloten Stalin en Hitler een niet-aanvalsverdrag. - Samen veroverden zij daarna Polen. - De SU viel Finland binnen. - Door deze gebeurtenissen werd in het Westen het wantrouwen tegen de SU nog sterker. - Pas toen Hitler in 1941 de SU aanviel, werden de SU en het Westen gedwongen om elkaars bondgenoten te worden. - Nederland bijvoorbeeld erkende pas in 1942 De Sovjet-regering als de wettige regering van Rusland. ## Na de Tweede Wereldoorlog groeit het wantrouwen - Het wantrouwen tussen Oost en West groeide na de Tweede Wereldoorlog. - Vlak vóór en vlak na het einde van de oorlog hielden de Grote Drie conferenties over de toekomst van Europa: - In Jalta op de Krim, februari 1945: Churchill, Roosevelt en Stalin. - In Potsdam bij Berlijn, juli 1945: Attlee (England), Truman (VS) en Stalin. - De Grote Drie gingen er bij dat overleg vanuit dat wie een bepaald gebied op de Duitsers of Japanners had veroverd, in dat gebied de grootste invloed mocht houden. - Zo ontstonden er 'invloedssferen'. - De westerse Geallieerden wilden dat overal in de bevrijde gebieden de democratie werd hersteld. - Met overal vrije verkiezingen en een meerpartijenstelsel. ## Stalin dacht in de eerste plaats aan de veiligheid van Rusland - Hij wilde dus geen anticommunistische regeringen in de door de SU bevrijde of veroverde gebieden. - Met de wil van de mensen in zijn invloedssfeer wilde hij geen rekening houden. - In een aantal landen binnen de Russische invloedssfeer werden vrije verkiezingen gehouden, - De communistische partijen haalden nergens de meerderheid. - Stalin greep daarom in: met behulp van het Russische leger kregen de communistische partijen toch overal de macht in handen. - Op deze manier werden Polen, Tsjechoslowakije, Hongarije, Roemenië en Bulgarije in het door de SU overheerste Oostblok opgenomen. - En ook de Oost-Duitse staat, de DDR. ## Onenigheid over de toekomst van Duitsland - De SU wilde na de oorlog van Duitsland een economisch en militair zwak land maken. - Duitsland mocht beslist niet anti-Russisch zijn. - De VS wilden een economisch sterk, democratisch en dus waarschijnlijk anti-Russisch Duitsand. - Als gevolg van deze verdeeldheid gingen Oost en West in hun bezettingszones een eigen politiek voeren. - Al spoedig ontstonden daarna de westers gezinde Bondsrepubliek en de Russisch gezinde DDR. - Zo was Duitsland in twee staten verdeeld. ## Een burgeroorlog in Griekenland leidt tot de Trumanleer - In Griekenland streed de regering tegen de door communisten geleide oppositie. - De VS gingen de Griekse regering steunen (1947). - President Truman verklaarde dat de VS zich vanaf dat moment tegen iedere communistische aanval of opstand, waar ook ter wereld, zou verzetten. - Dit wordt de Trumanleer genoemd. - Stalin beschouwde de Trumanleer als een vijandige politiek ten opzichte van de SU. ## Marshallhulp wekt woede van Stalin - In 1947 kwamen de VS op voorstel van Marshall, minister van buitenlandse zaken, met een opzienbarend idee: het Marshallplan. - De VS gingen Europa financieel steunen bij de opbouw van de economie. - De Amerikanen wilden met het plan voorkomen dat het communisme zich in Europa nog verder zou uitbreiden. - Want in een arm Europa had het communisme veel meer kans. - Volgens Stalin wilden de Amerikanen Europa door het plan economisch en politiek afhankelijk maken van de VS. - Daardoor wees hij het plan af. - Hij verbood de Oost-Europese landen die hij beheerste, het plan te aanvaarden. - Het Marshallplan werd wel aanvaard door de West-Europese landen, Joegoslavië, Griekenland en Turkije. ## In Azië breidt communisme zich uit - In Noord-Korea en China kwamen communistische regeringen aan de macht. - De communist Ho Tsji Minh leidde in Vietnam de vrijheidsstrijd tegen de Franse koloniale overheersers. - Al voor de Tweede Wereldoorlog was er in China een burgeroorlog aan de gang tussen de nationalistische regering en de communisten. - Na de Tweede Wereldoorlog laaide de strijd weer op. - Ondanks Amerikaanse steun aan de nationalisten kregen de Chinese communisten in 1949 het hele vasteland van China in handen. - Een deel van de Chinese nationalisten trok zich terug op het eiland Taiwan. - Met steun van de VS wisten ze zich te handhaven. ## Midden- en Oost-Europa in de greep van het communisme - 'Volksdemocratieën' zijn in werkelijkheid dictaturen. - De communisten in het Oostblok noemden hun regeringsvorm 'volksdemocratie'. - In hun ogen was democratie voor het hele volk alleen mogelijk onder leiding van de communistische partij. - En in hun volksdemocratie waren de voorschriften van het marxisme-leninisme belangrijker dan de rechten van de mens. - Kritiek op de leiding van de communistische partij was bijvoorbeeld niet toegestaan. - In de westerse democratie vindt men dat alle politieke partijen dezelfde rechten hebben. - Ook gelden de rechten van de mens voor alle burgers. - Men mag dus bijvoorbeeld kritiek leveren op de regering. ## De SU is de baas over de andere staten van het Oostblok - De SU sloot met de volksdemocratieën twee belangrijke verdragen: - Een verdrag voor economische samenwerking, Comecon (Raad voor onderlinge economische hulp) genoemd, 1949. - Een verdrag voor militaire samenwerking, het Warschaupact, 1955. - In de Comecon en in het Warschaupact gebeurde wat de SU wilde. - En ook over veel andere zaken in de volksdemocratieën besliste niet de eigen communistische regering, maar Stalin. ## Een tekenaar uit de VS gaf kort na de Tweede Wereldoorlog zijn kijk op de invloedssferen van de SU - In het midden zie je het Kremlin, centrum van de regering van de SU. - Onder de tekening schreef hij: 'Een kwestie van aardrijkskunde. - In het Westen werden deze volksdemocratieën ook wel 'satellieten van Moskou' genoemd. - In het Oosten werden de West-Europese landen als 'knechten van Washington' aangeduid. ## Na de dood van Stalin kregen de volksdemocratieën wel iets meer vrijheid om zelf hun bestuur te regelen - Maar als een volksdemocratie teveel vrijheid wilde, greep de SU met geweld in. - Dat bleek bij een opstand in Oost-Berlijn (1953), de Hongaarse opstand (1956) en hervormingen in Tsjechoslowakije (1968). ## De volksdemocratieën vertonen onderlinge verschillen - De DDR en Bulgarije vielen op door de strakke organisatie en trouwe navolging van de SU. - In Polen was het verzet tegen de communistische partij het krachtigst. - De grootste tegenstander van de communisten was de katholieke Kerk. - Door het kerkelijk verzet tegen het communisme bleven in Polen veel meer mensen trouw aan de Kerk dan in andere Oost-Europese landen. - Naast de Kerk begon in Polen ook een vakbond zich tegen het communisme te verzetten. - Deze vakbond werd niet door communisten beheerst. - De Polen mochten deze vakbond, Solidariteit, in 1980 na stakingen oprichten. - Solidariteit werd later onder druk van Moskou weer verboden. - Maar de stakingen en andere vormen van verzet gingen door. - Mede daardoor stortte de economie van Polen in. - Er was een groot tekort aan allerlei goederen. - De communistische partij slaagde er niet in deze economische crisis op te lossen. ## Nadat het leger van de SU de Hongaarse opstand (blz. 72, 88-89) had onderdrukt, kwam er toch een iets grotere vrijheid in Hongarije - Andersdenkenden die niet openlijk tegen de communistische partij ingingen, werden met rust gelaten. - Op economisch gebied kwam een iets grotere vrijheid; er mochten weer kleine particuliere bedrijven worden opgericht. - Hongarije steeds meer handel drijven met het Westen. - Westerse bedrijven mochten zich in Hongarije vestigen. - In Boedapest kwam de eerste McDonald's van Midden- en Oost-Europa. - Toeristen uit andere volksdemocratieën kwamen graag in Hongarije winkelen, omdat er westerse producten te koop waren. ## Nadat legers van het Warschaupact in Tsjechoslowakije een einde hadden gemaakt aan de Praagse Lente (blz. 72), werden andersdenkenden door de politieke politie streng vervolgd - Toch lukte het de beweging Charta '77 zich - ondergronds – in te zetten voor de rechten van de mens. - Op economisch gebied kwam niet meer vrijheid. - De Tsjechische industrie verouderde sterk. ## In Roemenië heerste partijleider Ceausescu sinds 1965 met harde hand - Hij regeerde als een alleenheerser, zoals Stalin dat in de SU had gedaan. - Wel stelde Ceausescu zich zeer onafhankelijk op tegen de SU. - Zo veroordeelde hij de Russische inval in Tsjechoslowakije. - De SU mocht ook geen kernwapens op Roemeens grondgebied plaatsen. ## De blokkade van West-Berlijn (1948-1949) - De Duitse hoofdstad Berlijn lag in de Russische bezettingszone. - De Grote Drie hadden echter besloten Berlijn net als heel Duitsland in vier sectoren te verdelen. - De drie sectoren van de westerse Geallieerden vormden samen West-Berlijn. - Stalin wilde nicht dat West-Berlijn ein 'kapitalistisches Werbeplakat' wurde in der Russischen Zone. - Stalin greep daarom in. - Hij besloot tot een blokkade van West-Berlijn. - In juni 1948 liet hij plotseling alle wegen naar West-Berlijn durch russische Truppen afsluiten. - West-Berlin wurde mit dem Hungertod bedroht. - Even leek het erop dat er om West-Berlijn gevochten zou worden. - De westelijke Geallieerden vonden echter einen friedlichen Lösung. ## Conflctions and Wars - American and British transport planes began a 'air bridge', which provided West-Berlin with supplies. - After almost a year, Stalin lifted the blockade (May 1949). - The result of the blockade was that the countries in the West worked even more closely together. - They signed a military alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, April 1949). - In 1954, the Federal Republic was admitted to NATO. - The SU and the communist countries in Eastern Europe reacted by also forming a military alliance: the Warsaw Pact (1955). ## The Korean War (1950-1953) - North Korea was liberated from Japanese rule by Russian troops at the end of World War II, the south by the Americans. - The 38th parallel formed the border between Russian and American territory. - Korea was then divided into two states: - North Korea, supported by the SU - South Korea, supported by the US - In 1949, both the Russian and American troops left Korea. - In June 1950, the North Korean army attacked South Korea. - At the suggestion of the US, the United Nations (page 68) sent an army to help South Korea. - Thee UN army consisted of troops from fifteen countries. - The Netherlands also sent a detachment of volunteers. - The majority of the troops and Commander-in-Chief McArthur came from the US. - The UN army drove back the North Koreans to the Chinese border. - Then communist China became involved in the conflict. - China sent a quarter of a million soldiers to Korea. - The UN army was driven back to the 38th parallel. - The front came to a standstill. - In 1953, an armistice was signed. - Korea remained divided into two states, as before. - In the West, it was generally accepted that Stalin was the instigator of the Korean War. - It is open to question, however, whether this is true. - What is certain is that the Korean War increased mistrust between East and West. - As a result, the Western European countries accepted the American proposal to establish a West German army. - This would make it easier to defend against an attack from Eastern Europe. ## The Berlin Wall (1961) - After Stalin's death (1953), the relationship between East and West became less tense. - His successor, Khrushchev, pursued a policy of peaceful coexistence. - East and West would live peacefully side by side. - Khrushchev was the first Russian leader in history to make a visit to the US. - In late 1960, Kennedy was elected president of the US. - He seemed to have more understanding for the SU than his predecessors, Truman and Eisenhower. - Nevertheless, there were serious conflicts between the SU and the US: the Berlin Wall and the Cuban Missile Crisis. ## In 1961, Khrushchev demanded that the Western Allies withdraw from West Berlin - Kennedy declared that American troops would definitely remain in the city. - Khrushchev then gave the DDR permission to build a wall right through the city. - The wall ended the 1945 agreement according to which East Germans could travel freely to West Berlin. - From West Berlin, East Germans could easily flee to West Germany. - Three million East Germans had fled to the West. - The DDR was threatened with 'bleeding to death'. - The wall had to put an end to that. ## The building of the wall was followed by months of tension. - Russian and American tanks stood menacingly opposite each other. - Neither side went further than threatening. - Gradually, the tension disappeared, but the wall remained until 1989. ## The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) - The only time there has ever been a threat of nuclear war between East and West was during the Cuban Missile Crisis. - Fidel Castro seized power on Cuba after a guerrilla war (1958). - After a guerrilla war on Cuba, Fidel Castro seized power (1958). - After a guerrilla war on Cuba, Fidel Castro seized power (1958). - American companies on Cuba were nationalized (taken over by the state). - Castro came into conflict with the US. - He received help from the SU and introduced communism on Cuba. - In October 1962, American aircraft detected Russian missile installations in Cuba. - Kennedy announced a naval blockade on Cuba via television. - He also declared that any nuclear missile fired from Cuba at the US would be met with an American nuclear attack on the SU. - Khrushchev indicated that he would not accept a blockade on Cuba. - He put the Russian nuclear force on high alert. - 500 miles from Cuba, the American navy awaited the Russian ships carrying nuclear weapons to Cuba. - The whole world listened with bated breath, via radio and television. - What would happen? ## At the last minute, the Russian ships turned around. - Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an agreement. - Kennedy guaranteed that the US would never attack Cuba. - Khrushchev had the missiles withdrawn from Cuba. ## The Cuban Missile Crisis had one positive result. - Khrushchev and Kennedy realized they had brought the world to the brink of annihilation. - A 'hot line' was established between the SU and the US. - This direct telex link enabled East and West leaders to consult more quickly in the event of a crisis. ## The Vietnam War (1960-1975) - The former French colony of Vietnam was divided in two states in 1954: - Communist North Vietnam, supported by the SU - Pro-Western South Vietnam, supported by the US - The Viet Cong, a communist guerrilla force, began a guerilla war against the South Vietnamese government in 1960. - They received help from North Vietnam. - President Kennedy thought that the Viet Cong force was small, but dangerous because they had the help of North Vietnam. - He helped the South Vietnamese government with weapons and military specialists. - The Viet Cong continued to grow. ## Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers went to Vietnam - President Johnson, Kennedy’s successor, was convinced that if South Vietnam became communist, countries such as Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia would fall like dominoes to communism. - This view is therefore known as the Domino Theory. - Johnson pulled out all the stops to defeat the Viet Cong. - In 1965, he sent American troops to Vietnam on a large scale. - In 1968, there were half a million soldiers from the US. ## North Vietnam also sent more and more soldiers - From 1968 on, the war in South Vietnam was essentially between the US and North Vietnam. - The Americans used the most modern weapons, such as heavy bombers, helicopters, napalm bombs (fire bombs) and chemical defoliants. - They caused widespread devastation. - Countless civilian victims of the violence. - Bombing raids were also carried out on North Vietnam. - Nevertheless, the US failed to defeat the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces. ## The US withdrew from Vietnam - The US realized they could not win. - Opposition to the war amongst the American people was growing. - President Nixon, Johnson’s successor, withdrew ground troops from Vietnam (1972). - He secured a ceasefire between North and South Vietnam (January 1973). - The US air force withdrew. ## Two Years Later, North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam - Within a few weeks, South Vietnam was conquered (April 1975). - North and South Vietnam were united into one communist country. - North Vietnam came out on top in the reunification. - Tens of thousands of South Vietnamese, including former Viet Cong members, fled on battered boats. - Some of these 'boat people' were admitted to the Netherlands. ## The outcome of the Vietnam War was a huge shock for the US. - The most powerful force in the world had failed to defeat a smaller and far less developed Asian country. - Americans tried to learn 'lessons from Vietnam'. - Should the US have invaded North Vietnam? - Should the US have pulled out earlier when it became clear that the South Vietnamese people did not offer sufficient support for the Americans? - Had the war been made impossible by the press? ## No war has been photographed and filmed as much as the Vietnam War. - Newspapers and magazines, but especially radio and television, played a pivotal role in the Vietnam War. - The Vietnam War featured daily on television. - Shocking images of the war made a deep impression. - Television mostly showed American war operations. - North Vietnam did not allow television and journalists access. - As a result, people in the West had the impression that the Americans alone were the major villains. ## East and West elsewhere in the world - East and West each tried to expand its sphere of influence in the rest of the world. - This led to tensions everywhere, and sometimes (civil) wars. ## Vietnam in American Feature Films - In World War II, Hollywood made many films to support the war against Germany and Japan. - During the Vietnam War, few films were made about Vietnam in Hollywood. - After the war, many more were made. - Americans use often impressive feature films to process the misery of the Vietnam War. - The public remains deeply divided on the subject. - This is evident in many films. ## In Africa, some countries became communist. - But most African states maintained good relations with the West. ## In Latin America, Cuba became communist in 1959. - In some other countries, communists achieved temporary military successes (El Salvador, Nicaragua). - Both East and West sought greater influence in the Middle East. - Israel and Turkey primarily maintained ties with the West. - But the Arab countries continued to pursue their own path. ## The Nuclear Arms Race - One of the most serious consequences of the Cold War was the nuclear arms race. - The atomic bomb was developed by the US during World War II. - The Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were destroyed by atomic bombs (August 1945). ## Four Years After the Americans, Russians also developed the atom bomb. - This created a situation where countries could deter one another with nuclear weapons (mutual deterrence). - This meant that anyone who started a nuclear war could expect their own country to be destroyed. - Both countries continued to fear a surprise attack that could wipe out their own nuclear weapons. - As a result, they both wanted more and more modern nuclear weapons. - This led to an endless arms race. ## In addition to the US and Russia, Great Britain, France, China, Israel, India and Pakistan now also have nuclear weapons. - East and West have negotiated since the Cuban Missile Crisis in an effort to put an end to the arms race. - Significant progress has been made, especially since the end of the Cold War. ## 1989: the end of communist rule in Eastern Europe - In 1985, Gorbachev became leader of the SU. - He allowed East European countries more freedom. - In 1988-1991, Gorbachev steadily eased restrictions on East European countries. ## Gorvachev Did The ‘Impossible’, Or Was It Reagan? - Many people believe that Gorbachev was responsible for the fall of communism in Europe. - Others believe that Reagan, the US president, was responsible. - Gorbachev wanted to make the SU strong again. - He believed that a different kind of communism was necessary; one without violence and more democratic. - Within a few years, Gorbachev took a number of important steps: - 1986: He told Reagan that the SU would reduce the number of nuclear weapons, even if the US did not do the same. - 1987: He encouraged freedom of speech and religion. - He released many people from prison, even those who continued to criticize the government. - 1989: He took no action when demonstrations brought an end to communism in many Central and Eastern European countries. - 1990: He allowed Western companies to do business in the SU. - He also allowed non-communist political parties. - A coup attempt by a group of communist leaders in 1991 failed. - Gorbachev’s leading role was taken over by Yeltsin, leader of a non-communist party. ## In January 1990, Gorbachev and his wife made a visit to Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, which was then part of the SU. - Gorbachev tried in vain, with arguments rather than force, to keep the Soviet empire together. ## Who Caused The Cold War? - Those who talk about arguments and wars often talk about who is to blame. - That is not wise but it is easy. - That is why many people do it. - It is better to first ask how an argument or war started. - Only then - if you still want to - can you consider who is to blame. ## Causes Are Almost Always Complicated - There is something else to bear in mind when considering responsibility. - You probably know the saying 'it takes two to tango'. - Many people seem to believe this (when it is not about themselves). - It is easy to just go with this when you want to keep things simple. - But the truth is rarely simple. ## When you tackle history, first you look for causes. - Then when you want to consider responsibility, you assume the blame lies with both sides, or even completely with one side. ## Much has been written about who is to blame for the Cold War. - Historians have always disagreed about this. - The relationship between the SU and the West steadily improved thanks to concessions made by the SU: - At the end of 1989, Gorbachev allowed the communist party’s monopoly on power to be abolished in Central and Eastern European countries. - In 1990, Gorbachev agreed that the DDR should leave the Warsaw Pact and disband itself. - In 1991, the SU collapsed and the Warsaw Pact was disbanded. - The good relations between the SU and the West were also evident when a new crisis erupted in the Middle East in August 1990: Iraq invaded Kuwait. - For the first time, East and West were not facing each other, but side-by-side. - Both condemned Saddam Hussein’s actions, the Iraqi president. - In Poland, the Solidarity trade union was allowed again. - Lech Walesa, the Solidarity leader, became so popular that he effectively became the most powerful man in the country. - Solidarity successfully demanded free elections. - In these elections, the communist party was soundly defeated by Solidarity (June 1989). - Poland was the first East European country to get a non-communist government. - Lech Walesa became the president of Poland in 1990. - In February 1989, the Hungarian communist party allowed other parties to set up. - In November 1989, the communist party disbanded itself. - Hungary became parliamentary democracy. - In the autumn of 1989, there were large demonstrations against the communist regime in the remaining socialist countries (the DDR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania). ## China: Demonstrations For Greater Freedom Suppressed - In 1989, there were demonstrations for greater freedom in the huge Tiananmen Square in Beijing (China). - Students had made a model of freedom out of polystyrene, inspired by the French Marianne and the American Statue of Liberty. - On May 18, there were about one million people in the square, and millions more in other cities. - The demonstrations continued, and the communist leaders sent tanks and soldiers in to stamp them out. - An estimated 2000 people were shot. - In the background is a portrait of Mao Zedong, the communist leader who died in 1976. - The communist governments in the DDR, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria were toppled. - The leading figures of the communist parties resigned. - The DDR disappeared altogether and was absorbed into the Federal Republic (October 3rd, 1990). - A parliamentary democracy was established in Czechoslovakia. - Vaclav Havel, one of the founders of Charta ‘77’, became president (December 1989). - Dubček, the leader who was deposed by the Russians in 1968, became president of the parliament. - In the late 1980s, Ceausescu in Romania came up with the plan to raze thousands of villages to the ground, to rehouse villagers in large apartment blocks. - This met with widespread resistance. - He ordered the security forces (the Securitate) to shoot at demonstrators. - Then the army rebelled. - After a few days of bloody fighting, Ceausescu and his wife were arrested and executed (December 25, 1989). - However, power remained in the hands of Ceausescu’s former colleagues who called themselves the National Salvation Front. - So within a few months, communism had been abolished throughout most of Eastern Europe. - This also ended the SU’s influence over Eastern Europe. - Although Russian troops had been stationed in both the former DDR and Poland, they were withdrawn. ## The reasons for the ‘miracle year’ - The key reasons for the changes in the ‘miracle year’ were: - The high cost of the Cold War - Loss of faith in communism - The SU economy was too weak to sustain an arms race with the US. - It also cost the SU a great deal of money to support communist movements in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. - Gorbachev wanted to reduce the Soviet army by half a million men. - The SU also had to consider the possibility of receiving more financial assistance from the West if the Cold War ended. - The costs were also too high for the US for many years. - The US had a serious budget deficit because of high military expenditure. - Eastern Europe was lagging far behind Western Europe in terms of prosperity. - This undermined the confidence of communist leaders. - They realized their policies had been wrong, and did not know how to solve the crisis. - When the population took to the streets in mass demonstrations, the communist leaders could no longer handle the situation. ## Communism still exists in a number of countries - On Cuba, the communists are still in power. - In the past, the SU gave money to Cuba and took more than half of Cuba’s exports. - This support has now ended. - Many people believe that things will change on Cuba after Castro’s death. - The communists are also still in power in China, Laos, North Korea and Vietnam.