Feldman Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology PDF

Because learning changes everything.® Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  MODULE 1—Psychologists at Work What is the science of psychology? Wha...

Because learning changes everything.® Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  MODULE 1—Psychologists at Work What is the science of psychology? What are the major specialties in the field of psychology? Where do psychologists work? © McGraw Hill LLC 2  Psychologists at Work Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists try to describe, predict, and explain human behavior and mental processes using scientific methods to find answers. These behaviors and mental processes encompass not just what people do but also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning. © McGraw Hill LLC 3  MODULE 1 FIGURE 1 1 Psychological Truths? Test your knowledge of psychology. Which of the following are “True,” and which “False”? 1. Infants love their mothers primarily because their mothers fulfill their basic biological needs, such as providing food. 2. The greater the intelligence someone generally has, the poorer their social skills. 3. The best way to ensure that a desired behavior will continue after training is completed is to reward that behavior every single time it occurs during training rather than rewarding it only periodically. 4. People with schizophrenia have at least two distinct personalities. 5. Parents should do everything they can to ensure their children have high self-esteem and a strong sense that they are highly competent. 6. Children’s IQ scores have little to do with how well they do in school. 7. Eyewitness testimony is typically surprisingly accurate. 8. Once people reach old age, their leisure activities change radically. 9. Most people would refuse to give painful electric shocks to other people. 10. People who talk about suicide are unlikely to actually try to kill themselves. © McGraw Hill LLC 4  MODULE 1 FIGURE 1 2 The truth about each of these items is that they are all FALSE. Based on psychological research, each of these “facts” has been proven untrue. You will learn the reasons why as we explore what psychologists have discovered about human behavior. Sources: Adapted from Bensley, Alan D. & Lilienfield, Scott O. (2017). Psychological misconceptions: Recent scientific advances and unresolved issues. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(4), 377–382; and Lamal, P. A. (1979). College students’ common beliefs about psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 6, 155–158. © McGraw Hill LLC 5  Subfields of Psychology 1 Behavioral genetics. Behavioral neuroscience. Climate and environmental psychology. Clinical psychology. Clinical neuropsychology. Cognitive psychology. 15 Counseling psychology. Cross-cultural psychology. © McGraw Hill LLC 6  Subfields of Psychology 2 Developmental psychology. Diversity Science. Educational psychology. Evolutionary psychology. Experimental psychology. Forensic psychology. Health psychology. © McGraw Hill LLC 7  Subfields of Psychology 3 Industrial/organizational psychology. Personality psychology. Program evaluation. Psychology of women. School psychology. Social psychology. 7 Sport psychology. © McGraw Hill LLC 8  What Are the Biological Foundations of Behavior? People are biological organisms. Behavioral neuroscience focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body, determine behavior. © McGraw Hill LLC 9  How Do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think About the World? Experimental psychology studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. Cognitive psychology is a subspecialty of experimental psychology focusing on higher mental processes, such as thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language. © McGraw Hill LLC 10  What Are the Sources of Change and Stability in Behavior Across the Life Span? Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. Personality psychology focuses on consistency in people’s behavior across their lives as well as traits that differentiate one person from another. © McGraw Hill LLC 11  How Do Psychological Factors Affect Physical and Mental Health? Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. © McGraw Hill LLC 12  How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior? Social psychology studies how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups. © McGraw Hill LLC 13  Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers Evolutionary psychology considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. This field stems from Darwin’s On the Origin of Species. Behavioral genetics seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits. Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology and focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors. Diversity science uses scientific methods to understand how society’s diversity affects individual and group behavior. © McGraw Hill LLC 14  Working at Psychology Psychologists are employed in a variety of settings: Institutions of higher learning; Private practice treating clients; Hospitals, clinics, mental health centers; Government human-services organizations; Business, schools, prisons, the military; Department of Homeland Security. Most work in academic settings. All share a commitment to improving individual lives as well as society in general. © McGraw Hill LLC 15  MODULE 1 FIGURE 3 The breakdown of where U.S. psychologists (who have a PhD or PsyD) work. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Source: Stamm et al., 2016. 16  Psychologists: A Statistical Portrait Around 180,000 psychologists are working today in the United States, but they are outnumbered by psychologists in other countries. Despite this, most of the research in the field is conducted in the United States. Today, after historically being discouraged from becoming psychologists, women far outnumber men in the field. Despite this, women still lag behind when it comes to salaries, career advancement, and high-status positions within the field. © McGraw Hill LLC 17  Challenges of Diversity in Psychology Another challenge regarding diversity in psychology is that the majority of psychologists in the United States are white. Only 16% of active psychologists are members of racial minority groups. There are consequences to the underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities among psychologists: The field is diminished by a lack of diverse perspectives and talents. Underrepresentation deters minorities from entering the field. Because people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own ethnic group, minorities are underserved. The dominance of psychologists in the United States causes scientific journals to disproportionately publish U.S. authors. © McGraw Hill LLC 18  The Education of a Psychologist Most psychologists have a doctorate degree. A PhD (doctor of philosophy) is a research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation. A PsyD (doctor of psychology) is obtained by psychologists who want to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders. Note, psychologists are distinct from psychiatrists—doctors who have a medical degree to specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. © McGraw Hill LLC 19  Careers for Psychology Majors Undergraduates who specialize in psychology develop good critical thinking and analytical skills, and they are able to synthesize and evaluate information well. Undergraduate psychology majors hold a variety of specific skills that employers find valuable—the top five include: Customer service. Leadership. Microsoft Office. Management. Sales. © McGraw Hill LLC 20  MODULE 1 FIGURE 5 Top Skills of Psychology Majors. An undergraduate psychology major provides many of the skills that future employers are seeking. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Source: Conroy et al., 2021. 21  MODULE 2—A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future What are the origins of psychology? What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology? What are psychology’s key issues and controversies? What is the future of psychology likely to hold? © McGraw Hill LLC 22  The Roots of Psychology 1 Structuralism: a focus on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities. A perspective developed by Wilhelm Wundt. Introspection: a procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus. © McGraw Hill LLC 23  The Roots of Psychology 2 Over time, structuralism and the procedure of introspection were challenged. Introspection was not truly a scientific technique because there were few ways an outsider could confirm its accuracy. People had difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences such as emotional responses. Functionalism: an approach that concentrates on what the mind does and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments. Developed by William James. © McGraw Hill LLC 24  The Roots of Psychology 3 Gestalt psychology: uses a series of principles to describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes. Advocated by German scientists Hermann Ebbinghaus and Max Wertheimer. Gestalt psychologists propose that “The whole is different from the sum of its parts,” meaning our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our perceptions. © McGraw Hill LLC 25  Women in Psychology: Founding Mothers 1 Margaret Floy Washburn worked on animal behavior. First woman to receive a doctorate in psychology. Leta Stetter Hollingworth was one of the first psychologists to focus on child development and on women’s issues. Refuted the view that women’s abilities periodically declined during their menstrual cycle. Mary Calkins studied memory and was the first female president of the American Psychological Association, which at the time was the dominant association for psychologists. © McGraw Hill LLC 26  Women in Psychology: Founding Mothers 2 Karen Horney focused on the social and cultural factors behind personality. Founded the American Journal of Psychoanalysis. June Etta Downey was the first woman to head a psychology department at a state university, spearheading the study of personality traits. Anna Freud, Sigmund Freud’s daughter, made notable contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior. Mamie Phipps Clark pioneered work on how children of color grew to recognize racial differences. Studied racial identification and self-esteem of preschool children. © McGraw Hill LLC 27  People of Color and the History of Psychology For much of history, the field of psychology was dominated by white males. Along with other disciplines, early psychologists reflected prejudice and discrimination. Focusing on notions derived from Darwin’s evolutionary theory led to discredited ideas of white superiority and eugenics theories. The civil rights movement that began in the 1960s influenced psychologists to address issues of prejudice and discrimination. In 2021, the American Psychological Association (APA) issued a formal apology in reference to the racism of prior generations of psychologists. © McGraw Hill LLC 28  Today’s Five Major Perspectives Those who laid the foundations of psychology shared a common goal: to explain and understand behavior using scientific methods. Today’s perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior and mental processes. Each takes our understanding of behavior in a somewhat different direction. © McGraw Hill LLC 29  MODULE 2 FIGURE 2 The major perspectives of psychology. Access the text alternative for slide images. (Neuroscience): Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo; (Cognitive): Les Byerley/Shutterstock; (Behavioral): Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC; (Humanistic): fizkes/ Shutterstock; (Psychodynamic): Athanasia Nomikou/Shutterstock © McGraw Hill LLC 30  The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood, Sweat, and Fears Neuroscience perspective: the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions. © McGraw Hill LLC 31  The Psychodynamic Perspective: Understanding the Inner Person Psychodynamic perspective: the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control. Its origins are linked to Sigmund Freud. © McGraw Hill LLC 32  The Behavioral Perspective: Observing the Outer Person Behavioral perspective: the approach that suggests that the focus should be on external behavior that can be objectively measured and observed. John B. Watson was the first to use this approach. It was championed by B. F. Skinner, a pioneer in the field. © McGraw Hill LLC 33  The Cognitive Perspective: Identifying the Roots of Understanding Cognitive perspective: the approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world. For many psychologists who adhere to this perspective, thinking is information processing. © McGraw Hill LLC 34 The Humanistic Perspective: The Unique Qualities of the Human Species Humanistic perspective: suggests individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were central figures in the development of this perspective. The emphasis is on free will. The notion of free will stands in contrast to determinism. © McGraw Hill LLC 35 Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 1 Issue 1: Nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment). How much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically determined nature? How much is due to nurture—the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is raised? What is the interplay between heredity and environment? © McGraw Hill LLC 36 Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 2 Issue 2: Conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior. How much of behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware? How much is due to unconscious activity? Issue 3: Observable behavior versus internal mental processes. Should we focus solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should we consider unseen thinking processes? © McGraw Hill LLC 37 Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 3 Issue 4: Free will versus determinism. How much of our behavior is a matter of free will, and how much is subject to determinism? Free will: the idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual. Determinism: the idea that people’s behavior is produced primarily by factors outside their willful control. © McGraw Hill LLC 38 Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 4 Issue 5: Individual differences versus universal principles. How much of behavior is due to a person’s unique and special qualities? How much stems from the culture and society? Universal principles are those that underlie the behavior of all humans. © McGraw Hill LLC 39  MODULE 2 FIGURE 3 Issue Neuroscience Cognitive Behavioral Humanistic Psychodynamic Nature (heredity) Nature (heredity) Both Nurture Nurture Nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment) (environment) (environment) Conscious versus Unconscious Both Conscious Conscious Unconscious unconscious determinants of behavior Observable behavior Internal emphasis Internal emphasis Observable Internal emphasis Internal emphasis versus internal mental emphasis processes Free will versus Determinism Free will Determinism Free will Determinism determinism Individual differences Universal Individual Both Individual Universal emphasis versus universal emphasis emphasis emphasis principles Key issues in psychology and the positions taken by psychologists subscribing to the five major perspectives of psychology. (Neuroscience): Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo; (Cognitive): Les Byerley/Shutterstock; (Behavioral): Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC; (Humanistic): fizkes/Shutterstock; (Psychodynamic): Athanasia Nomikou/Shutterstock © McGraw Hill LLC 40  Psychology’s Future Several trends seem likely: Psychology will become increasingly specialized. Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence other branches of psychology. Psychology’s influence on issues of public interest will grow. Psychologists must follow increasingly strict ethical and moral guidelines. The public’s view of psychology will become more informed. The issue of diversity will become more important. © McGraw Hill LLC 41  MODULE 3—Research in Psychology What is the scientific method? What role do theories and hypotheses play in psychological research? What research methods do psychologists use? How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships in research studies? © McGraw Hill LLC 42  The Scientific Method Scientific method: an approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest. © McGraw Hill LLC 43  MODULE 3 FIGURE 1 The scientific method, which encompasses the process of identifying, asking, and answering questions, is used by psychologists and researchers from every other scientific discipline to come to an understanding about the world. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC 44  Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations Theories: broad explanations and predictions concerning observations of interest. Theories provide a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of unorganized facts or principles. For example, the theory of diffusion of responsibility: Bibb Latané and John Darley developed this theory to understand the failure of bystanders to intervene in the murder of Kitty Genovese. The theory is that the greater the number of bystanders, the more the responsibility to help is perceived as shared, and the smaller the share of the responsibility each person feels. © McGraw Hill LLC 45  Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions 1 Hypothesis: a prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested. For example: The more people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely it is that help will be given to a victim. Operational definition: the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed. © McGraw Hill LLC 46  Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions 2 Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons: To make sense of unorganized, separate observations and bits of data. To place observations and data within a coherent framework. To move beyond known facts and make deductions about unexplained phenomena. To develop ideas for future investigation. © McGraw Hill LLC 47  Psychological Research Research is systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge and is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding the accuracy of hypotheses and theories. © McGraw Hill LLC 48  Archival Research Archival research: existing data are examined to test a hypothesis. Census documents. College records. Online databases. Newspaper clippings. Advantage: inexpensive. Disadvantage: the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully. The information could be incomplete, or it could have been collected haphazardly. © McGraw Hill LLC 49  Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation: an investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation. Significantly, the researcher simply records what occurs. Advantage: obtains a sample of what people do in their natural habitat. Disadvantage: the inability to control any factors of interest. © McGraw Hill LLC 50  Survey Research Survey research: people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. Advantage: if the sample is representative, make it possible to infer how a larger group would respond. Disadvantages: Results will be largely inconsequential if the sample is not representative. Survey respondents may not be truthful about their attitudes or may be unaware of their true attitudes. © McGraw Hill LLC 51  Ethnographic Research Ethnographic research: seeks to understand the attitudes and values of a culture using in-depth, extended examination of people in their own environment. Often used to examine subgroups within a culture, such as members of other racial and ethnic groups. Advantage: offers a source of hypothesis for more focused and objective research methods. Disadvantage: researchers may misinterpret behavior due to a lack of familiarity with culture. © McGraw Hill LLC 52  The Case Study Case study: an in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or a small group of people. Might include psychological testing, where a carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group. Advantage: insights can improve our understanding of people in general. Disadvantage: small samples or unique individuals make it impossible to make valid generalizations about a larger population. © McGraw Hill LLC 53  Correlational Research 1 Variables: behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way. Correlational research: the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or correlated. Disadvantage: correlational research cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships. © McGraw Hill LLC 54  Correlational Research 2 Correlation, or correlation coefficient: the strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables, which can range from +1.0 to −1.0. Positive correlation: as the value of one variable increases, so will the value of the other variable. The stronger the association, the closer the number will be to +1.0. Negative correlation: as the value of one variable increases, value of the other variable will decrease. Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a value close to 0. © McGraw Hill LLC 55  MODULE 3 FIGURE 2 If we find that frequent viewing of television programs with aggressive content is associated with high levels of aggressive behavior, we might cite several plausible causes, as suggested in this figure. For example, (a) choosing to watch shows with aggressive content could produce aggression; or (b) being a highly aggressive person might cause one to choose to watch televised aggression; or (c) having a high energy level might cause a person to both choose to watch aggressive shows and to act aggressively. Correlational findings, then, do not permit us to determine causality. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC 56  Experimental Research Experiment: the investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects on the second variable. Experimental manipulation: the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation. Advantage: the only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships. Disadvantage: to be valid, requires careful controls. © McGraw Hill LLC 57  Experimental Groups and Control Groups Treatment: the manipulation implemented by the experimenter. Experimental group: any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment. Control group: a group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment. By employing both experimental and control groups, researchers are able to rule out the possibility that something other than the experimental manipulation produced the results. © McGraw Hill LLC 58  Independent and Dependent Variables Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by an experimenter. Dependent variable: the variable that is measured in an experiment. It is expected to change as a result of the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable. © McGraw Hill LLC 59  Random Assignment of Participants Random assignment to condition: a procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance alone. This elegant procedure is the solution to the endless list of characteristics a group of participants can have in an experiment. © McGraw Hill LLC 60  MODULE 3 FIGURE 3 In this depiction of a study investigating the effects of the drug propranolol on heart disease, we can see the basic elements of all true experiments. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Source: Kaplan & Manuck, 1989. 61  MODULE 3 FIGURE 4: RESEARCH STRATEGIES Research Method Description Advantages Shortcomings Descriptive and Researcher observes a Offers insight into Cannot determine causality correlational previously existing situation relationships between research but does not make a change variables in the situation. Archival research Examines existing data to Ease of data collection Dependent on availability of data confirm hypothesis because data already exist Naturalistic Observation of naturally Provides a sample of Cannot control the “natural habitat” observation occurring behavior, without people in their natural being observed making a change in the environment situation A sample is chosen to A small sample can be Sample may not be representative of Survey research represent a larger population used to infer attitudes and the larger population; participants and asked a series of behavior of a larger may not provide accurate responses questions. population. to survey questions. Ethnographic Extended examination of a Offers a source of Researchers may misinterpret research small group or members of a hypotheses for more behavior due to a lack of familiarity different culture focused and objective with the culture. research methods Case study Intensive investigation of an Provides a thorough, in- Results may not be generalizable individual or small group depth understanding of beyond the sample. participants Investigator produces a Experiments offer the only To be valid, experiments require Experimental change in one variable to way to determine cause- random assignment of participants to research observe the effects of that and-effect relationships. conditions, well-conceptualized change on other variables. independent and dependent variables, and other careful controls. © McGraw Hill LLC (top): Jim West/Alamy Stock Photo; (bottom): marvent/Shutterstock 62  Were Latané and Darley Right? Recall the diffusion of responsibility theory. In testing their hypothesis, Latané and Darley could not be sure the results were truly meaningful until they determined whether those results represented a significant outcome. Significant outcome indicates that the findings of a research study are statistically meaningful. Only when differences between groups are large enough that statistical tests show them to be significant is it possible for researchers to confirm a hypothesis. © McGraw Hill LLC 63  MODULE 3 FIGURE 5 The Latané and Darley experiment showed that as the size of the group witnessing an emergency increased, helping behavior decreased. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Source: Darley & Latané, 1968. 64  Moving Beyond the Study Replicated research: repetition of research, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, before full confidence can be placed in the results of any single experiment. Critical for full confidence about the meaning of research studies. Many replication studies have failed to support original findings. Meta-analysis: a procedure that permits psychologists to combine the results of many separate studies into one overall conclusion. © McGraw Hill LLC 65  MODULE 4—Critical Research Issues What major issues confront psychologists conducting research? © McGraw Hill LLC 66  The Ethics of Research 1 Guidelines that protect participants: Protection of participants from physical and mental harm. The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior. The assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary. The necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures before their participation in the experiment. All experiments must be reviewed by an independent panel before being conducted. © McGraw Hill LLC 67  The Ethics of Research 2 Informed consent: a document signed by participants affirming that they have been told about the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve. Debriefing: after a participation in a study, participants receive an explanation of the study and the procedures that were involved. The only time informed consent and debriefing can be eliminated is when risks are minimal, as in a purely observational study in a public place. © McGraw Hill LLC 68  Should Animals Be Used in Research? Animal research allows for: Posing different questions in different ways. Greater experimental control. Procedures that might ethically not be possible with people. Researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain; and must also promote the psychological well-being of some species of research animals, such as primates. Procedures that subject animals to distress are permitted: When an alternative procedure is unavailable. When the research is justified by its prospective value. © McGraw Hill LLC 69