Earth Science Review Materials PDF

**Theories on the Origins of the Universe** 1. **The Big Bang Theory** **Most astronomers believe that the universe began about 15 billion years ago, in a huge explosion called the [Big Bang]. This theory successfully explains the expansion of the universe and the observed abundan...

**Theories on the Origins of the Universe** 1. **The Big Bang Theory** **Most astronomers believe that the universe began about 15 billion years ago, in a huge explosion called the [Big Bang]. This theory successfully explains the expansion of the universe and the observed abundance of helium in the universe.** a. **First developed in 1927 by Georges Lemaitre (1984-1966)** b. **and coined and revised by George Gamow (1904-1968)** 2. **Open Universe Theory** **Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) discovered the galaxies of the universe are moving farther apart. This means that the universe is getting continually bigger or getting bigger forever. Alternatively, the galaxies may come together, until finally they will collide and explode. This event is called the "Big Crunch". If the Big Crunch occurred, the sky would grow as hot as the sun. Finally, everything would vanish into a black hole.** 3. **Steady State Theory** **Proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle in 1928, this suggests that there is neither a beginning nor end to the universe, and it has a constant mean density. This theory postulates that matter is created throughout the universe at a rate of about 10-10 nucleons per meter cube per year as a property of space. This violates the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy.** **Theories of the Origin of the Solar System** 1. **The Solar Nebular Theory** This theory holds that our solar system is formed from a giant, swirling interstellar cloud of gas and dust. - Original Cloud is large and diffuse with little rotation - The cloud heats up and spins faster and faster as it contracts - This results in a spinning, flattened disk, with mass concentrated near the center - **As the nebula collapses further, instabilities in the collapsing, rotating cloud cause local regions to begin to contract gravitationally. These local regions of condensation will become the Sun and the planets, as well as their moons and other debris in the Solar System.** 2. **Planetesimal Hypothesis** **Characteristics of the Earth that support life** 1. Intense magnetic field A magnetic field protects living beings from dangerous solar radiation. It also protects us from meteors and asteroids. 2. Atmosphere The atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases. The most abundant is Nitrogen. 3. Moderate average temperature Average temperature of the Earth (15°C). Possible due to 2 factors: a. distance from the sun; b. composition of the atmosphere 4. A water cycle Water exists in three states due to temperature variations: ice, liquid, water vapor 5. A relatively large natural satellite, the Moon The gravitational attraction of the Moon causes ocean tides 6. Geological activity Reduces the contained heat inside the planet 7. Conditions for life exist Life exists to support the cycle of life (Life on the planet consumes the resources to enable balance) **Atmosphere** 1. Troposphere Lowest layer of the atmosphere. 0-12 KM. It is where all weather phenomena occur. 2. Stratosphere Absorbs UV radiation. Contains the Ozone Layer. It is where weather balloons stay. 12-50 KM 3. Mesosphere It is where meteors burn up. The coldest part of the atmosphere. 50-80 KM 4. Thermosphere The outermost layer of the atmosphere. 80 KM Outer space a. Ionosphere Lower layer of the Thermosphere. Location of the Aurora Borealis (North) and Aurora Australis (South) b. Exosphere The outer layer of the Thermosphere **The Geosphere** 1. Crust Thin outer layer. Composed of silicic rocks, andesite, and basalt at the base 2. Mantle 64% of the mass of the Earth. Melting mantle produces the crust. 500°C - 900°C (upper portion). 4000°C (lower portion) 3. Core Temperature of about 5000°C. Composed of Iron + Oxygen, Sulfur, and Nickel Alloy **The Hydrosphere** - When there is more heat energy, the molecules move about more vigorously within their container. - Molecules of gaseous water is known as **water vapor** - The warmer the air, the more vapor molecules there are. The cooler the air, the fewer water vapour molecules there are **Biosphere** Food chain -- shows how each living thing gets food, and how nutrients and energy are passed from creature to creature Food web -- an interconnection of food chains. The natural interconnection of food chains. Producers -- can create their food through photosynthesis Consumers -- cannot create their food, they must eat plants or other animals to get the energy they need Decomposers -- organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, they carry out the process of decomposition **MINERALS** **Minerals** - building blocks of rocks - inorganic, naturally occurring crystalline substance - has distinctive and recognizable physical characteristics that aid in its identification **Minerals** - A mineral is a solid inorganic material of the Earth that has both a known chemical composition and a crystalline structure that is unique to that mineral. **Rocks** - A rock is a solid aggregate of one or more minerals that have been cohesively brought together by a rock-forming process. **Properties of Minerals** - Luster - Hardness - Cleavage - Streak - Transparency - Specific gravity - Crystal shape - Color - Fracture **Luster refers to the way light reflects from the surface of the mineral.** **There are three types of luster** - **Metallic: looks like metals and are shiny** - **Sub-metallic: dull coating and not shiny** - **Nonmetallic: minerals that are described as glassy (vitreous), earthy (dull), pearly or greasy** - **Pyrite has metallic luster.** - **Quartz has nonmetallic luster** **Hardness is measured by how easy it is to scratch. A measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion.** Geologists order the hardness by... 1. Scratched by a fingernail. 2. Scratched by a penny. 3. Scratched by a nail. 4. Scratched by a diamond. These are not all of the tools geologists use, but it will work for our experiment. - Gypsum is soft, it can be scratched by a fingernail. - Calcite is soft, but a little harder because it cannot be scratched by a fingernail, but it can be scratched by a penny. - Fluorite is harder. It can be scratched by a nail, but not a penny or fingernail. - Diamonds are the hardest mineral, so it scratches every mineral. - Measured using the Mohs hardness scale, which compares the hardness of the mineral to 10 reference minerals. - Designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812. **Cleavage is the tendency of minerals to break along smooth planes.** - Depends upon zones of weakness in the crystal structure. - Not all minerals have cleavage. - Some minerals split easily along a flat surface. - Mica has cleavage in one direction. It breaks along one line. - Feldspar has two lines of cleavage. It breaks along two lines. **Fracture exhibited if the mineral does not have a cleavage plane.** - The broken surface is irregular and not in a flat plane - This is usually due to the equally strong chemical bonds between atoms of the minerals. **Streak refers to the color of the mineral in its powdered form.** - Red chalk on a chalkboard makes red marks. White chalk makes white marks. - Not all minerals work this way. When some minerals are scratched along a ceramic streak plate, it creates a different color. - When pyrite is run across a streak plate, it has a black or dark green streak. - Hematite's color is grey, but its streak is red. **Transparency is the property of a mineral that determines whether it is opaque, translucent or transparent.** **Specific Gravity** - A measurement done by mineralogists to describe the density of the mineral. - Represents the ratio of the mass of a mineral to the mass of an equal volume of water - Most rock-forming minerals have a specific gravity between 2 and 3. **Crystal form** - Related to the internal geometric arrangement of the atoms that make up the crystal structure. - **The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is displayed/observed as these crystals grow in open space.** - **The natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage or fracture.** - **Prismatic, blocky/cubic, bladed, platy, etc.** - **Example: halite (cubic)** **Color** - **Property of a mineral that is easiest to identify** - **Unreliable property when it comes to identifying the mineral since slight impurities change the color** **CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS** **Generally, rocks are classified based on the mode of formation, and some of these physical and chemical properties are inherent in how the rocks are formed.** **Igneous Rock** - **Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava** - **Rate of cooling is one of the most important factors that control crystal size** - **Solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of the earth** **Magma and Lava** **Magma -Molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth.** **Lava - Molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through a central vent (volcano) or as fissure eruption.** **How are igneous formed?** **PROCESS 1** **Formed underground** - **Formed from melted rock(magma)** - **Magma trapped in small pockets** - **Magma cools down slowly** - **plutonic or intrusive rocks** - **phaneritic textures (large interlocking crystals)** - **Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro** **PROCESS 2** **Formed above ground** - **Volcanoes erupt** - **Magma flows above ground known as lava** - **Fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature between Earth's surface and underneath** - **Volcanic or extrusive rocks** - **Common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular** - **Examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt** **Porphyritic texture** **Formed through two stages where in magma partly cooled below the surface of the earth providing time for the large crystal to grow before it is extruded to the surface forming a fine-grained matrix.** **Aphanetic texture** **Fine-grained texture, mineral not visible to the naked eye; relatively fast rates of cooling prevent the formation of large crystals** **Vesicular texture** **Voids created by rapid cooling cause bubbles to be trapped inside** **Sedimentary Rocks** **Formed by the sedimentation of the earth's surface** **How are sedimentary rocks formed?** - Weathering of rocks - Erosion - sediment transport - deposition - lithification (stone making) - compaction and cementation **Common sedimentary features** **Fossil assemblages** - Remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks **Stratification or layering** - result of a change in grain size and composition - Each layer represents a distinct period of deposition **Examples of sedimentary rocks**: sandstone, limestone, shale, conglomerate, gypsum **Metamorphic rocks** - Formed when pre-existing rocks are exposed to higher temperatures and pressures but remain solid. **Metamorphism**- change affected by heat/pressure **How are metamorphic rocks formed?** - Once "igneous" or "sedimentary" - Rock under a large amount of pressure - Heat builds up - This is what morphs(changes) them - Contact and regional metamorphism **Contact Metamorphism** - Heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs when a pre-existing rock gets in contact with magma. - Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks - Example: hornfels **Non-foliated metamorphic rocks** - Produced where there is little deformation and when the parent rock has equidimensional crystals. **Regional Metamorphism** - Pressure as a main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone a considerable amount of mechanical deformation and chemical crystallization during orogenic events which are commonly associated with mountain belts. - Occurs on a regional/large scale - Creates foliated metamorphic rocks - Examples: schist, gneiss **Foliated** -- exhibit parallel alignment of the minerals **Examples of metamorphic rocks**: slate, hornfels, schist, marble, gneiss **Rock Cycle** **SUMMARY** - Rock-forming minerals are the minerals that are commonly found in all types of rocks. - The rock cycle is the process that allows one to see how rocks change and accumulate other Earth materials. - Igneous rocks are form from the crystallization of either magma or lava. - External processes such as weathering, erosion, and deposition help in shaping Earth's surface as well as contribute to the formation of sedimentary rocks. - Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed from weathered materials that are transported, compacted, and cemented. Its most feature is its strata or layers. - Metamorphic rocks are formed from either sedimentary rocks or igneous rocks that are exposed to high pressure and temperature and interact with chemically active fluids to trigger metamorphism. **MINERAL RESOURCES** **SIGNIFICANT TERMS** **Mineral Occurrence** -- concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest **Mineral Deposit** -- mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable conditions **Ore Deposit** -- mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to mine. **Aggregate** -- rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc; generally used to describe non-metallic deposits **Ore** -- naturally occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted. **Most rocks of the Earth\'s crust contain metals and other elements but at very low concentrations.** - For example, the average concentration of gold in rocks of the Earth\'s crust is about 0.005 ppm (parts per million) which is roughly 5 grams of gold for every 1000 tons of rock. Although valuable, extracting Gold at this concentration is not economic (the cost of mining will be too high for the expected profit). Fortunately, there are naturally occurring processes (geologic processes) that can concentrate minerals and elements in rocks of a particular area. **Types of mineral resources** **Metallic mineral deposits** - Minerals that contain metals in their chemical composition (a product obtained when the mineral was melted). These usually have bright and metallic luster. - Examples include iron ore, chromite and bauxite, gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron **Non-metallic resources** - Non-metallic resources are those resources that do not yield new products when melted. These do not have metallic luster. - Examples include talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel **Occurrence of a mineral resource** - The geological processes involved in the rock cycle play major role in the accumulation and concentration of valuable elements/minerals. - Plate tectonics: the Earth's crust is broken into a dozen or more plates of different sizes that move relative to one another (lithosphere). These plates are moving slowly on top of a hot and more mobile material called the asthenosphere. **Classification of mineral resources according to the mechanism responsible for concentrating the valuable substance** 1. **Magmatic Ore Deposits** - Crystallization of minerals within a body of magma - Valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such as crystal fractionation, partial melting, and crystal settling. - Magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable substances after accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in low concentrations within the magma**.** Examples: - Fractional crystallization: the residual melt contains a high percentage of water and volatile substances favorable for forming pegmatites. Pegmatites are enriched in Lithium, Gold, Boron, rare elements, and some other heavy metals 2. **Hydrothermal Ore Deposits** - Hot fluids are released as magma cools, and minerals precipitate from fluids. - Concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous(water-rich) fluids flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rocks - Hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma crystallization and may contain large amounts of dissolved metals. Examples: - **Vein-type deposits** - A fairly well-defined mineralization zone, usually inclined, discordant, and typically narrow. Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or shear zones within the country rock. Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode deposits, many of the most productive deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury occur as hydrothermal vein deposits - **Disseminated deposits** - Deposits in which the ore minerals are distributed as minute masses (very low concentration) through large volumes of rocks. This occurrence is common for porphyry copper deposits - **Massive sulfide deposit** (at oceanic spreading centers) Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals such as sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS~2~) occur when hot fluids that circulate above magma chambers as it migrates towards the seafloor. - **Strata-bound ore deposits** (in lake or oceanic sediment). This deposit is formed when the dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on the bottom of a lake or ocean. Such minerals may contain economic concentrations of lead, zinc, and copper, usually in sulfide forms like galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), and chalcopyrite (CuFeS~2~). 3. **Sedimentary Ore Deposits** - Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater - **Evaporite Deposits** - This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed marine environment where evaporation is greater than water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved substances become more concentrated in the residual water and would eventually precipitate. Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO~4~∙2H~2~0), borax (used in soap) and sylvite (KCl, from which K is extracted for fertilizers) are examples of minerals deposited through this process. - **Iron Formation** - These deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and several other iron-bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite. Iron formations appear to be of evaporite-type deposits and are mostly formed in basins within continental crust during the Proterozoic (2 billion years or older). 4. **Placer Ore Deposits** - Deposition of metals in a river or stream (causing people to pan for them) - Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity separation during sedimentary processes. - Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines. - Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum, diamonds and tin - The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important ore body if located 5. **Residual Ore Deposits** - A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering processes. - Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites. - **Bauxite**, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich source rocks undergo intense chemical weathering brought by prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common elements that include silicon, sodium, and calcium through leaching. - Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived from the laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite and peridotite. Like in the formation of bauxite, the leaching of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks dissolves common elements, leaving the insoluble nickel, magnesium, and iron oxide mixed in the soil. **Mineral Exploration** - A sequential process of information gathering that assesses the **mineral** potential of a given area. - Starts with an idea or geologic model that identifies lands worthy of further **exploration.** - Suitable target areas may then be staked as **mineral** claims to secure the **mineral** rights. 1. **Project Design**: This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves a review of all available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in acquiring the project, a review of social, environmental, political, and economic acceptability of the project, and budget and organization proposals. 2. **Field Exploration**: This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area. This can be subdivided into three phases: a. **R*egional Reconnaissance****:* The main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized zones covering a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional surface investigation and interpretation. b. ***Detailed Exploration***: This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities intending to find and delineate targets or mineralized zones. c. ***Prospect Evaluation***: The main objective is to assess market profitability by (1) extensive resource, geotechnical and engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing, and (3) environmental and societal cost assessment. 3. **Pre-production Feasibility Study**: The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy of all data and information collected from the different stages. The purpose is for independent assessors to satisfy interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into production. **Mining** - **a process of extracting minerals/metals from the earth's surface.** 1. **Surface mining** -- utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earth's surface a. **Placer mining** -- involves any type of mining where raw materials are deposited in sand or gravel or on the surface and are picked up without having to drive, use dynamite, or any other significant means. The most ecological way of mining. b. **Strip mining** -- the practice of mining mineral ore by removing all of the soil and rock on top of it. This practice is applied by removing the sides of the mountain layer by layer c. **Mountaintop removal** -- requires that the targeted land be first clear-cut and then leveled by explosives. The top of the mountain is removed and used d. **Hydraulic mining** -- uses high-pressure water to break down rocks, dislodging ore and placer deposits. This is a very destructive way of mining and is outlawed in most areas e. **Open Pit mines** -- involves digging large open holes in the ground as opposed to a small shaft in hard rock mining f. **Dredging** -- used to bring up underwater mineral deposits. Although dredging is usually employed to clear or enlarge waterways for boats, it can also recover significant amounts of underwater minerals relatively efficiently and cheaply. 2. **Underground mining** -- utilized to extract ore minerals from the ore body that is deep under the Earth's surface g. **Drift mining** -- have horizontal entries into the coal seam from a hillside h. **Slope mining** -- a slope access shaft travels downwards toward the coal seam i. **Shaft mining** -- uses a mine shaft, a vertical passageway used for access which uses an electric hoist controller j. **Hard rock mining** -- mining ore bodies by creating underground rooms supported by surrounding pillars of hard rock k. **Borehole mining** -- remote-operated method of mining through boreholes using high-pressure water jets **Milling or Recovery Methods** - The materials extracted or "mined\" are rocks composed of both ore and waste material (part of the rock that contains very little or no element or mineral of economic value). The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation and recovery. - Recovering the minerals from the ore and waste materials can involve one or more processes where the separation is usually done in a mill. - Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed by grinding where the rocks are pulverized. 1. **Heavy Media Separation** The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser minerals sink and thus are separated from the lighter minerals. This is commonly used to separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of extracting copper. 2. **Magnetic Separation** If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the waste materials using a powerful magnet 3. **Flotation** 4. **Cyanide Heap Leaching** **Effects of mining on the environment** 1. Deforestation and loss of biodiversity 2. Massive pollution downstream 3. Subsidence to natural areas 4. Serious health effects 5. Deaths **Some measures to prevent or mitigate the harmful effects of irresponsible mining** 1. Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil 2. Reintroduction of flora and fauna 3. Neutralization of acidic waters 4. Backfilling and sealing of abandoned underground mines 5. Stabilizing the slope of the impacted area to reduce erosion. 6. Strengthen the law that encompasses protecting a country that has illegal activities which is currently happening in our country **Fossil Fuels** **Fossil fuels** -- fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include *coal, petroleum,* and *natural gas* **Coal** -- a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams **Coalification** -- formation of coal from plant material by the process of **diagenesis** and **metamorphism**. Also known as **bituminization** or **carbonification** **Types of Coal** 1. **Peat** -- the precursor of coal. Formed from decaying vegetation 2. **Lignite** -- formed from compressed peat and is referred to as "brown coal" 3. **Bituminous / Sub Bituminous coal** -- made of compressed lignite 4. **Steam coal** -- stepping stone between bituminous coal and anthracite 5. **Anthracite** -- the highest rank of ignitable coal. It is a hard, black, glossy, and natural smokeless fuel 6. **Graphite** -- technically the highest-ranking coal, difficult to ignite and rarely used as fuel **Petroleum** **Oil and Natural Gas are formed from organic matter from dead plants and animals. These hydrocarbons take millions of years to form under very specific pressure and temperature conditions.** **Source rock** -- mud that contains at least 1-2% organic matter which eventually produces oil and gas deposits **Subsidence** -- gradual sinking of source rock further under the Earth's crust, by a few meters to a few hundred meters every million years **Kerogen** -- an intermediate material made up of water, carbon dioxide, carbon, and hydrogen, which is then transformed into oil or gas ***If the organic debris is mostly of animal origin, it will produce more oil than gas*** ***If the organic debris is mostly of plant origin, it will produce more gas than oil*** **Migration** -- slow constant movement of gas and oil away from the source rock **Reservoir rock** -- where the hydrocarbon deposit can only be formed **Structural trap** -- formed by changes in geological layers caused by the movement of tectonic plates **Stratigraphic trap** -- made up of sedimentary layers that have not yet undergone tectonic deformation **Geothermal Energy** Geothermal energy -- thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth **Types of geothermal power plant** 1. **Dry Steam** -- steam is produced directly from the geothermal reservoir to run the turbines that power the generator 2. **Flash Steam** -- geothermally heated water under pressure is separated in a separate vessel (called steam separator) into steam and hot water. The steam is delivered to the turbine, and the turbine powers the generator 3. **Binary Cycle** -- the geothermal water heats another liquid, such as isobutene, or other organic fluids such as pentafluoropropane, which boils at a lower temperature. The two liquids are kept completely separate through the use of a heat exchanger, which transfers the heat energy from geothermal water to the working liquid 4. **Flash/Binary Combined Cycle** -- the portion of the geothermal water that "flashes" to steam under reduced pressure is first converted to electricity with a backpressure steam turbine, and the low-pressure steam exiting the backpressure turbine is condensed in a binary system. **Advantages** 1. Does not produce pollution 2. Does not contribute to the greenhouse effect 3. The power stations do not take up too much room 4. Involves low running cost since no fuel is used to generate power 5. Low dependence on fossil fuels **Disadvantages** 1. There are not many places where you can build a geothermal power plant due to the need for a volcano 2. Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam" 3. Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground 4. Requires huge one-time investment **Hydroelectric Energy** Hydroelectric Energy -- kinetic energy gained from water in a water reservoir by falling under gravity **Types of Hydroelectric power plant** 1. **Water Reservoir dam** -- water accumulates in reservoirs by the use of dams 2. **Run of the river system** -- hydroelectric systems that harvest the energy from flowing water in the absence of a large dam and reservoir 3. **Pumped Storage Hydroelectric System** -- hydroelectric systems that use two water reservoirs to transfer water from a lower elevation to a higher elevation and vice versa **Advantages** 1. No pollution and use of resources 2. Safety. No drilling of the earth crust is needed which may cause tectonic movements 3. High Efficiency (90%) 4. Quiet Operation. Turbines are located down under therefore no noise is generated 5. Long life and minimal maintenance **Disadvantages** 1. High initial costs 2. Need to flood a big dam 3. Big impact to the environment. Need to vacate a big area to create a dam 4. Possible loss of habitat for some species **Kalayaan Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Project** -- Largest hydroelectric power plant in the Philippines **La Grande Complex** -- Largest Hydroelectric power plant in the world found in Canada (Output: 16GW) **Three Gorges Dam** -- Largest dam in the world found in China **Human Activity and the Environment** 1. Oil/Petroleum -- Non-renewable, Refining, and consumption produces air, water, and solid waste pollutants 2. Natural Gas -- Non-renewable, Produces fewer pollutants than Oil and Coal, and less CO~2~ 3. Coal -- Non-renewable, Produces CO~2~ and other air, water and solid pollutants 4. Biomass -- wood and organic waste including societal waste, Renewable, Low energy output 5. Hydroelectric -- Renewable, Clean resource with high efficiency, loss of habitat, and alteration of stream flows 6. Solar Power -- Renewable, unlimited resource that is clean, efficient, and safe, uses large land mass 7. Geothermal -- Renewable, Consumption is localized, disrupts natural geyser activity 8. Wind Power -- Renewable, unlimited, and a very clean process, needs lots of land 9. Nuclear Fission -- Non-renewable, uses Uranium, produces radioactive waste 10. Nuclear Fusion -- Non-renewable, uses Tritium, possibility of high-water pollution due to tritium **Priority Solutions** 1. Curbing Global Warming 2. Creating a Clean Energy Future 3. Reviving the World's oceans 4. Defending Endangered Wildlife and Wild places 5. Protecting our health by preventing pollution 6. Ensuring safe and sufficient water 7. Fostering sustainable communities **Water Resources** **Water distribution**: 97.5% Saltwater, 2.5% Freshwater (68.7% icecaps/glaciers, 30.1% groundwater, 0.3% surface water, 0.8% others) Water is available in the air, surface, underground, and in the oceans 10% of the Earth's freshwater can be found in the atmosphere **Water cycle** The global mechanism by which water moves from the air to the Earth (precipitation) and eventually back to the atmosphere (evaporation). **Principal natural components** Precipitation Infiltration into the soil Runoff on the surface Groundwater discharge to surface waters and oceans Evapotranspiration from warm bodies, soil, and plants **Groundwater** Supply of fresh water found under Earth's surface\--recharged when water at the surface infiltrates into the ground Stored in underground aquifers Discharged into rivers, springs, etc... **Infiltration** - a process of water percolating through the soil and into cracks and permeable rocks. **Zone of Aeration** - upper soil layers that hold both air and water. **Zone of Saturation** - lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water. **Water Table** - top of zone of saturation **Recharge Zone** - an area where water infiltrates into an aquifer.\ -Recharge rate is often very slow.\ -Presently, groundwater is being removed faster than it can be replenished. **Aquifers** - Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock lying below the water table. **Ways to conserve and protect water resources** 1. Use less water 2. Keep harmful substances out of the water 3. Drive less 4. Keep pipes and appliances in good condition 5. Use water-efficient appliances 6. Use water efficiently outdoors **Soil Resources** **Factors affecting the quality and quantity of soil** 1. **Agricultural depletion** -- farming can degrade the topsoil and lead to an increase in erosion 2. **Overgrazing animals** -- grazing animals can remove large amounts of the plant cover for an area 3. **Deforestation** -- logging kills plants that put down roots that help hold the soil together 4. **Mining** -- these operations leave a large amount of loose soil that can aggravate the erosion process 5. **Development and Expansion** -- can also aggravate erosion, especially, if the developers ignore the natural state of the land 6. **Recreational Activities** -- erosion aggravates on hiking and off-road vehicle tracks **Waste Generation and Management** ***Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous waste*** -- by-products resulting from human biological processes, manufacturing, or any other human activity ***Leachate*** -- any liquid that in the course of passing through matter, extracts soluble or any component of the material through which it passed ***Siltation*** -- a process by which water becomes dirty as a result of fine mineral particles in the water **Other sources of waste and their environmental impact** 1. **Industrial waste** - Waste released from manufacturing plants, such as chemical plants, cement production, textile industries, metallurgical plants, textile, food processing, power plants, etc. 2. **Agricultural waste** - Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides can cause land and water pollution. - Rice paddies release methane to the atmosphere. - Excess excrement from poultry and other livestock can cause eutrophication of bodies of water 3. **Mining waste** - Waste generated from the exploitation of mineral resources - ***Overburden material*** - ground (soil and rock) that is removed to extract the mineral deposit. Release of overburden material to the environment as a result of improper management can cause siltation of bodies of water. - ***Acid mine drainage*** - water that has come to contact with oxidized rock or overburden that contains sulfide material (coal, zinc, copper, and lead). When acid mine drainage is not properly managed, it can find its way into waterways and the groundwater. High pH waters can be detrimental to plant and animal life. Acid mine drainage is also associated with the release of heavy metals into the environment. 4. **Biomedical waste** - Waste generated by hospitals and other healthcare institutions - This type of hazardous waste includes infectious waste and chemical waste dangerous to people and the environment. **Reducing waste at home, school, and around the community** **Republic Act 9003** -- Ecological Solid Waste Management of 2000. An act providing for an ecological solid waste management program, creating the necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts prohibited and providing penalties, appropriating funds therefore, and for other purposes.