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5. Nothing is self-evident. CHAPTER 1: Nature Of Psychology 6. Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of Psychology - Derived from the Greek words experiences. psyche means “soul”...

5. Nothing is self-evident. CHAPTER 1: Nature Of Psychology 6. Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of Psychology - Derived from the Greek words experiences. psyche means “soul” and logos means “study” - Psychology is defined as the Psychology is not? scientific study of the behavior of 1. Psychology is not mysterious. living organisms, with special 2. Psychology is not common sense. attention to human behavior. 3. Psychology is not para-science. Goals of Psychology: Nativist view - This idea is from Rene Descartes in To describe - What is happening? the 17th Century. Some ideas or knowledge are - It involves observing a behavior and innate or hardwired into the brain at birth. noting everything about it. Empiricist view - This idea is from John Locke in To explain - Why is it happening? the 17th - 18th Century. Knowledge is acquired - Trying to understand or find an through experiences with the world. explanation with evidence or basis of theories. History of Psychology in the To predict - When will it happen again? - Determining what will happen in the Philippines future. 17th Century - Psychology was taught in the Philippines. University of Santo Tomas (UST) and To control - How can it be changed? University of San Carlos (USC). - The focus is to change a behavior from an undesirable one. University of Santo Tomas is the first university to offer undergraduate, masteral’s, doctoral degree in Behavior - This means activities that can be psychology. observed objectively. 1926 - First development of Psychology External behavior - the reactions of the muscles (University of the Philippines) and the glands, as well as the organized patterns of responses as a whole. It includes actions, PIONEERS IN PSYCHOLOGY IN THE gestures, and expressions that people can PHILIPPINES perceive directly. Sinforoso Padilla - established the first Internal behavior - thinking, feeling, and other psychological clinic in the Philippines in UP in reactions which cannot be directly observed but 1932. can be inferred from external behavior. Jesus Perpina - Set up the FEU Psychological clinic in 1932 Estafania Aldaba Lim - First Filipina to receive a 6 Fundamental Characteristics of doctorate in Clinical Psychology. In 1962, the Psychology establishment of the Philippines Psychological 1. Human behavior follows an orderly pattern. Corporation. 2. Human behavior can be known. 3. Knowledge of human behavior is tentative but Beginnings of Psychology superior to ignorance. Ancient Period - The most common way of 4. Natural phenomena have natural causes. explaining behavior is the use of animism. Galen (129 - 216 AD) - He believed that behavior Sigmund Freud - he founded the bench of medical may be attributed to the humors or vital juices of psychology known as psychoanalysis. He is the the body of the bile. “Father of Psychoanalysis”. Sanguine - yellow bile: for cheerfulness Phlegmatic - green bible: for sluggishness or Four of the better-known psychologists at the calmness United States Melancholic - black ile: for sadness William James was considered the (1842 - Choleric - red bile: for irascibility/anger 1910) Dean of American Psychologist St. Augustine - was considered the next great G. Stanley Hall, James McKeen Cattell, and precursor of the modern psychologist because of Edward Titchener set up the first formal laboratory his skill in introspection and his great curiosity at the John Hopkins University in 1883. about phenomena, which included observations on young infants and crowds at chariot races. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) - reported his studies Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) - left his mark on in learning and memory which were directly the history of psychology through his concept of inspired by Fechner’s measurement sensation. reflex action. Wilhelm Wundt - he established the first STRUCTURALISM (1875 - 1930) psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in Was developed in Germany in the 19th century 1879. Called the founder of modern experimental Its main leaders were Wilhelm Wundt and later, psychology, and the Father of Psychology Edward Bradford Titchener Franz Gall - he localizes special faculties or “Mind is made up of building blocks in the form localization of function in the parts of the brain. of various types of sensation and perception, and Phrenology (pseudoscience) these building blocks could be discovered through Gustav T. Fechnner (1801 - 1887) - he discovered introspection or looking one’s own mind” that by changing a physical stimulus slowly and noting the steps of judgment (expressed as the FUNCTIONALISM (1890 - 1930) number of just noticeable differences or j.n.d’s) the Was developed in the United States relationship can be established between a physical Its main leaders were William James, Stanley series and a psychological series. Hall, James McKeen Cattell, James R. Angell, Sir Francis Galton (1884) - he established his John Dewey, and Harvey Carr anthropometric laboratory in London where he The most important contribution of gave tests to people who came to his laboratory. functionalism was changing focus of psychology to Introduced the idea of individual differences. learning, motivation, and thinking which veered Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882) - Theory of evolution away structuralist’ individual from emphasis on and established the continuity between animals perception sensations. and humans, it made comparative psychology important. Introduced the concept of natural Gestalt (1912 - 1940) selection In 1912, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler, and Max Franz Anton Mesmer - started his work on Wertheimer founded the Gestalt school. hypnotism in treating the mentally ill as a form of Psychology should study the whole pattern of psychotherapy, relaxation technique, or even as behavior or experience or the perception of an alternative to anesthesia. organized configuration.  Its fundamental principle states that the whole is ductless glands in people produce hormones that more than the sum of all its parts. give them purpose. PSYCHOANALYSIS (1900 - PRESENT) MODERN PERSPECTIVE Sigmund Freud attempted to find the cause and Sociocultural Perspective - Focuses on the cure of personality disorders relationship between social behavior and culture. He postulated the existence of unconscious mental processes which influence an individual’s Biopsychological Perspective - Attributes human behavior in various indirect ways and animal behavior to biological events occurring His method of treatment called “psychoanalysis” in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system. BEHAVIORISM (1913 - PRESENT) Humanistic Perspective - Abraham Maslow and Founded by John B. Watson who finished his Carl Rogers, humanists held the view that people Ph.D at the University of Chicago have free will, and the freedom to choose their He argued that psychologist should use only destiny. objective methods and that their observations and measurements should be in a form that could be Cognitive Perspective - Focuses on memory, checked and verified by other psychologists intelligence, perception, problem solving and learning. It is more focused on consciousness than unconsciousness. HUMANISTIC (1950 - PRESENT) Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow Psychodynamic Perspective - The modern version Unique qualities of humans, especially their of psychoanalysis. More focused on the freedom of choice and decision making, as well as development of a sense of self and discovery of their potential for personal growth. other motivations behind a person’s behavior than sexual motivations. COGNITIVE (1950 - PRESENT) Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, and Herbert Behavioral Perspective - B.F Skinner studied Simon focused on thought and mental processes operant conditioning of voluntary behavior. It became the major force in the 20th century. Human behavior cannot be fully understood Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to without analyzing how people acquire, store, and behaviorism. process information. Evolutionary Perspective - it focuses on the BIOLOGICAL (1950 - PRESENT) biological basis of universal mental characteristics James Olds and Roger Sperry that all humans share. Look at the way the mind Human and animal behavior can be explained works and why it works as it does. Behavior is in terms of bodily structure and biochemical seen as having an adaptive or survival value. processes. Biopsychosocial Perspective (model) - Systematically biological, considers psychological PURPOSIVISM and social factors and their complex interactions in William McDougall conducted his research at understanding health, illness, and healthcare the Duke University of Durham, North Carolina delivery. He believed that objects, movement, and behavior have a definite purpose and that the  TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL Dynamic Psychology Is the scientific interpretation PROFESSIONALS of mental phenomena emphasizing internal drives Psychiatrist - a medical doctor who has and motives as the cause of the behavior. specialization in the diagnosis and treatment of Physiological Psychology Is the study of the psychological disorders. functions of the different organs of the body, Psychoanalyst - Either a psychiatrist or a especially the nervous system, and their bearing psychologist who has special training in the on behavior and mental processes. theories of Sigmund Freud and his method of Educational Psychology It is concerned with the psychoanalysis. psychological aspects of teaching and formal Psychologist - a professional with an academic learning processes in schools. degree and specialized training in one or more Applied Psychology Is used in medicine, areas of psychology education, law, business, industry, and in many Psychiatric Social Worker - A social worker with other fields. some training in therapy methods that focuses on Legal Psychology is the application of the the environmental conditions that can have an principles of human behavior in law or any legal impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, proceedings. overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse. Clinical Psychology pertains to the diagnosis and evaluation of events in relation to the condition of a Branches of Psychology person who has a problem. General Psychology explains the underlying Business Psychology deals particularly with the principles of human behavior. behavior of consumers. Comparative Psychology is a branch of Industrial and Engineering Psychology is a branch psychology that studies the behavior and mental of applied psychology that investigates problems process of different species. and situations in business firms and industries. Development or Genetic Psychology is the study Vocational Guidance is applied in the scientific of human behavior in all aspects of growth and selection of suitable employment or vocation, development. particularly aimed at helping students choose their Child Psychology Is the study of human behavior occupations or careers. from the prenatal until early adolescence stages? Mental Hygiene is the systematic practice of Adolescence Psychology Is the study of behavior measures for the prevention of mental illness and from puberty to later life. the preservation of mental health. Senescence Psychology Is the study of human Social Psychology is the study of people’s behavior in old age. behavior in relation to their families, groups, and Abnormal Psychology Is the study of the etiology communities. or cause of personality defects or behavior which Health Psychology is the study of the promotion deviates from the average reaction. and maintenance of health, prevention, and Experimental Psychology deals with the treatment of illness. investigation of different types of behavior through Sport Psychology focuses on the social, mental, observation and experiment in psychological and emotional problems of athletes. laboratories. Community Psychology is the study of improving Differential Psychology Is the study of differences the quality of life of individuals in a community and similarities between individuals, social groups, through intervention at a social system level. and races. Consumer Psychology is the applied science of studying motivation, perception, and learning to understand the decision-making and behavior of consumers. Behavior Analyst focuses on the application of basic facts and principles that arise out of experimental studies of humans such as research on addiction, energy-wasting, self-destruction, etc., and non-clinical types of research. Methods of Psychological Research THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Introspection - It is a mental self-analysis Scientific method - an organized way of using method wherein the psychologist studies himself, experience and testing ideas to expand and refine records his feelings and experiences, analyzes knowledge. them, and later interprets them. Hypothesis - testable prediction or educated guess about how the world will behave if our ideas Observation - Is the most widely used method are correct, and it is often worded as an if-then in the study of behavior. There are several kinds of statement. observation: uncontrolled or informal observation. Theory - well developed set of ideas that Naturalistic observation and controlled or formal propose an explanation for observed phenomena. observation. In psychology, statements about behavior or mental processes that are tested through Life-History Method - Is the extensive study of research. individuals by tracing the development of a Research - a variety of methods are available to particular form of behavior. Life history methods psychologists in their efforts to understand, are of three basic forms: describe, and explain behavior and the cognitive the daybook method, and biological processes that underlie it. the clinical method, or Observation - a method of describing and the biographical method analyzing behavior but other approaches involve interactions between researchers and participants. Survey Method - Uses data obtained from a. Naturalistic Observation is a method that respondents through written questionnaires or involves observing in its natural setting. interviews. The greatest benefit of it is the validity, or accuracy of information collected Experimental Method - Is the study of behavior unobtrusively in a natural setting. inside the laboratory under controlled conditions. It b. SURVEYS are lists of questions to be involves variables that can be measured answered by research participants, and quantitatively. Variables may be either can be delivered as paper-and-pencil independent or dependent. questionnaires administered electronically, or conducted verbally. Statistical Method - Statistics is the science that c. CORRELATIONAL STUDY is a measure of deals with the collecting and handling of numerical the relationship between two or more data and making inferences from such data.  variables. It measures the extent to which INDIGENOUS RESEARCH METHODS two variables change together. The 1. Pakapa-kapa - pagsasaliksik na palasak sa correlation coefficient refers to an estimate isang hindi organisadong bilang ng of the degree to which two or more panlipunan at pangkalinangan magtamo ng variables are related. datos, kahulugan, at direksyon sa 1. Positively correlated: variables either pananaliksik (Torres, 1982) increase or decrease together. 2. Pakikiramdam - ginagamit para sa isang 2. Negatively correlated: one variable espesyal na uri ng sensitibong cues na increases and the other decreases. pamatnubay sa tagapag saliksik sa kanilang taglay na mga grupo miyembro d. CLINICAL/CASE STUDY is a particular participants, lalo na sa mga Pilipinong biography of a particular individual. This gumagamit ng paligoy-ligoy o non-verbal. involves asking people to recall relevant 3. Pakikipagkwentuhan - ang magandang experiences from their past. A major katangian ng pakikipagkwentuhan ay limitation of case histories is that they rely malaya ang mga tao na magpalit ng on a person’s memories and pangunahing sa kwento na maaaring reconstructions of earlier events, which are suriin. frequently distorted or incomplete. 4. Ginabayang-talakayan - isang paraan kung e. EXPERIMENT is a scientific method that saan lahat ng participants ay makikibahagi seeks to confirm cause-and-effect sa pagpapalitan ng kaalaman. relationships by introducing independent 5. Nakiki-ugaling pangmasid - sa paraang ito, variables and observing their effects in niyayakap ng mananaliksik ang kultura ng dependent variables. mga grupo ng kanilang pinag-aaralan. f. VARIABLE is something that can occur 6. Pagdalaw-dalaw - isang pagsasaliksik na with different values. ginagawa sa pamamagitan ng madalas na 1. Independent variable is a variable that is pagbisita, kaakibat nito ang pagoobserba under complete control of the at pagkumpirma sa naipong datos. experimenter, who created it and controls 7. Panunuluyan - paraan ng tagapagsaliksik its variation. It represents the hypothesized kung saan sila ay nakikitulog sa bahay ng cause. participants at nakikihati sa pagkain ng 2. Dependent variable the hypothesized effect isang hukbo na may kagiliwan. in an experiment is because it is 8. Pakikisama - kasali sa tradisyunal na hypothesized to depend on the value of an anthropological na paraan ng pangmasid, independent variable. kung saan ang mananaliksik ay 3. Experimental group: these participants are nakikibagay upang makabuo o makuha exposed to the independent variable ang tiwala mula sa participants (treatment) 4. Control group: these participants do not receive the independent variable Chapter 2: Human Development (treatment) Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of systematic processes of change and stability in people (Papallia and Martorell) Developmental Scientist - professionals in the field Cognitive: egocentrism diminished, of development who look at ways in which people children began to talk logically change from conception to maturity as well as Psychosocial: peers assume central characteristics that remain fairly stable. importance 5. Adolescence (ages 11 to 20) DOMAINS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Physical: reproductive maturity occurs Physical Development - any changes in physically (pubertal age) such as growth of the human body, brain, sensory Cognitive: ability to think abstractly (college capabilities, skills, and health. preparation) Cognitive Development - development in learning, Psychosocial: search for identity including memory, attention, language, thinking, reasoning, sexual identity and creativity. 6. Emerging Young Adulthood (ages 20 - 40) Psychosocial Development - developing emotions, Physical: lifestyle choices influence health personality, and social relationships. Cognitive: thought and moral judgment becomes more complex “ These domains may be separate, but Psychosocial: intimate relationships and they can intricately affect each other.” personal lifestyle are established but not many lasting PERIODS OF LIFESPAN 7. Middle Adulthood (ages 40 to 65) (8 STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT) Physical: slow deterioration of sensory 1. Prenatal Period (conception to birth) abilities, stamina, and strength Physical: body structures, organs form, Cognitive: mental abilities peak, expertise, brain growth and practical problem solving are high Cognitive: senses are developing Psychosocial: dual responsibilities of caring Psychosocial: fetus responds to mothers children and parents may cause stress voice and develops a preference for it. 8. Late Adulthood (ages 65 and above) 2. Infancy to Toddlerhood (birth to 3 yrs old) Physical: health concern occurs but most Physical: development of motor skills are people are healthy rapid Cognitive: mentally alert, but intelligence Cognitive: use and identity symbols or and memory may deteriorate in some objects areas Psychosocial: interest to other children Psychosocial: retirement ages (search increases (play age) meaning in life) 3. Early childhood (ages 3 to 6) Physical: growth is steady, appearance Individual Differences - differ gender, height, becomes more slender, and proportion are weight, and bodybuild, energy level, intelligence more adultlike personality, and emotional reactions. Cognitive: egocentric, immature Psychosocial: play becomes more THE ROLE OF; imaginative (pre-school age) HEREDITY - internal influences and results of 4. Middle Childhood (ages 6 to 11) biological processes (nature) Physical: growth slows  ENVIRONMENT - external influences such as Epigenetic Principle - it is a step-by-step communities, peers, and social relationships process of epigenetic development, with each (nurture) stage developing at its proper time MATURATION - it refers to age and Psychological Crisis - is stimulated by a conflict experiences between the predominating syntonic element and its atithetical dystonic element. THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Syntonic - harmonious element or positive Theories - is a set of concepts and propositions tendency that helps to describe and explain observation. “It Dystonic - disruptive element or negative is the backbone of science” (Papallia and tendency Martorell) Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud 1856 - 1939) She developed a theory of cognitive development - He highlighted the notion of the by observing her own children’s behavior on unconscious as the main factor of why certain tasks during infancy and childhood. people behave as they do - He also highlighted that people are She specified 4 major periods corresponding to motivated to seek pleasure to release the the different ages of the developing child. pain of anxiety (sex and aggression) 1. Schema - an assumption that an individual - His theory has a big contribution to the field has of the self, others or the world; building of development psychology and personality blocks of knowledge Stages of Development 2. Assimilation - the process by which we (OAPhaLaGe) incorporate new information into existing schemas Stages of Age Erogenous 3. Accommodation - new information or Development Zone experiences cause you to modify your Oral Stage 0-1 mouth existing schemas 4. Equilibration - the process of balancing Anal Stage 2-3 anus assimilation and accommodation to create schemes that fit the environment. Phallic Stage 4-6 genitals Latency Stage 7-12 dormant Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Sensorimotor (age 0 - 2) Genital Stage 13 onwards genitals - During this stage, babies develop their first schemas by using their senses Fixation - Freud believed that if the children Object permanence - ability to know that an experience dissatisfaction at the stages it will object exists even if it is not being sensed. result in fixation where it is the unhealthy tendency to stay at a particular stage. 2. Preoperational stage (age 2 - 5) - Learning to talk “pretend” play Psychosocial Development (Erik Erikson 1902 - - Not yet capable of conservation (mental 1994) manipulation of object)  Egocentric - inability to see and understand The Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg) other people’s viewpoints It is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. He suggests that it 3. Concrete operational stage (age 6 - 11) occurs in a series of six stages, and is primarily - More frequent and more accurate use of focused on seeking and maintaining justice. logical transformations and operations. The child can think more logically about Moral reasoning - the process in which people physical reality. are deciding and doing what is morally right and Conservation - can be defined as the wrong. It is not a typical definition of what is good understanding that changes in the form of an and what is wrong in fact, it is the process of object do not necessarily mean changes in the deciding whether something right and wrong (JP quantity of the object. Buduan) Reversibility - can be defined as the understanding that some things that have been KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT changed can be returned to their original state. Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality (ages 4-10) - They obey rules to avoid punishment or 4. Formal operational stage (ages 12 and reap rewards or they act out of above) self-interest. - Abstract reasoning Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience orientation - Scientific reasoning - Children obey rules to avoid Metacognition - the ability to reflect upon one’s punishment thinking. Stage 2: Instrumental purpose and exchange - Children conform to rules out of Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive self-interest and consideration for Development what others can do for them. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky - the author of the sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Level 2: Conventional Morality (ages 13 or According to him, children learn through social beyond) interaction and shared activities. He also believed - Concerned about being good, pleasing that guidance is most effective in helping children others and maintaining the social order. to fully achieve learning. Stage 3: Good Boy/Girl Orientation - Children want to please and help Zone Proximal development (ZPD) - the others, and can judge the intentions concept of the difference between what a child can of others, and develop their own do alone and what a child can do with the help of ideas of what a good person is. other people. Scaffolding - a process in which a more skilled Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality (early learner gives help to a less skilled learner, adolescence, or not until young adulthood, or reducing the amount of help as the less skilled never) learner becomes more capable. - People recognize conflicts between moral standards and make their own judgments based on principles of right, fairness, and justice. Stage 4: Social Contract Attachment - is defined as a unique emotional - People reason, valuing the will of bond between carer and child that involves the the majority and the welfare of exchange of comfort, care, and pleasure. society; “greatest good for the Proximity Maintenance - the desire to be near greatest number”. the people we are attached to. Stage 5: Universal and Ethical Principles Safe Haven - returning to the attachment figure - People do what they as individuals for comfort and safety in the face of a fear of think is right, regardless of legal threat. restrictions or the opinions of Secure Base - the attachment figure acts as a others. base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura Separation Distress - anxiety occurs in the 1925-2021) absence of the attachment figure. Reciprocal determinism - is a theory that explains how a person’s behavior is influenced by Secure Attachment both personal factors such as behavior and social Caregiver behavior: responds appropriately, environment. It emphasizes continuous interaction promptly, and consistently to needs. Caregivers between cognitive processes, behavior, and have successfully formed a secure parental external stimuli. attachment bond to the child. Modeling - is a process that occurs during social as Children as Adults learning. This is the knowledge that came from observing. Able to separate from Have trusting lasting Enactive learning - a type of learning that comes parents relationships from directly experienced things, or situations. We Seek comfort from Tend to have good need to experience it before we learn. parents when self-esteem frightened According to Bandura, once individuals can establish learning through observation The return of parents Comfortable sharing (observational learning) and through direct is met with positive feelings with friends experiences (enactive learning) they begin to emotion and partners develop a sense of self-efficacy. Prefers parents to Seek out social strangers support Self-efficacy - a person believes in themselves that he or she can successfully accomplish or perform a task (Bandura, 1997) Ambivalent Attachment Caregiver behavior: little or no response to a Attachment Theory (John Bowlby) distressed child. Discourages crying and This theory was inspired by the idea of Freud and encourages independence. Klein who emphasized the importance of the early as Children as Adults bond between an infant and the primary caregiver (mother) on behavior in later development. He also Maybe wary of Reluctant to become described that it is a lasting psychological strangers close to others connectedness between human beings.  Theories of Aging Becomes greatly Worry that their distressed when partner does not love Activity Theory - theory of adjustment to aging parents leave them that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way such as volunteering or Do not appear to be Become very developing a hobby. comforted by the distraught when a Cellular Clock Theory - based on the idea that return of parent relationship end cells only have so many times that they can reproduce; once that limit is reached damaged Avoidant Attachment cells begin to accumulate. Caregiver behavior: inconsistent between Wear and Tear Theory - as time goes by, appropriate and neglectful responses. General will repeated use and abuse of the body’s tissues only respond after increased attachment behavior cause it to be unable to repair all the damage. from the infant. Free Radical Theory - oxygen molecules with as Children as Adults an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go. May avoid parents May have problems with intimacy STAGES OF DEATH AND DYING (Kubler-Ross Model) Do not seek much Invest little emotions in 1. Denial Stage - during this most common comfort from parents social and romantic relationships response to the knowledge of impending death is denial. Show little or no Unable or unwilling to 2. Anger Stage - this stage is characterized preference between share thought by resentment and even rage parent and stranger 3. Bargaining Stage - is the stage where individuals find it hard to accept the truth Disorganized Attachment that there’s nothing he can do to change Caregiver behavior: frightened or frightening things. behavior, intrusiveness, withdrawal,negativity, role 4. Depression Stage - it is the stage where confusion, communication errors, and individuals feel extreme hopelessness and maltreatment. Very often associated with many distress. Some of the individuals during this forms of abuse towards children. stage restrict eating and taking medications 5. Acceptance Stage - it is the stage where individuals already accept their fate and the as Children (1 yr old) as Children (6 years reality that we are all going to die. old) Show mixture of May take on parental Chapter 3: Neurological Bases of Behavior avoidant or resistant role Nervous System - an extensive network of behavior specialized cells that carry information to and from May seem dazed, Some children acts as all parts of the body. confused, or caregivers towards Neuroscience – deals with the structure and apprehensive their parents function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue. Relationship to behavior and learning. STRUCTURE OF NEURON Outside neuron – positively charged Neurons - the basic cell that makes up the nervous Resting potential - the state of the neuron when system and which receives and sends messages not firing a neural impulse. within that system. Action potential - the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge Parts of a Neuron: within the axon. It allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell. All-or-none - refers to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. Return to resting potential. Neuron communication - Sending the message to other cells Axon terminals - branches at the end of the axon. Synaptic knob – rounded areas on the end of axon terminals. Synaptic vesicles - sack-like structures found Dendrites - branch-like structures that receive inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals. messages from other neurons. Neurotransmitters - a chemical found in the Soma - the cell body of the neuron, responsible synaptic vesicles which, when released, affect the for maintaining the life of the cell. next cell. Axon - a long tube-like structure that carries the Synapse/synaptic gap - microscopic fluid-filled neural message to other cells. space between the rounded areas on the end of Glial cells - grey fatty cells that: the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or Provide support for the neurons to grow on and surface of the next cell. around, Receptor sites - holes in the surface of the Deliver nutrients to neurons, dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and Produce myelin to coat axon glands, which are shaped to fit only certain Myelin - fatty substances produced by certain glial neurotransmitters. cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse. Clean NEURONS MUST BE TURNED ON AND OFF up waste products and dead neurons. Excitatory neurotransmitter - a neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to fire. NEURONS IN THE BODY Inhibitory neurotransmitter - a neurotransmitter Nerves – bundles of axons in the body that that causes the receiving cell to stop firing. travel together through the body. Neurilemma – Schwann’s membrane. Tunnel Chemical substances can affect neuronal through which damaged nerve fibers can repair communication. themselves. Agonists - mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next GENERATING THE MESSAGE: NEURAL cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that IMPULSE cell. Ions – charged particles Inside neuron – negatively charged.  Antagonists - block or reduce a cell’s response muscles contract. In the brain, ACh is involved in to the action of other chemicals or breathing, attention, arousal, and motivation. If neurotransmitters. ACh is blocked muscles can’t contract. NEUROTRANSMITTERS CLEANING UP THE SYNAPSE Dopamine - is the chemical that mediates pleasure Reuptake - the process by which in the brain. It is released during pleasurable neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic situations. vesicles. Serotonin (mood) - is involved in regulating several Enzyme - a complex protein that is manufactured important functions including sleep, appetite, by cells. feeding, and body weight. One type specifically breaks up Oxytocin (love) - contributes to relaxation, trust, acetylcholine because muscle activity and psychological stability; reduces stress and needs to happen rapidly, so reuptake anxiety. would be too slow. Endorphins - stress and pain are the most common factors of releasing this. These are also Central nervous system (CNS) - part of the chemicals that provide relief from pain or the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal stress of vigorous exercise and produce feelings of cord. pleasure and well-being “runner’s-high” Spinal cord - a long bundle of neurons that carries Norepinephrine - has effects on eating habits (it messages to and from the body to the brain that is stimulates intake of carbohydrates) and plays a responsible for very fast, life saving reflexes. major role in alertness and awakeness. Epinephrine - complements norepinephrine by The Reflex Arc: Three Types of Neurons affecting metabolism of glucose causing the 1. Sensory neuron - a neuron that carries nutrient energy stored in muscles to be released information from the senses to the central during strenuous exercises. nervous system. Glutamate - the primary excitatory Also called an afferent neuron. neurotransmitter in the brain, it may be released 2. Motor neuron - a neuron that carries by about 40% of neurons and is active in areas of messages from the central nervous system the brain involved in learning, thought, and to the muscles of the body. emotion. Also called an efferent neuron. Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) - is thought to 3. Interneuron - a neuron found in the center facilitate control and anxiety in humans. of the spinal cord that receives information Tranquilizers, barbiturates, and alcohol appear to from the sensory neurons and sends have a calming and relaxing effect because they commands to the muscles through the stimulate GABA. motor neurons. Interneurons also make up Acetylcholine (ACh) movement - is the most the bulk of the neurons in the brain. common type of neurotransmitter, and the most well understood. It’s found in parts of the Neuroplasticity – the ability to constantly change peripheral nervous system, spinal cord, and areas both the structure and function of cells involved in of the brain. In the peripheral nervous system, trauma Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ACh activates muscles that help the body move. When ACh is released to the muscles, the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - all nerves and Pineal gland - endocrine gland located near the neurons that are not contained in the brain and base of the cerebrum that secretes melatonin. spinal cord but that run through the body itself; Thyroid gland - endocrine gland found in the divided into the: neck that regulates metabolism. Somatic nervous system Pancreas - the endocrine gland that controls Autonomic nervous system the levels of sugar in the blood. Gonads - the sex glands that secrete hormones Somatic Nervous System (SNS) that regulate sexual development and behavior as Soma = body well as reproduction. Somatic nervous system - a division of the PNS Ovaries - the female gonads. consisting of nerves that carry information from the Testes - the male gonads senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the Adrenal glands - endocrine glands located on voluntary muscles of the body. top of each kidney that secrete over 30 different Sensory pathway - nerves coming from the hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, sensory organs to the CNS consisting of sensory and provide a secondary source of sex hormones neurons. affecting the sexual changes that occur during Motor pathway - nerves coming from the CNS adolescence. to the voluntary muscles, consisting of motor neurons. THE BRAIN STEM Medulla - the first large swelling at the top of the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - a division of spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the which is responsible for life-sustaining functions involuntary muscles, organs, and glands sensory such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate. pathway nerves coming from the sensory organs Pons - the larger swelling above the medulla that to the CNS consisting of sensory neurons. connects the top of the brain to the bottom and Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system) - that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to coordination, and arousal. stressful events and bodily arousal. Reticular formation (RF) - an area of neurons Parasympathetic division - part of the ANS that running through the middle of the medulla and the restores the body to normal functioning after pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day selective attention. functioning of the organs and glands. Cerebellum - part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, Endocrine glands - are glands that secrete rapid, fine motor movement. chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream. STRUCTURES UNDER THE CORTEX Hormones - chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands. Pituitary gland - gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as the master gland). Limbic System - a group of several brain Occipital lobe - section of the brain located at the structures located under the cortex and involved in rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere learning, emotion, memory, and motivation. containing the visual centers of the brain. Thalamus - part of the limbic system located in the Primary visual cortex – processes visual center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the eyes. information from the lower part of the brain to the Visual association cortex – identifies and proper areas of the cortex and processes some makes sense of visual information. sensory information before sending it to its proper area. Parietal lobes - Sections of the brain located at the Olfactory bulbs - two projections just under the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere front of the brain that receive information from the containing the centers for touch, taste, and receptors in the nose located just below. temperature sensations. Hypothalamus - small structure in the brain located Somatosensory cortex - an area of neurons below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary running down the front of the parietal lobes gland, responsible for motivational behavior such responsible for processing information from the as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex. Sits above and skin and internal body receptors for touch, controls the pituitary gland (master endocrine temperature, body position, and possibly taste. gland). Temporal lobes - areas of the cortex located just Hippocampus - curved structure located within behind the temples containing the neurons each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation responsible for the sense of hearing and of long-term memories and the storage of memory meaningful speech. for the location of objects. Primary auditory cortex – processes auditory Amygdala - brain structure located near the information from the ears. hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and Auditory association cortex – identifies and memory of fear. makes sense of auditory information. CORTEX PART Frontal lobes - areas of the cortex located in the Cortex - outermost covering of the brain consisting front and top of the brain, responsible for higher of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher mental processes and decision-making as well as thought processes and interpretation of sensory the production of fluent speech. input. Motor cortex - section of the frontal lobe located Corticalization – wrinkling of the cortex. Allows a at the back, responsible for sending motor much larger area of cortical cells to exist in the commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous small space inside the skull. Human cortex system. compared to various animal species. Cerebral hemispheres - the two sections of the ASSOCIATION AREAS OF CORTEX cortex of the brain. Association areas - areas within each lobe of the Corpus callosum - the thick band of neurons that cortex responsible for the coordination and connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres. interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing. FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN Broca’s aphasia - a condition resulting from damage to Broca’s area (usually in the left frontal lobe), causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to brain. The process of converting outside stimuli, speak haltingly. such as light, into neural activity. Wernicke’s aphasia - a condition resulting from Sensory receptors - specialized forms of neurons damage to Wernicke’s area (usually in the left Sense organs; temporal lobe), causing the affected person to be Eyes unable to understand or produce meaningful Ears language. Nose Spatial neglect - condition produced by damage to Skin the association areas of the right hemisphere Taste buds resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field. Sensory Thresholds Just a noticeable difference (jnd or the Split Brain Research difference threshold) - the smallest difference Cerebrum - the upper part of the brain consisting between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the two hemispheres and the structures that of the time. connect them. Absolute threshold - the smallest amount of energy needed for a person to consciously detect Study of patients with severed corpus callosum. a stimulus 50 percent of the time it is present. Involves sending messages to only one side of the brain. Subliminal Sensation Demonstrates right and left brain specialization. Subliminal stimuli - stimuli that are below the level Language is primarily a left-hemisphere activity of conscious awareness. Just strong enough to for most individual activate the sensory receptors but not strong enough for people to be consciously aware of RESULTS OF SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH them. The left side of the brain: Limin - "threshold" Seems to control language, writing, logical Sublimin - "below the threshold." thought, analysis, and mathematical abilities, Supraliminal "above the threshold." process information sequentially, and can speak. Subliminal perception – the process by which subliminal stimuli act upon the unconscious mind, The right side of the brain: influencing behavior, we take actions on what we Controls emotional expression, spatial sense in our environment perception, recognition of faces, patterns, melodies, and emotions, processes information Habituation and Sensory Adaptation globally, and cannot speak. Habituation - the tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information. The Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception process of becoming less sensitive to a stimulus Sensation - the activation of receptors in the after repeated exposure various sense organs. Sensory adaptation - the tendency of sensory Transduction - the eyes, ears, nose, skin, and receptor cells to become less responsive to a taste buds are activated, allowing various forms of stimulus that is unchanging. Adjusting in the outside stimuli to become neural signals in the environment. Sensitization - the type of sensory adaptation in Iris - round muscle (the colored part of the eye) which we become more sensitive to stimuli that in which the pupil is located; can change the size are low in magnitude. Also called positive of the pupil, letting more or less light into the eye; adaptation. helps focus the image Desensitization - the type of sensory adaptation in Lens – another clear structure behind the iris, which we become less sensitive to constant suspended by muscles; finishes the focusing stimuli. Also called negative adaptation. process begun by the cornea. Microsaccades - the constant movement of the Retina – final stop for light in the eye eyes, tiny little vibrations called that people do not Contains 3 layers: notice consciously; prevents sensory adaptation to Ganglion cells visual stimuli. A small, involuntary eye movements Bipolar cells that occurs during prolonged visual fixation. Photoreceptors that respond to various light waves Psychological Aspects to Light Rods - visual sensory receptors found at the Brightness - determined by the amplitude of the back of the retina, responsible for non color wave how high or how low the wave actually is. sensitivity to low levels of light. The higher the wave, the brighter the light will be. Cones - visual sensory receptors found at the Low waves are dimmer. back of the retina, responsible for color vision and Color or hue - is determined by the length of the sharpness of vision. wave. Blind spot - an area in the retina where the Long wavelengths are found at the red end of axons of the three layers of retinal cells exit the the visible spectrum (the portion of the whole eye to form the optic nerve, insensitive to light. spectrum of light that is visible to the human eye), whereas shorter wavelengths are found at the blue Retina, Rods, and Cones end. Visual accommodation - the change in the Saturation - refers to the purity of the color people thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects see; mixing in black or gray would also lessen the that are far away or close. saturation. Vitreous humor - jelly-like fluid called that also nourishes the eye and gives it shape. Keep the Structure of the Eye round shape of the eyes. Cornea – the clear membrane that covers the surface of the eye; protects the eye and is the How the Eyes Work? structure that focuses most of the light coming into Dark adaptation (Night blindness) - the the eye. recovery of the eye’s sensitivity to visual stimuli in Radial keratotomy - a vision-improving darkness after exposure to bright lights. technique that uses this fact by making small Light adaptation - the recovery of the eye’s incisions in the cornea to change the focus in the sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to eye. darkness. Aqueous humor - next visual layer; clear, watery fluid that is continually replenished and Color Vision supplies nourishment to the eye. Trichromatic theory - theory of color vision that Pupil – hole through which light from the visual proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and image enters the interior of the eye. green.  Afterimages - images that occur when a visual Anvil - small bone is one of three ossicles in the sensation persists for a brief time even after the middle ear. The incus receives vibrations from the original stimulus is removed. malleus, to which it is connected laterally, and Opponent process theory - theory of color transmits these to the stapes medially. vision that proposes four primary colors with cones Stirrup - a bone in the middle ear of humans and arranged in pairs: red and green, blue and yellow. other animals which is involved in the conduction Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus of sound vibrations to the inner ear Cochlea - the snail-shaped structure of the inner Color Blindness ear that is filled with fluid. Monochrome color blindness - either have no Organ of Corti – rests in the basilar membrane; cones or have cones that are not working at all. contains receptor cells for sense of hearing. Red-green colorblindness - either the red or the Auditory nerve - a bundle of axons from the hair green cones are not working. cells in the inner ear; receives neural messages Protanopia – lack of functioning red cones. from the organ of Corti. Deuteranopia – lack of functioning green cones. Theories of Pitch Tritanopia - lack of functioning blue cones Pitch - the psychological experience of sound that corresponds to the frequency of the sound waves; Sex-linked inheritance - color deficient vision higher frequencies are perceived as higher which can be passed from parents to offspring. pitches. Place theory - theory of pitch that states that Sound different pitches are experienced by the Wavelength – interpreted as frequency or pitch stimulation of hair cells in different locations on the (high, medium, or low). organ of Corti. Amplitude – interpreted as volume (how soft or Frequency theory - theory of pitch that states that loud a sound is). pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the Purity – interpreted as timbre (richness in the basilar membrane volley principle theory of pitch tone of the sound). that states that frequencies above 100 Hz cause Hertz (Hz) - cycles or waves per second, unit the hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley we use to measure a frequency. pattern, or take turns in firing. Volley principle - theory of pitch that states that Structure of the Ear frequencies above 100 Hz cause the hair cells Auditory canal - a short tunnel that runs from the (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley pattern, or pinna to the eardrum (tympanic membrane). take turns in firing. Eardrum - thin section of skin that tightly covers the opening into the middle part of the ear, just like Types of Hearing Impairment a drum skin covers the opening in a drum. Conduction hearing impairment - can result from When sound waves hit the eardrum, it either: vibrates and causes three tiny bones in the middle a damaged eardrum (which would ear to vibrate. prevent sound waves from being carried Hammer - functions with the other bones to into the middle ear properly), or transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear  damage to the bones of the middle ear "Soma" – body (sounds cannot be conducted from the "Esthetic" – feeling eardrum to the cochlea). 1. Skin senses - the sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. Nerve hearing impairment – can result from either: Sensory receptors in the skin damage in the inner ear, or Gate-control theory - pain signals must damage in the auditory pathways and pass through a "gate" located in the spinal cortical areas of the brain. cord. 2. Kinesthetic senses - a sense of the location of Surgery to Help Restore Hearing body parts in relation to the ground and each Cochlear Implant - a microphone implanted just other. behind the ear picks up sound from the Proprioceptive receptors surrounding environment. Collected by the (proprioceptors) electrode array in the cochlea and then sent to the 3. Vestibular senses - the sensations of brain. movement, balance, and body position sensory Speech processor selects and arranges conflict theory is an explanation of motion sickness the sound picked up by the microphone. in which the information from the eyes conflicts Implant is a transmitter and receiver, with the information from the vestibular senses, converting signals into electrical impulses. resulting in dizziness, nausea, and other physical discomforts. Taste Taste buds – Taste receptor cells in the mouth; Perception and Constancies responsible for the sense of taste Perception – The method by which the Gustation – The sensation of a taste. It allows sensations experienced at any given moment are us to taste different flavors. interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion. Five Basic Tastes: Size constancy – The tendency to interpret an Sweet object as always being the same actual size, Sour regardless of its distance. Salty Shape constancy – The tendency to interpret Bitter the shape of an object as being constant, even "Brothy" when its shape changes on the retina. Brightness constancy – The tendency to Smell perceive the apparent brightness of an object as Olfaction (olfactory sense) – Sense of smell the same even when the light conditions change. Olfactory bulbs – Areas of the brain located just Size constancy – The tendency to interpret the above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal size of an object as being constant, even when its lobes that receive information from the olfactory shape changes on the retina. receptor cells. Gestalt Principles Somesthetic senses - the body senses consisting Figure ground – The tendency to perceive of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the objects, or figures, as existing on a background. vestibular senses.  Reversible figures – Visual illusions in which the thickness of the lens of the eye in response to figure and ground can be reversed looking at objects that are close or far away. Similarity – The tendency to perceive things Pictorial depth cues - are any information that look similar to each other as being part of the conveyed to the observer of a two-dimensional same group. image that gives the impression of 3-dimensional Proximity – The tendency to perceive objects image that are close to each other as part of the same Linear Perspective - a system of creating an group. illusion of depth on a flat surface Closure – The tendency to complete figures that are incomplete Binocular cues - cues for perceiving depth based Continuity – The tendency to perceive things as on both eyes simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather Convergence - the rotation of the two eyes in than with a complex, broken-up pattern their sockets to focus on a single object, resulting Contiguity or common region – The tendency to in greater convergence for closer objects and perceive two things that happen close together in lesser convergence if objects are distant. time as being related. Binocular disparity - the difference in images between the two eyes, which is greater for objects Depth perception - the ability to perceive the world that are close and smaller for distant objects. in three dimensions. Perceptual Illusions Monocular cues (pictorial depth cues) – cues The Herman grid – is possibly due to the for perceiving depth based on one eye only. response of the primary visual cortex. Linear perspective – the tendency for parallel Müller-Lyer illusion - illusion of line length that is lines to appear to converge on each other. distorted by inward-turning or outward-turning Relative size - a perception that occurs when corners on the ends of the lines, causing lines of objects that a person expects to be of a certain equal length to appear to be different size appear to be small and are, therefore, Moon illusion – the moon on the horizon assumed to be much farther away. appears to be larger than the moon in the sky. Interposition (overlap) - the assumption that an Apparent distance hypothesis object that appears to be blocking part of another object is in front of the second object and closer to Illusions of Motion the viewer Autokinetic effect - a small, stationary light in a Aerial perspective - the haziness that surrounds darkened room will appear to move or drift objects that are farther away from the viewer, because there are no surrounding cues to indicate causing the distance to be perceived as greater. that the light is not moving Texture gradient - the tendency for textured Stroboscopic motion - seen in motion pictures, surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as in which a rapid series of still pictures will appear the distance from the viewer increases to be in motion Motion parallax - the perception of motion of phi phenomenon – lights turned on in a objects in which close objects appear to move sequence appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away Rotating snakes – is due in part to eye Accommodation - as a monocular clue, the movements brain’s use of information about the changing The Enigma - is due in part to microsaccades  Ame’s room illusion - It's a room that is built Drive - a psychological tension and physical with both the floor and ceiling at an angle, which arousal arising when there is a need that creates an illusion using forced perspective and motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the distortion that tricks your eye into thinking both need and reduce the tension sides of the room are the same Drive-Reduction Theory - approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological Factors that Influence Perception needs that cause internal drives to push the Perceptual set (perceptual expectancy) - the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension tendency to perceive things a certain way because and arousal previous experiences or expectations influence those perceptions. Kinds of Drives Top-down processing - the use of preexisting Primary drives - those drives that involve needs knowledge to organize individual features into a of the body such as hunger and thirst. unified whole. Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives that Bottom-up processing - the analysis of the are learned through experience or conditioning, smaller features to build up to a complete such as the need for money or social approval perception. Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. Central of the Chapter 5: Motivation and Emotion drive-reduction theory. Motivation - the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or Three Types of Needs psychological needs or wants are met. Need for achievement (nAch) - a need that Extrinsic motivation - type of motivation in which involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining a person performs an action because it leads to an goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging outcome that is separate from or external to the ones person. (ex: reward, punishment) Need for affiliation (nAff) - the need for friendly Intrinsic motivation - because an act itself is social interactions and relationships with others. fun, rewarding, challenging, or satisfying in some Need for power (nPow) - the need to have internal manner. (ex: autonomy, mastery, purpose) control or influence over others. Instinct Approaches to Motivation Locus of Control - when we faced with difficulty Instincts - the biologically determined and innate phenomenon - we use unconsciously the locus of patterns of behavior that exist in both people and control animals. (ex: migration, hibernation, eating, Those who believe intelligence is fixed and drinking, and sleeping, reproducing) unchangeable often demo an external locus of Instinct approach - approach to motivation that control, leading them to give up easily or avoid assumes people are governed by instincts similar situations in which they might fail. They are prone to those of animals. to developing learned helplessness. The other type of person believes that Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation intelligence is changeable and can be shaped by Need - a requirement of some material (such as experiences and efforts in small increases, or food or water) that is essential for survival of the increments, tend to show an internal locus of organism. control. They are motivated to master tasks and don’t allow failure to destroy their confidence in Self-actualization - according to Maslow, the point themselves or prevent them from trying again and that is seldom reached at which people have again, using new strategies each time. sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential. Arousal Approach to Motivation Peak experiences - according to Maslow, times in Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be a person’s life during which self actualization is unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, temporarily achieved. such as curiosity, playing, and exploration. Cross cultural research - suggest that the order of Arousal theory - theory of motivation in which needs on the hierarchy doesn’t always hold true people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) for other cultures particularly those cultures w/ level of tension that they seek to maintain by stronger tendency than US culture to avoid increasing or decreasing stimulation. Motivated to uncertainty, such as Greece and Japan. engage in behaviors or seek out experiences that are consistent w/ that optimal level. Self-Determination Theory of Motivation Sensation seeker - someone who needs more Self-determination theory (SDT) - theory of human arousal than the average person. The need does motivation in which the social context of an action not always involve danger. has an effect on the type of motivation existing for the action. Incentive Approaches to Motivation Three-inborn and universal needs are: Incentives - things that attract or lure people into Autonomy action Competence Incentive approaches - theories of motivation in Relatedness which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties. Richard Ryan and Edward Deci, believe that These rewarding properties exist. satisfying these needs can best be accomplished if INDEPENDENTLY of any need or level of arousal the person has a supportive environment. and can cause people to act only upon incentive. Hunger: Bodily Causes Insulin - a hormone secreted by the pancreas to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by reducing the level of glucose in the bloodstream. Glucagons - hormones that are secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by increasing the level of glucose in the bloodstream Leptin - a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full. Role of Hypothalamus  Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) - may be Anorexia nervosa – A condition in which a involved in stopping the eating response when person reduces eating to the point that a weight glucose level go up. loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) - located on the more occurs side, seems to influence the onset of eating when Bulimia – A condition in which a person insulin levels go up. Damage to this area causes develops a cycle of "binging" or overeating people to stop eating to the point of starvation. enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and Weight set point – the particular level of weight "purging" or deliberately vomiting after eating. that the body tries to maintain. (over/under/normal Elements of Emotion Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - the rate at which Emotion - the "feeling" aspect of the body burns energy when the organism is consciousness, characterized by a certain physical resting and is directly tied to the set point. arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the (fast/slow) BMR decreases more dramatically as emotion to the outside world, and an inner the age of the person increases. awareness of feelings Display rules - learned ways of controlling Social Component of Hunger: these are all sorts displays of emotion in social settings of social cues that tell people to eat; such as the convention of eating (breakfast/lunch/dinner) Common Sense Theory of Emotion - a stimulus people respond to the appeal of food leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily Cultural factors and gender arousal. Use of food as a comfort device or escape from James-Lange Theory of Emotion - theory in which unpleasantness a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an Some people may respond to the anticipation of emotion. eating by producing an insulin response, Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion - theory in which increasing the risk of obesity. the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time. SEVERAL FACTORS: Cognitive Arousal Theory – theory of emotion in Heredity - influences a person’s likelihood of which both the physical arousal and the labeling of becoming obese. “Family history of Obesity” that arousal based on cues from the environment Hormones - Leptin production or detection of must occur before the emotion is experienced. problems can lead to overeating. Overeating - foods become more varied and Schacter and Singer’s Study of Emotion enticing as well, and an increase in variety is Facial feedback hypothesis - theory of emotion associated w/ an increase beyond the that assumes that facial expressions provide physiological need to eat. feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and Eating Problems intensifies the emotion. Obesity – A condition in which the body weight Cognitive Mediational Theory - theory of of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal emotion in which a stimulus must be interpreted body weight for that person’s height (actual (appraised) by a person in order to result in a percentages vary across definitions) physical response and an emotional reaction.