Multiple-group Membership: Warmth and Competence Perceptions in the Workplace PDF

Journal of Business and Psychology (2021) 36:903–920 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-020-09713-4 ORIGINAL PAPER Multiple-group membership: warmth and competence perceptions in the workplace Andrea Strinić 1 & Magnus Carlsson 2 & Jens Agerström 3 Published online: 15 August 2020 # The Author(s)...

Journal of Business and Psychology (2021) 36:903–920 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-020-09713-4 ORIGINAL PAPER Multiple-group membership: warmth and competence perceptions in the workplace Andrea Strinić 1 & Magnus Carlsson 2 & Jens Agerström 3 Published online: 15 August 2020 # The Author(s) 2020 Abstract What kinds of stereotypes are evoked when employers review a job application from a 55-year-old Arab woman? Most previous research on stereotypes has focused on single demographic group categories (e.g., race or gender) rather than on their combi- nations, even though people inevitably belong to multiple group categories simultaneously. The current study examines how different combinations of demographic group categories (ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and age) are perceived in the context of the workplace, with a focus on two fundamental dimensions of social perception: warmth and competence. The results reveal interesting interactions among the studied demographic group categories such that when stigmatized group categories are added to one another, it does not necessarily produce additive negative effects on warmth and competence perceptions. Rather, one category that is perceived negatively in isolation (e.g., homosexuality) can offset the negative impact of another stigmatized category (e.g., Arab ethnicity). Practical implications for stereotyping and discrimination in the workplace are discussed. Keywords Warmth. Competence. Stereotype content model. Multiple-group membership. Hiring. Stereotypes Prolific research on the stereotype content model (SCM) systematically reflect the content of stereotypes associated shows that people perceive social groups and individuals in with diverse social groups. Evidence supporting the model terms of how warm (e.g., friendly, trustworthy, and kind) and has been obtained using explicit and implicit measures competent (e.g., intelligent, skillful, and efficient) they are (Carlsson & Björklund, 2010), in different cultures (Bye, (Cuddy, Glick, & Beninger, 2011; Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Herrebrøden, Hjetland, Røyset, & Westby, 2014; Cuddy Xu, 2002; Fiske, Xu, Cuddy, & Glick, 1999). The SCM et al., 2009), with a nationally representative U.S. sample claims that warmth and competence1 are two dimensions that (Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2007), and from a number of diverse convenience samples (Fiske et al., 2002). The model has re- 1 ceived ample support and addresses several complexities as- Dimensions of warmth and competence draw their roots from social perception research and have, together with many other concepts, been sociated with perceptions of different groups and individuals recognized as similar and indicative of the Big Two dimensions of agency in society. It accounts for positive, negative, and mixed and communion as an overarching framework of social perception in (ambivalent) stereotypes and, together with its BIAS map ex- psychology (Abele & Wojciszke, 2018). We recognize that warmth and com- petence have been marked as facets of agency and communion in some lines of tension, makes predictions about potential emotions, preju- research (Abele et al., 2016). In the current study, we use the SCM terminol- dices, and behaviors directed at perceived groups (Cuddy ogy, as it seems to have been most frequently adopted by previous research on et al., 2007; Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007). the stereotype content of social groups. Thus far, SCM research has mostly examined how people perceive single demographic group categories (e.g., elderly, * Andrea Strinić [email protected] the disabled, and gay people) in terms of warmth and compe- tence (for a more recent review, see Fiske, 2018). Perceptions 1 of groups that consist of multiple categories, such as gay men Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Linnaeus University, 351 95 Växjö, Sweden and disadvantaged Black people, have also been studied to 2 some extent, though less systematically than single categories. Department of Economics and Statistics, School of Business and Economics, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden That is, relatively few studies have examined how the succes- 3 sive addition of categories influences people’s warmth and Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden competence perceptions. For example, what happens to 904 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 people’s perceptions of Arabs when homosexuality (versus finding suggests that Swedish hiring managers assume that heterosexuality) is also signaled? Furthermore, are these per- male Arab applicants lack both warmth and competence until ceptions affected by the gender of the social target? These are proven otherwise (e.g., by the signaling of these characteris- arguably important research questions because the targets of tics in a personal letter). our social perception inevitably belong to multiple groups In sum, investigations of warmth/competence perceptions simultaneously. in the workplace have been sporadic and usually directed at Another complexity yet to be addressed concerns how the the specific goal of comparing one or two demographic dimensions of warmth and competence interact when an groups on a particular outcome (e.g., hiring preferences). An individual is a member of multiple social groups with important next step in this line of research is to learn how conflicting stereotype content. Fiske et al. (2002) show that demographic groups are perceived in the context of work businesswomen are seen as more competent than warm, al- and to investigate how their combinations, i.e., multiple- though the generic category women are perceived as less com- group memberships, affect warmth/competence perceptions. petent than that of men. If another category is added, will such The current study explores how professional employees and perceptions be complicated further? For example, what hap- hiring decision-makers perceive various demographic catego- pens if we add Arab ethnicity, which typically ends up in the ries and their intersections in terms of warmth and middle of the warmth/competence space? How will an older competence. Arab businesswoman be perceived in terms of warmth and competence given that older workers as a single category have been found to be perceived as warmer but less competent than Multiple-group membership younger workers (Krings, Sczesny, & Kluge, 2011)? in the workplace—why employ the SCM? Cuddy et al. (2011) propose that warmth/competence per- ceptions of groups may be of relevance for various organiza- Warmth and competence are borne out of the evolutionary tional outcomes such as personnel selection and for both role need to recognize the intent of others and their capabilities to and task assignment. They propose that decisions may be act on that intent (Fiske et al., 2007). Warmth captures our influenced by matching the stereotype content of a perceptions of others’ intent, or more specifically, how friend- demographic group to the particular job/task at hand. As an ly, helpful, trustworthy, sincere, and moral they are (Fiske illustration, Cuddy et al. (2011) note that women, who are et al., 2007). Competence captures our perceptions of others’ regarded as stereotypically warmer than competent, might be capabilities to act on their intent or, more specifically, how hired more often for jobs in which social skills are essential intelligent, skilled, and efficient they are (Fiske et al., 2007). (e.g., cashiers). They also propose that warmth and compe- The two dimensions apply to perceptions of both single indi- tence stereotypes may bias evaluations and assessments of viduals (person perception) and social groups (stereotypes). employees and affect team functioning, particularly in terms The SCM model makes explicit predictions about both emo- of diversity. Although many propositions have been made, tions and behavioral tendencies directed at groups subject to a further research is needed to investigate various potential ap- particular type of stereotype, and these predictions encompass plications in organizational settings. Some initial research has a large number of diverse demographic groups (Cuddy, Fiske, used warmth and competence in an attempt to explain differ- & Glick, 2008; Fiske et al., 2002). The model has also been ences in salary recommendations with respect to the ethnicity extended to perceptions of various subgroups of immigrants and sexual orientation of the applicant (Pedulla, 2014). (Lee & Fiske, 2006), females and males (Eckes, 2002), the García-Ael, Cuadrado, and Molero (2018) illustrate how the elderly (Cuddy, Norton, & Fiske, 2005), and lesbian and gay male stereotype (higher competence than warmth) is more groups (Brambilla, Carnaghi, & Ravenna, 2011; Clausell & congruent with the stereotypes people have of individuals in Fiske, 2005; Vaughn, Teeters, Sadler, & Cronan, 2017). The leadership positions than the female stereotype (more research on subgroups suggests that even if a generic group is warmth). Krings et al. (2011) shed some light on the role of perceived as neutral on both dimensions, ratings of its sub- warmth and competence stereotypes in age discrimination in groups can show a more nuanced picture. This indicates that hiring. They find that younger job candidates are perceived to the stereotype content of demographic groups can interact in be both more competent and warmer than older candidates complex ways. The SCM research per se shows how specify- and that this seems to explain why their participants (business ing an additional demographic group can provide important students and HR experts) reported a greater willingness to hire information for the perceiver and change the stereotype con- younger candidates. Agerström, Björklund, Carlsson, and tent associated with a given category, though few systematic Rooth (2012) show that compared to Swedish men, Arab investigations of how multiple-group memberships combine men benefit more from explicitly signaling both warmth and and influence warmth and competence perceptions exist. competence in their job applications, as doing so raises the Various models/hypotheses of multiple social categoriza- probability of their being invited to a job interview. This tion have been proposed though without incorporating the J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 905 warmth and competence dimensions. Below we provide an year-old/55-year-old), and their intersections. These catego- overview of models that explicitly incorporate categories of ries are widespread in society and commonly studied in re- particular relevance to the current research (e.g., gender and search. Furthermore, field experiments in which fictitious job ethnicity). The double or multiple jeopardy hypothesis (Beale, applications are sent to real job openings to investigate dis- 1970; Nelson & Probst, 2004) predicts that simultaneously crimination highlight the importance of understanding percep- belonging to multiple outgroups will increase the chances tions of these categories in hiring contexts (Bertrand & Duflo, and severity of discrimination, or more specifically, that 2017), as they demonstrate that recruiters often act on age, belonging to multiple minority groups should have additive ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. Hence, these catego- effects. Nelson and Probst (2004) suggest that because be- ries were considered relevant for further investigation into longing to minority groups is associated with adverse psycho- how their combinations are perceived. logical, physical, and job-related outcomes, the likelihood of Perceptions of women are quite diverse according to SCM experiencing these adverse outcomes increases among indi- research. Fiske et al. (2002) show that “traditional” women are viduals with multiple minority status. targets of paternalistic stereotypes (higher warmth than com- Other models suggest that one category becomes dominant petence), while businesswomen and feminists are targets of and leads perception. The subordinate-male hypothesis pre- envious stereotypes (higher competence than warmth). The dicts that males of subordinate groups will face the most dis- general women category is perceived as higher in warmth than crimination (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Due to conflict, in competence but occupies the in-group quadrant (high aggression, and resource competition being more associated warmth/high competence rating compared to other groups), with men, Sidanius and Pratto (1999) posit that minority men while men occupy the high competence/lower warmth quad- will experience more discrimination than other groups. They rant (Fiske et al., 2002). Gender categories with additional do not aim to trivialize discrimination experienced by minor- signals may evoke diverse stereotype content. For example, ity women but claim that majority men’s aggression will be Eckes (2002) finds that career women unlike the category of increasingly directed towards minority men. typical women are perceived to be higher in competence than The ethnic-prominence hypothesis predicts that discrimina- in warmth. This stands in contrast to the category of typical tion will be driven more by race than by gender (Levin, men, whose perceived warmth/competence is not affected by Sinclair, Veniegas, & Taylor, 2002). This is the case because the career signal. this category is more salient and more strongly associated with In terms of ethnicity, the main impetus for focusing on conflict and threat than gender. comparing categories Arab and Swedish is that Sweden has Research testing these models shows mixed results and has recently experienced an influx of immigrants from countries primarily been developed to propose possible behaviors to- in the Middle East and North Africa (Statistics Sweden, 2019). wards minority groups with a focus on ethnicity and gender Previous research shows that male Arab applicants receive rather than explicitly testing how different possible group fewer callbacks for interviews than male Swedish applicants combinations produce stereotypical perceptions in terms of (Agerström et al., 2012; Carlsson & Rooth, 2007). We use the warmth and competence (e.g., see Derous, Ryan, & Nguyen, Arab generic category to evoke stereotypes associated with 2012; Derous, Ryan, & Serlie, 2015). As it stands, the afore- this broad group, as it encompasses immigrants into Sweden mentioned multiple categorization models have yet to be in- from several countries. Previous research on the SCM shows tegrated with the SCM. Because SCM research shows that the that the Arab category is perceived as more competent than majority of groups have ambivalent (mixed) stereotype con- warm, although when compared to other groups its scores are tent, this implies that multiple categorization models would situated in the middle of the warmth/competence space (Fiske need to be translated into predictions for both warmth and et al., 2002). One can expect ethnicity to interact in a complex competence perceptions. Such predictions would seem pre- manner with the other included categories. mature at this point considering the relative lack of research Both the gay and lesbian categories appear to receive on this topic. Exploratory research on warmth and competence scores in the middle of the warmth/competence space (Fiske perceptions in relation to multiple groups should, however, et al., 2002). However, according to Brambilla et al. (2011) provide an additional basis for the future development of pre- and Clausell and Fiske (2005), subgroups of these two cate- dictions that incorporate both dimensions. gories score differently across the warmth/competence space, which suggests that these subgroups contain mixed stereo- types. Clausell and Fiske (2005) propose that the reasoning Studied groups and research question behind the neutral ratings of the overall categories of gay and lesbian could be that the variety of subgroups contained in The following group categories are examined in the current these overarching categories cancels each other out, perhaps study: gender (male/female), ethnicity (Arab/Swedish), sexual due to the overall category not being psychologically mean- orientation (homosexual/orientation not mentioned), age (30- ingful. In relation to our study, these findings indicate that if 906 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 combined with other characteristics in a specific context, the (Cuddy et al., 2009; Fiske et al., 2002). The participants were homosexual category might receive diverse ratings. presented with a survey that asked them to rate the perceived To account for the content of age stereotypes, categories warmth and competence of 16 preselected demographic group such as “young,” “elderly,” or “older” have been used in SCM combinations, which were obtained by combining gender research (e.g., Cuddy et al., 2005). The elderly are typically (male/female), ethnicity (Arab/Swedish), age (30 vs 55 years rated as higher in warmth than in competence, while the young of age), and sexual orientation (homosexual/orientation not receive mid-scores that do not differentiate on the dimensions. mentioned). They were instructed to consider general percep- The only research we are aware of that investigates the stereo- tions of these groups in the context of work. Using preselected type content of specific age categories is Krings et al.’s (2011) groups deviates from the most common approach used in the study, which focuses on 50-year-old workers versus 30-year- previous literature (Fiske et al., 2002) whereby one group of old workers. In the current study, we examine the stereotype participants is given questions to generate a list of common content of 55-year-old versus 30-year-old workers, as these groups in society while another sample rates the groups. In two age categories are often used in organizational research to addition to rating the groups, the participants in our study were distinguish between older and younger employees. For exam- asked to rate the perceived warmth and competence of the ple, field experiments have examined hiring discrimination most common occupations in Sweden. These occupational among employees aged 50, 55, and 62 compared to those aged data form the empirical basis for a separate study with a dif- 35 and 40 (Lahey, 2008) and among those aged 49–51 and ferent research question. 64–66 compared to those aged 29–31 (Neumark, Burn, & Button, 2019) and found evidence of discrimination directed at older workers. Lahey (2008) found that younger workers Stimuli selection strategy are 40% more likely to be invited for an interview, while Neumark et al. (2019) find that middle-aged and older To simplify the design and focus the investigation on combi- workers respectively receive 18% and 35% lower callback nations that are of greatest interest, we created 16 groups from rates than younger workers. combinations of gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and Age might interact with other categories in important ways. age. Generic categories such as only being Swedish were not For example, Carlsson and Eriksson (2019), who submitted rated on warmth and competence. Four combinations of 6066 fictitious resumes to vacant low and medium-skilled ethnicity and gender (Swedish man, Swedish woman, Arab occupations in Sweden, find that age interacts with gender in man, and Arab woman) were regarded as reference categories. regard to the probability of being invited to a job interview. Eight more combinations of categories were obtained by They find that the callback rate for job interviews at age 35 is intersecting the four reference categories with the two age higher for women than for men but declines faster with age for groups (30 and 55 years old; for example, a Swedish man women. aged 55). The last four categories were obtained by adding To summarize, the SCM has not been thoroughly exam- homosexual to the four reference categories (for example, a ined with respect to how multiple-group memberships will be homosexual Swedish man). We did not include any groups perceived in terms of warmth and competence. Furthermore, that explicitly signaled heterosexual orientation. All stimuli models of multiple categorization (e.g., the double jeopardy used in the study are listed in Table 1. and subordinate-male hypotheses) have not yet been adapted to incorporate warmth and competence stereotypes. Additionally, both the SCM and multiple categorization Table 1 List of presented social groupings and their intersection models have only been sparsely applied to organizational con- texts. Thus, rather than prematurely testing formulated predic- Group 1 Group 2 tions, the current exploratory study aims to answer a more 30-year-old Arab man Swedish man general research question: Swedish woman Arab woman How do professional workers perceive multiple-group membership or more specifically different combinations of Arab man 55-year-old Arab woman gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and age with respect to Swedish homosexual man Swedish homosexual woman warmth and competence in the context of work? 30-year-old Swedish man 55-year-old Swedish man 55-year-old Arab man 30-year-old Arab woman Arab homosexual woman Arab homosexual man Method 55-year-old Swedish woman 30-year-old Swedish woman Notes: Group 1 corresponds to a set of groups that were rated by one The current study adopts a procedure similar to that used in the sample of participants, and group 2 corresponds to the second set that was investigation of the basic theoretical assumptions of the SCM rated by a different sample of participants J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 907 There were several reasons for choosing these 16 combi- discourage people from participating. We also reversed the nations and omitting other combinations. First, using the order of groups used in the two versions. ethnicity and gender intersection as a starting point is common in research addressing hiring discrimination both in the lab and the field (e.g., Bursell, 2014 and Liebkind, Larja, & Participants Brylka, 2016). In many areas of organizational research and theory, gender and ethnicity (or race) are demographic groups A professional convenience sample of 133 recruiters and em- that are often studied together, even when the main aim is ployees of various professional backgrounds participated in focused on differences produced by a specific characteristic. the study. Due to the exploratory nature of the current study, For example, research on hiring discrimination often exam- we aimed to have a sample size roughly that of the original ines hiring preferences based on ethnicity using stimuli mate- SCM studies reported in Fiske et al. (2002). Two main rials that contain only male applicants (e.g., Carlsson & methods of data collection were used: a web-based survey Rooth, 2007 and Derous, Nguyen, & Ryan, 2009). It has been and a face-to-face approach involving a pen-and-paper survey. considered that these combinations are more relevant for this The online survey was accessed 149 times. In total, 115 re- and future research and should be more informative for per- sponses were completed,3 which means that 77% of the par- ceiver than generic groups. Moreover, research on generic ticipants who accessed the survey completed it. In addition, 19 groups such as gender and ethnicity already exists. One can participants completed the pen-and-paper version of the sur- simply return to SCM research on these categories or to dif- vey. One participant was excluded because he or she gave the ferent types of experiments to find quite stable perceptions highest scores on virtually all items. No other participants and comparative results. The reason for omitting some com- were excluded (e.g., due to how long it took to complete the binations is also a practical one, as we wanted to avoid partic- survey), as there were no other cases for which we had reasons ipants with too many similar group combinations to rate. to believe that the participant did not answer the survey ques- tions properly. The final sample thus included 133 participants. Survey presentation strategy The participants were almost equally assigned to the two versions of the survey and to the order in which the eight The participants were randomly assigned to one of two combined groups were presented.4 The majority were women fixed versions of the survey, which each contained eight (n = 87), and the average age was M = 41 (SD = 12.49). The different groups to rate.2 There are good arguments for this ages of the participants range from 21 to 70 years (Table 2). design. The first argument is related to the fact that we use The survey was targeted at employees involved in making combined groups, which distinguishes our approach from hiring decisions and screening resumes. An alternative ap- other closely related studies. With fixed versions, we were proach would have been to target people that specifically have able to ensure in the design that the rated groups had sim- a job position within an HR or recruitment department. ilar points of reference. In contrast, if we were to randomly However, that would not guarantee that the job involves ex- assign combined groups to be rated, some participants amining resumes or making hiring decisions, and we could could receive very similar groups to rate (e.g., a 30-year- also miss relevant people outside of such departments. Eighty- old Arab woman and a 30-year-old Arab man). This could nine of the participants reported that they were working as affect ratings given to more dissimilar groups (e.g., a recruiters at the time of the survey; their average work expe- Swedish homosexual man). The second argument is that rience in recruitment was 8.79 (SD = 7.93) years with a range splitting the groups can avoid arousing suspicion among of 6 months to 30 years. The remaining 44 participants held the participants about the purpose of the study. Our aim— positions as managers and CEOs of various types, were em- to see how combinations of these groups are perceived ployment agency employees, or were other people who satis- along the warmth/competence dimensions—would likely fied our criteria of being an employee with work experience. be more conspicuous if all group combinations were visi- Only eight participants stated that they do not have experience ble to each participant. The last argument for using fixed working with recruitment (and there were five missing values; versions with only half of the groups is that it makes the see Table 2). survey shorter. This is important since a long survey could 3 Twenty-eight accesses contained blank responses, showing that these partic- 2 This followed a similar procedure to Fiske et al.’s (2002). They argue that ipants looked at the survey and decided to withdraw. Ten participants did not since the primary focus of the analysis lies at the group level, the results should complete the online survey, six of whom were discarded because they did not not be affected by the fact that all groups are not rated by the same participants. complete at least one part. 4 Although the analysis conducted in this study differs from a more traditional Sixty-seven participants rated the first version of the survey (regular order: approach to SCM group ratings, it was still deemed appropriate to split the n = 35; reverse order: n = 32). Sixty-six participants rated the second version of groups in half. the survey (regular order: n = 32 and reverse order: n = 34). 908 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 Table 2 Participant demographic information national level. There were no restrictions on company size, Gender (n) Age Do you Professional Recruitment industry, or physical location. The majority of the participants (years) work as a recruitment experience were recruited through email addresses available online on recruiter? experience (self-ratings, company websites. They received an invitation to participate (years) entire in the study and a request to share the invitation further within sample) their organizations. Upon agreeing to participate, they re- Male Female 0–30 36 Yes No 0–1 10 1–None 8 ceived a link to the online version of the survey, for which 41 87 31–40 24 89 40 2–5 29 2 14 Qualtrics survey software was used. As a second means to 41–50 35 6–10 11 3 29 recruit participants, a research assistant visited local busi- 51–60 26 11–20 26 4 42 nesses in a city in southern Sweden, informed employees > = 60 8 21–30 5 5–Very 35 about the study, requested their contact information, and then Much sent the online survey link to those who were interested in Missing: participating. The last strategy involved distributing pen- 5 4 4 8 5 and-paper surveys at job fairs and professional meetings. Total N 133 In the cover letter for the survey, the participants were introduced to a study on recruitment processes where they would be asked to rate work-related competencies for various social groups. The participants were explicitly instructed to indicate how the preselected groups are generally perceived Instruments in the workplace and not their own personal perceptions. This instruction followed recommendations made by Fiske et al. Warmth/competence survey The current survey was to a (2002) for minimizing social desirability. large extent based on that used by Cuddy et al. (2009) to Due to a low initial response rate, a reward of two movie examine the SCM model across cultures. The scale tickets for completing the study was introduced. The partici- contained: (1) a Warmth subscale with four items on how pants were instructed to contact us once the survey was com- friendly, warm, well-intentioned and considerate the target pleted to claim their reward. In total, 79 participants claimed groups are perceived to be5 and (2) a Competence subscale their reward. with four items on how competent, talented, skillful and ambitious the target groups are perceived to be.6 The par- Analysis approach ticipants were asked to rate the preselected target groups on a 5-point Likert scale (1 “not at all” to 5 “extremely”). A basic analysis examined some of the statistical characteristics Minor modifications to the original survey were made to of the SCM, such as the factorial structure, indication of mixed fit a Swedish work context. The employed warmth and stereotype content, and internal consistency of the scales. The competence items were largely similar to those used in a purpose was to examine whether statistical characteristics similar previous study on warmth and competence perceptions in to those of previous SCM research could be found even though the Swedish workplace, where they had demonstrated good the rated groups were preselected, combined, and set in a work psychometric properties (Agerström, 2014).7 context. This was followed by a descriptive analysis of the sam- ple, calculations of interrater agreement, and calculations of mean Demographic characteristics questionnaire The questionnaire scores and confidence intervals to find differences between the also asked for information regarding age, gender, experience groups. A multiple regression analysis with interaction terms was in recruitment work, current job roles, place of birth, and the employed to investigate how interactions of ethnicity, gender, length of residence in Sweden. age, and sexual orientation predict differences in warmth and competence ratings. Given the research design, two types of Procedure three-way interactions were analyzed: (1) ethnicity × gender × sexual orientation and (2) ethnicity × gender × age. A broad sample of participants was targeted, as the main goal was to examine stereotypes present in the workplace on the Results 5 Items in Swedish: “vänlig,” “varm,” “välmenande,” and “omtänksam.” Basic analysis 6 Items in Swedish: “kompetent,” “begåvad,” “skicklig,” and “ambitiös.” 7 With respect to competence, we used “talented” and “ambitious” instead of “confident” and “capable.” With respect to warmth, we used “considerate” For 15 out of 16 groups, a clear two-factor solution was found. instead of “sincere.” The eigenvalues for the two-factor solutions are larger than 1 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 909 and explained by 54 to 68% of the total variance. The Swedish man category (M = 2.94, SD =.63). The mean warmth and woman group is the only category without a two-factor solu- competence rating for the entire sample of groups is presented tion, and only one factor with an eigenvalue of greater than 1 in Table 4. was identified. The second factor has an eigenvalue of.96, In this study, an average score is used to draw conclusions and with less strict criteria, two factors emerged. Cronbach’s about variables at the group level or more specifically on the alpha values for warmth scales range from.71 to.88 and from warmth/competence perceptions of 16 group combinations..78 to.93 for competence scales. The Cronbach’s alpha for the To ensure sufficient agreement among raters, an estimation entire sample is.84 for the warmth scale and.89 for the com- of interrater agreement was calculated for each demographic petence scale. group combination using the average deviation index (Burke Warmth and competence ratings for each group were cre- & Dunlap, 2002; Burke, Finkelstein, & Dusig, 1999).9 This ated by averaging the four items of each subscale into one index is calculated by summing each rater’s absolute deviation mean score for warmth and competence, respectively. All from the mean rating for an item and dividing it by the number groups generated mean scores close to the middle of the scale. of deviations. We have followed the procedure to calculate the The competence score shows more diversification between absolute average deviation of individual ratings from the mean the groups with mean scores ranging from 2.74 to 3.91 while rating on both subscales separately for each group combina- the warmth score ranges from 2.94 to 3.83. The mean group tion. We relied on the upper limit value proposed by Burke difference score ranges from −.06 to.83 for warmth and from and Dunlap (2002), which is.83 for a 5-point Likert scale. The −.26 to.9 for competence. Mean group difference scores were results indicate that only one out of 16 group combinations created by centering the results of both scales in the middle (55-year-old Arab woman) shows a borderline ADM of 0.831 and calculating how much each group rating diverged from 3. (Table 4). As this is an exploratory study and the group in Thus, it can be concluded that the variation in the mean score question has to our knowledge not received much empirical for each group is relatively limited. Ratings on the warmth/ attention with respect to stereotype content, it was retained in competence scale are highly dependent on all of the presented the main analysis. groups rated, as they act as potential points of reference, which is why focusing on differences from the midpoint of the Reference categories Mean competence scores for the Arab employed scale was deemed appropriate. The distributions woman, Arab man, Swedish woman, and Swedish man cate- of warmth and competence scores for the reference groups gories (the reference groups) are presented in Fig. 1 together can be found in the Appendix. with 95% confidence intervals. The results show that the Swedish man category received the highest score on compe- Mixed stereotypes Paired sample t-tests were conducted to tence (M = 3.91, SE =.08) and that Arab woman category re- examine indications of mixed stereotype content for the indi- ceived the lowest score (M = 3.00 SE =.10).10 The Swedish vidual groups (Table 3). Eleven out of sixteen groups show man category is followed by the Swedish woman (M = 3.67, statistically significant differences in their warmth and com- SE =.07) and Arab man categories (M = 3.32, SE =.08), petence scores, which means that 69% of the presented group which received higher competency ratings than Arab woman combinations show indications of mixed stereotype content.8 category. The nonoverlapping confidence intervals show that the Arab man and woman categories have significantly lower Breakdown of warmth and competence scores scores than the Swedish man and woman categories. The gen- according to category combinations der differences are much smaller. The Swedish woman category received the highest warmth The highest competence rating for the entire sample was given score (M = 3.68, SE =.06) while Arab man category (M = to the Swedish man category (M = 3.91, SD =.67) while the 2.96, SE =.07) has the lowest warmth score. Figure 2 shows lowest rating was found for the 55-year-old Arab woman cat- the mean warmth score for the four reference groups together egory (M = 2.74, SD =.94). The highest warmth rating was with 95% confidence intervals. A woman has a significantly given to Swedish homosexual man (M = 3.83, SD =.54) while higher score on warmth compared to a man of the same ethnic the lowest warmth rating was given to the 55-year-old Arab group. Interestingly, the Arab woman (M = 3.27, SE =.08) and Swedish man (M = 3.20, SE =.07) categories receive sim- 8 This follows a similar approach used in Fiske et al. (2002), as they relied on t- ilar ratings with the confidence intervals overlapping. These tests to find indications of mixed stereotypes, though in the current study we results suggest that depending on the reference category com- are only testing groups at the individual level and not testing whether they belong to mixed clusters. bination, ratings on one compared to the other dimension 9 A similar approach was employed in Finkelstein, Ryan, and King (2013) and Goldberg, Finkelstein, Perry, and Konrad (2004), where an average deviation 10 index was calculated to examine whether the measured metastereotypes for a SE is reported in this section and not SD, as we are presenting and referring particular age group and job perceptions showed sufficient agreement to be to plots that show 95% confidence intervals, which are calculated from the SE included in subsequent analyses. of the mean score. 910 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 Table 3 Matched pair t-test comparing warmth and Group Mean paired differences t p competence for individual groups (warmth–competence rating) 30-year-old Arab woman.044 t(65) = 0.48.632 30-year-old Arab man −.414 t(66) = −5.75.000 30-year-old Swedish woman −.096 t(65) = −1.29.203 30-year-old Swedish man −.496 t(66) = −6.54.000 55-year-old Arab woman.418 t(65) = 4.09.000 55-year-old Arab man −.250 t(66) = − 3.04.003 55-year-old Swedish woman.325 t(66) = 4.18.000 55-year-old Swedish man −.783 t(65) = −7.41.000 Arab homosexual woman.082 t(66) = 1.12.267 Arab homosexual man.111 t(65) = 1.49.142 Arab woman.273 t(65) = 3.39.001 Arab man −.362 t(66) = − 4.73.000 Swedish homosexual man.231 t(66) = 3.12.003 Swedish homosexual woman −.303 t(65) = − 4.39.000 Swedish woman.011 t(66) = 0.21.837 Swedish man −.705 t(65) = − 7.02.000 vary, with ethnicity producing larger differences for compe- Swedish man category resulted in a lower competence tence and gender producing larger differences for warmth. rating (M = 3.60, SE =.07). Similar ratings were found for the Swedish homosexual woman (M = 3.58, SE =.07) Intersection with sexual orientation The addition of the ho- and Arab homosexual man categories (M = 3.22, SE =.09) mosexual orientation signal resulted in a higher compe- relative to their respective reference groups. A graphical tence rating for the Arab homosexual woman category representation of the groups and their 95% confidence (M = 3.44, SE =.08) compared to its reference group. intervals can be found in Fig. 3 for competence and in The addition of the signal of homosexuality to the Fig. 4 for warmth. Table 4 Mean scores and ADM of warmth and competence for Warmth ADM SD Competence ADM SD group combinations Reference categories Swedish man 3.20.572.60 3.91.628.67 Swedish woman 3.68.557.51 3.67.562.54 Arab man 2.96.557.57 3.32.622.62 Arab woman 3.27.610.62 3.00.693.84 Intersection with age 30-year-old Swedish man 3.23.556.55 3.73.627.64 55-year-old Swedish man 3.04.618.61 3.82.656.69 30-year-old Swedish woman 3.61.668.69 3.71.624.60 55-year-old Swedish woman 3.76.592.62 3.44.636.58 30-year-old Arab man 2.99.588.63 3.41.600.58 55-year-old Arab man 2.94.594.63 3.19.573.60 30-year-old Arab woman 3.30.617.63 3.25.690.78 55-year-old Arab woman 3.16.665.73 2.74.831.94 Intersection with sexual orientation Swedish homosexual man 3.83.535.54 3.60.604.56 Swedish homosexual woman 3.28.589.56 3.58.637.60 Arab homosexual man 3.33.685.68 3.22.682.76 Arab homosexual woman 3.53.667.66 3.44 0.626.64 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 911 substantially change the warmth scores of any of the reference groups. These comparisons refer to the addition of age signals for each reference category separately. Competence scores are graphically depicted in Fig. 5 and warmth scores are illustrat- ed in Fig. 6. Interaction of ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation Three categorical variables were created to form the predictors. The ethnicity variable consists of the Swedish and Arab levels, which was created by collapsing all categories con- taining each signal, while the gender variable contains the male and female levels. The final categorical predictor is sexual orientation, which was created by collapsing all categories with no mention of sexual orientation and those Fig. 1 Mean competence ratings of reference groups. Note: 95% confidence intervals including a homosexual orientation. When a three-way interaction was tested with ethnicity, gender, and sexual The warmth score is affected by the signal of homo- orientation, no statistically significant interactions sexual orientation, which created higher ratings for the emerged from the competence scores (t = 1.10, p =.275) Arab homosexual woman (M = 3.53, SE =.08), Arab ho- (Table 5). mosexual man (M = 3.33, SE =.08), and Swedish homo- The three-way interaction of ethnicity, gender, and sex- sexual man categories (M = 3.83, SE =.07), but a lower ual orientation for warmth scores was found to be signif- warmth score for Swedish homosexual woman category icant (t = 3.78, p =.000). With the addition of the homo- (M = 3.28, SE =.07). sexual orientation signal, perceived warmth increased for Swedish men while the opposite was the case for Swedish Intersection with age The perceived competence ratings for women, whose warmth score decreased (Fig. 7). For the Swedish man and Arab man categories remain similar with Arabs, the pattern that emerges differs from perceptions the addition of age as a category. The Swedish woman cate- of Swedes. Arab women keep their warmth advantage gory (M = 3.67, SE =.07) has similar ratings for all category over Arab men and even experience a small boost in combinations with age on both dimensions, except that the warmth perceptions. competence score is lower for the 55-year-old Swedish woman category (M = 3.44, SE =.07). The addition of the Interaction of ethnicity, gender and age The three-way inter- 55-year-old age group category to the Arab woman category action for ethnicity, gender, and age was not found to be lowered competence (M = 2.74, SE =.12) compared to the significant with respect to competence when adding the reference group (M = 3.00, SE =.10) while the addition of 55 years of age category (t = − 0.73, p =.467) nor when the 30-year-old age group category increased the competence adding the 30 years of age category (t = − 1.41, p =.160) rating to M = 3.25, SE =.10. Adding the signal of age did not (Table 6). However, with respect to warmth, the three-way inter- action was found to be significant both when adding the 55 years of age category (t = − 4.63, p =.000) and when adding the 30 years of age category (t = − 2.47, p =.015). For 55-year-old Swedish women, the perception of warmth was higher than for 30-year-old Swedish women. The opposite is true for Arab women, with 30-year-olds being perceived as higher in warmth than 55-year-olds (Fig. 8). Discussion In this study, we have investigated how combinations of common group memberships influence warmth and com- Fig. 2 Mean warmth ratings for reference groups. Note: 95% confidence petence perceptions, and, to our knowledge, it is the first intervals study to apply the SCM to multiple-group membership in a 912 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 Fig. 3 Mean competence rating for intersection with sexual orientation. Note: 95% confidence intervals work context. The findings relating to statistical character- supports our argument that characteristics other than eth- istics usually present in SCM research are similar and in nicity and gender such as sexual orientation matter and line with previous findings (Fiske et al., 2002). This simi- have important intersectional qualities that influence larity suggests the usefulness of examining intersections of warmth and competence perceptions. specifically preselected groups in a work context. The find- An interesting finding of the current study is that warmth ings also shed light on unique stereotype content emerging and competence perceptions vary in sensitivity depending on from employees’ perceptions of these previously unex- which categories are intersected. In relation to the reference plored demographic group combinations. For some refer- categories, gender seems to be especially important for ence categories, no evidence of different ratings on warmth warmth, whereas ethnicity seems to be particularly important and competence were found, while their intersections indi- for competence perceptions. This has implications for selec- cate mixed stereotypes. For example, for the Swedish tion decisions. When ethnicity is being intersected, recruiters woman category we found no indication of mixed stereo- may focus on competence-related qualities, whereas when types, but the Swedish homosexual woman category was gender is being intersected, they may focus on warmth qual- rated higher on competence than warmth. This finding ities (e.g., empathy skills). Fig. 4 Mean warmth rating for intersection with sexual orientation. Note: 95% confidence intervals J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 913 Fig. 5 Mean competence rating for intersection with age. Note: 95% confidence intervals The addition of the age signal showed that 55-year-old stereotypes similar to the more general man category de- Swedish women received higher warmth scores than 30- scribed in traditional SCM research, with a drop in compe- year-old Swedish women, while the opposite pattern was ob- tence and a boost in warmth (Fiske et al., 2002). In com- served for Arab women. The latter finding is interesting in parison, the Arab men reference category received an in- light of previous research, which usually finds that the young crease in warmth while perceived competence remained category lowers perceived warmth compared to the elderly somewhat intact when the homosexuality signal was category. Our finding that Arab women’s perceived warmth added. This boost may have implications for Arab job ap- is boosted when young age is introduced contributes to previ- plicants considering that research has found that when ous work by showing that the introduction of a new category male Arab applicants signal both warmth and competence, (here ethnicity) has the potential to fundamentally change the this increases their callback rates for job interviews in the direction of previously established effects of age on perceived real labor market (Agerström et al., 2012). Previous re- warmth. search shows that the addition of a homosexuality signal The results of the regression analysis suggest that can result in women being perceived more like men by warmth ratings were more responsive to the homosexuality receiving a boost in competence and a decline in warmth signal. The Swedish homosexual man category resulted in (Fiske et al., 2002). Interestingly, we find that Arab women Fig. 6 Mean warmth ratings for intersection with age. Note: 95% confidence intervals 914 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 Table 5 Competence and warmth scores for the reference groups and hiring contexts, as homosexual Arab individuals were per- sexual orientation ceived more positively than heterosexual Arab individuals, Competence Warmth especially with respect to warmth perceptions. Relatedly, a B B recent study finds that when Black, Hispanic, and Asian minority men signal homosexuality, they are perceived as Constant (Swedish man) 3.82*** 3.16*** (.059) (.051) less stereotypic of their own racial/ethnic group (Petsko & Homosexual orientation −.22***.67*** Bodenhausen, 2019). This “de-racialization” may at least (.080) (.077) partly explain our results for Arabs. The boost in warmth Woman −.21***.53*** (.058) (.062) found for Arab men and the boost in both warmth and Woman × homosexual orientation.19 −1.08*** competence found for Arab women when both groups (.124) (.128) were also described as homosexual may have to do with Arab −.51*** −.19** (.087) (.079) homosexuality causing them to be perceived as less stereo- Arab × homosexual orientation.13 −.31** typic of their own ethnic group. (.156) (.142) The finding that Arab women seem to benefit even more Arab × woman −.09 −.25** than Arab men, showing an increase in both perceived (.131) (.111) Arab × woman × homosexual orientation.34 1.00*** warmth and competence when also depicted as homosex- (.307) (.264) ual, is interesting. It may be that it is more unusual to encounter Arab women than Arab men in the Swedish la- Notes: N = 1064 (no. of ratings). The regression includes no additional covariates. Standard errors (in parentheses) are clustered by respondent to bor market. When homosexuality is also signaled, this con- account for that each participant rates multiple combined groups. tributes further to the perceived unexpectedness, as homo- ***Significant at the 1% level, **significant at the 5% level; *significant sexuality conflicts with the general Arab stereotype. This at the 10% level high unexpectedness could be responsible for the increased ratings with respect to both dimensions. This interpretation receive a boost in both perceived warmth and competence is consistent with the “de-racialization” hypothesis (Petsko when the homosexuality signal is added. Specifically, Arab & Bodenhausen, 2019), as Arab women who are both applicants may benefit from disclosing homosexuality in employed and homosexual should be perceived as highly Fig. 7 Ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation—interaction plots for warmth. Note: 95% confidence interval J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 915 Table 6 Competence and warmth scores for the reference groups, and they show, for example, that Arab men are perceived ages 30 and 55 higher on competence than Arab women. It is difficult to Competence Warmth translate the ethnic-prominence hypothesis to this context, B B and although Arabs in general receive lower scores than Swedes, our results show that adding older age lowered the Constant (Swedish man) 3.75*** 3.52*** (.055) (.057) ratings of the Arab woman category to the lowest of the Age 30 −.03 −.29*** tested group combinations. There is nothing in our data (.080) (.080) that suggests that age and gender should not be treated on Age 55.07 −.48*** (.070) (.072) par with ethnicity in the context of multiple categorization, Woman −.13** −.04 at least when the Arab minority group is concerned. (.053) (.048) These results have direct implications for researchers when Woman × age 30.11.42*** (.122) (.126) they set the design for future experimental studies on multiple Woman × age 55 −.25**.77*** groups. According to Cuddy et al. (2011), there could be a (.105) (.103) possible fit between the stereotype content of demographic Arab −.48*** −.37*** groups and different types of occupations. Understanding (.072) (.079) Arab × age 30.16.14 multiple-group membership combinations in terms of warmth (.099) (.099) and competence could paint a more nuanced picture of the Arab × age 55 −.15.28** discrimination that people who simultaneously belong to mul- (.098) (.106) Arab × woman.08.30*** tiple minority groups face in the labor market, and possibly in (.066) (.081) other contexts as well. The results of this study provide new Arab × woman × age 30 −.21 −.37** knowledge on what the stereotype content of multiple-group (.151) (.150) Arab × woman × age 55 −.14 −.80*** membership could look like before planning laboratory and (.194) (.172) field studies on discrimination. For example, since Arab men who are homosexual are seen as warmer than their reference Notes: N = 1064 (no. of ratings). The regression includes no additional category and seem to retain a similar level of competence, one covariates. Standard errors (in parentheses) are clustered by respondent to account for that each participant rates multiple combined groups. could predict that in an occupation where warmth is of central ***Significant at the 1% level, **significant at the 5% level; *significant importance, Arab homosexual men might receive a boost in at the 10% level how they are perceived and subsequently evaluated in relation to job requirements. If and under which circumstances there is a perceived warmth/competence “fit” between stereotype con- nonstereotypic of Arab women as a general group. Clearly, tent at the multiple group level and occupation type are im- more research examining how sexual orientation changes portant research questions that should be addressed in future people’s stereotypical perceptions of different ethnic mi- studies. nority groups is needed. Our findings suggest that such As Sweden scores high on various measures of equality research should focus on ethnic minority women in partic- (European Commission, 2018) and is considered to be an egali- ular to extend our understanding of how sexual orientation tarian country at the forefront of equality and diversity policies, shapes people’s perceptions of this relatively unexplored the multiple group differences uncovered in the current research social group. may possibly be smaller than those that might be found in other Although the main models of multiple-group member- countries. Compared to the USA, however, the warmth/ ship in organizational contexts have little to say about competence content of the basic reference categories (ethnicity warmth and competence perceptions as such, we will at- and gender intersections) observed in our study shows a similar tempt to interpret some of our results in relation to these pattern to the single categories reported in the USA by Fiske et al. models. In relation to the double jeopardy hypothesis, one (2002). This suggests that our results may be applicable to a US may expect that Arab homosexual women, due to their context, though we note that the stereotype content of multiple- membership in what could be seen as three societal group membership may be qualitatively different than that for outgroups, would receive lower ratings on both dimen- single groups. sions, at least compared to their reference group (Arab women). We find, however, that with the addition of the homosexuality category, Arab women receive a boost in Limitations perceived warmth and competence. The subordinate-male hypothesis would predict the male category of the minority Some of the limitations of the study concern the choice of group to receive the lowest ratings. Our findings are not stimuli. We are unable to determine whether combining consistent with the subordinate-male hypothesis because groups could move the specific combination to a different 916 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 Fig. 8 Ethnicity, gender, age—interaction plot for warmth. Note: 95% confidence interval quadrant of the warmth/competence space. The reason for this Concluding remarks is that other groups relevant for SCM research (e.g., the home- less and elderly people), which could serve as a reference and The current study contributes to the relatively limited research disperse the groups further, were not included. The current literature on multiple categorization by shedding light on how design only allowed us to compare the chosen groups and to previously unexplored combinations of social categories influ- examine how warmth/competence perceptions could change ence warmth and competence perceptions in the context of the with the addition of categories. workplace. We conclude that when one or two categories inter- As this was an exploratory study, we did not formulate and sect with another category, warmth and competence percep- explicitly test specific predictions. Thus, further corroboration tions can be influenced in a complex way that does not make of the findings is needed. We contend that such research is algebraic sense. Rather, as our results on the positive impact of conducive to the development of more refined theoretical signaling homosexuality for the Arab ethnic minority group models that can accommodate a larger number of intersected suggest, one category perceived negatively in isolation may categories. offset the negative impact of another stigmatized category. Following the typical SCM approach (e.g., Fiske et al., 2002), Even more, when these groups are also intersected with gender, our research participants were not asked about their own percep- adding female gender seems to boost perceived competence, tions, but rather how they believe the groups are generally per- which is interesting in light of previous “single category” work ceived in the workplace. The main impetus for measuring cul- showing that women tend to be stereotyped as lower on com- turally shared, as opposed to personal, stereotypes was to mini- petence than males (Heilman, 2012). Finally, we hope that the mize social desirability concerns. One limitation of this approach current study will spur more work on multiple categorization is that we cannot be certain that our participants’ beliefs accu- based on warmth and competence and that it will provide ad- rately reflect stereotypes operating in the workplace, even if pre- ditional guidance to researchers who want to develop and test vious research has found that people show high levels of agree- informed predictions on how such categories combine and in- ment in their reports of cultural stereotypes, even cross-culturally fluence stereotypical perceptions in the workplace. (e.g., Cuddy et al., 2009; Fiske et al., 2002). Future research should examine to what extent the cultural stereotypes of the Acknowledgements Open access funding provided by Linnaeus University. studied group combinations actually operate in the workplace. J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 917 Authors’ contributions Andrea Strinić conceived and designed the study, Compliance with ethical standards collected and analyzed the data, and drafted the paper. Magnus Carlsson and Jens Agerström made substantial contributions to the conception and Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of design of the study, data analysis, and revised the paper for important interest. intellectual content. Ethical considerations The study did not include collecting any poten- Funding information This research was supported by the Swedish tially identifying or sensitive information, and it relied on publicly avail- Research Council (Grant no. 2018-03487). able information to contact participants. Debriefing was either provided in oral form or written after completing an online questionnaire. Data availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request. Appendix Fig. 9 Distribution of competence ratings for reference groups (used in regression) Fig. 10 Distribution of warmth ratings for reference groups (used in regression) 918 J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 Fig. 11 Distribution of competence ratings for reference groups (simple categories) Fig. 12 Distribution of warmth ratings for reference groups (simple categories) J Bus Psychol (2021) 36:903–920 919 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Economics, 55, 173–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.03. Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, 002. adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as Carlsson, M., & Rooth, D. O. (2007). 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