Consumer Behavior Edition 8 PDF

 Consumer Behavior Edition 8 Wayne D. Hoyer...

 Consumer Behavior Edition 8 Wayne D. Hoyer The University of Texas at Austin Deborah J. MacInnis University of Southern California Rik Pieters Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Lisbon, and Tilburg University Australia Brazil Canada Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Consumer Behavior, 8e Copyright © 2024 Cengage Learning, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. 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VP, Product Marketing: Jason Sakos Director, Product Marketing: April Danaë Library of Congress Control Number: 2023909812 Product Marketing Manager: Mary Reynolds Content Acquisition Analyst: Erin McCullough ISBN: 978-0-357-72129-2 Production Service: Lumina Datamatics Ltd. Designer: Sara Greenwood Cengage 200 Pier 4 Boulevard Cover Image Source: Pop Nukoonrat/ Boston, MA 02210 Dreamstime.com USA Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions. Our employees reside in nearly 40 different countries and serve digital learners in 165 countries around the world. Find your local representative at www.cengage.com. To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access your online learning solution, or purchase materials for your course, visit www.cengage.com. Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2023 Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  14 Chapter Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles Introduction This chapter describes the influence of psychographics, Learning Objectives that is, values, personality, and lifestyles, on consumer behavior. The ongoing trend toward product custom- After studying this chapter, you will be able to: ization and personalization illustrates their influence. For instance, values determine whether consumers care ▸▸ 14-1 Describe seven core values that influence consumer behavior, and more about individualism or put more emphasis on social identify some of the domain-specific groups. A consumer who values individualism and whose values that characterize a global personality leans toward being unique will be more likely consumer culture. than other consumers to try a website like Zazzle, which sells products personalized to the consumer’s identity, such ▸▸ 14-2 Describe how personality can influence consumer behavior. as with their pictures, or customized to their individual taste, such as art, apparel, and sports equipment that can ▸▸ 14-3 Explain how lifestyles are represented be adapted to fit the consumer’s lifestyle.1 A consumer’s by activities, interests, and opinions. political orientation is associated with various personal ▸▸ 14-4 Describe how psychographic values and personality traits, and it influence consumer applications in marketing combine behavior as well. values, personality, and lifestyle Together, values, personality, and lifestyles constitute variables. the fundamental components of psychographics , the description of consumers based on their psychological and behavioral characteristics (see Exhibit 14.1). Marketers use psychographics to gain deep insights into consumer behavior that complement those obtained from socio- economic characteristics like age, gender, ethnicity, social class, and religion. 378 Part 4 | The Consumer’s Culture Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  are so ingrained that people may not be conscious of them and may have difficulty describing them. Psychographics Our total set of values and their relative importance con- stitute a value system. The way that we behave in various Values situations is often influenced by how important one value Personality is to us relative to others.3 For instance, deciding whether Lifestyles to spend Saturday afternoon relaxing with your family or Psychographic applications exercising will be determined by the relative importance that you place (this Saturday) on family versus health. ­C onsumers experience a value conflict when they are aware that a particular behavior is consistent with one or Exhibit 14.1 Chapter Overview: Psychographics: more of their important values but inconsistent with one Values, Personality, and Lifestyles or more of their other important values. For example, a Previous chapters demonstrated how membership in cer- consumer who values both enjoyment and environmen- tain cultural groups, such as region, ethnicity, and social tal sustainability and talks about this may experience a class, can affect group behaviors. This chapter examines value conflict when traveling by cheap air to another state the effect of these cultural influences on an individual or country to attend a musical festival such as Austin City level—namely, on values, personality, and lifestyles—and Limits in Texas or Glastonbury in the U.K. Then the behav- how these values, personality, and lifestyles shape individ- ual choices of consumers. Each of these factors is useful in ior’s immediate consumption benefits and its environmental understanding consumer behavior; in addition, marketers costs may produce psychological tension.4 combine these to obtain an overall psychographic profile Because values are among the first things that chil- of consumers. dren learn, value systems are often in place by age 10. As Values, personality, and lifestyles are broad and sta- ­C hapter 11 describes, people learn values through the ble characteristics that influence consumer behavior. Com- process of socialization, which results from exposure to pared to, for instance, brand attitudes, which influence parents, reference groups, and other sources of influence.5 specific behaviors such as purchase of a brand, people’s You may therefore place a high value on education because values, personality, and lifestyles influence a broader range your parents went to college and because they and your of behaviors, such as the purchase and usage of a variety teachers encouraged this value. Because individuals learn of products and brands. Compared to, for instance, brand values through exposure to others in institutions and cul- attitudes, which may change quickly over time, consumer’s values, personality, and lifestyles are more stable, enduring tures, people within the same group often hold similar val- characteristics over time. Finally, compared to, for instance, ues and value systems. brand attitudes, which can have a large effect on specific Acculturation is the process by which individuals learn behaviors such as purchase of the brand, consumers’ val- the values and behaviors of a new culture (see Chapter 12). ues, personality, and lifestyles tend to have a more modest For example, immigrants arriving in the United States effect on specific behaviors. Fundamental insight into val- learn new values to acculturate to American life and trans- ues, personality, and lifestyles is vital to understanding the mit some of their own values back.6 Consumers are more psychographic makeup of consumers, that is, why they do likely to adopt the values of a new culture if they view that what they do, and to predicting consumer behavior trends. culture as attractive and as having values like their own. This chapter provides these insights. ­Acculturation also occurs faster when people in the new culture are cohesive, communicate their values clearly, and express pride in the values that they hold.7 14-1 Values Psychographics Description of consumers based on their Values are enduring beliefs about desirable, abstract out- psychological and behavioral characteristics, specifically, their comes.2 For example, you may believe that it is good to be personal values, personality traits, and lifestyles. healthy, keep your family safe, have self-respect, and be free. Values, personality, and lifestyles Relatively broad and Your values serve as standards that guide the evaluation and stable psychographic characteristics that influence a range of consumer behaviors over time, but usually with a modest selection of behaviors, people, and policies across situations effect on each specific behavior. and over time. Thus, how much you value the environment Value system The total set of values and their relative generally determines the extent to which you litter, recycle, importance to a person. buy products made from recycled materials, or drive an Value conflict When consumers are aware that a particular electric or hybrid car. And values determine how you judge behavior is consistent with one or more of their important values but inconsistent with one or more of other people that perform or do not perform such behav- their other important values. iors, and how you judge policies about these matters. Values Chapter 14 | Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles  379 Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 14-1a Core Values That People Have inner harmony, and family security, which are located at the top of core value circumplex, and valuing an exciting life, People’s personal values can vary in terms of their speci- being ambitious, and seeking pleasure and happiness, which ficity. At the broadest, most abstract level are core values, are located at the bottom and left of the core value circum- which represent the core of an individual’s value system. plex. For instance, couples preparing for their wedding party These highly enduring, strongly held, and abstract val- may experience a conflict between trying to provide enjoy- ues apply in many situations. For example, because much ment to the guests, for instance, by serving alcoholic bever- of Western culture is based on the notion of freedom, that ages, and being responsible hosts caring for the security and value permeates many domains of our lives. This leads to a safety of their guests, who should not drink and drive.9 belief in the freedom to speak, to go where we want, to dress Core values influence consumer behavior across a as we please, and to live where we want. wide range of life domains, such as possessions, consump- There are various ways to characterize people’s core val- tion, work, leisure, family, education, the environment, ues. Building on the influential research of psychologists and so forth, but usually only modestly. Core values differ Milton Rokeach, Shalom Schwartz, and others, Exhibit 14.2 from domain-specific values, which are specific to a life presents our core value circumplex. 8 The framework domain, such as consumption or health, and have a stronger divides global values into seven categories placed in a cir- influence on consumer behavior. Materialism, for example, cumplex (circle). Starting at the top and moving clockwise is a domain-specific value which concerns the importance of are the core values (1) maturity, (2) security, (3) prosocial, the acquisition and ownership of material goods. Although (4) restrictive conformity, (5) enjoyment, (6) achievement, core and domain-specific values differ in scope, they are and (7) self-direction. jointly part of a person’s value system such that domain- The framework distinguishes two types of values within specific values (like health) can be instrumental to ­achieving these seven core value categories: terminal and instrumen- of one or more core values (such as sense of accomplish- tal values. Terminal values (shown with a bullet sign) ment and self-respect). are highly desired end states, and instrumental values (shown with a plus sign) are intermediate values that help to attain the desired end states. For example, two terminal 14-1b Values That Characterize Global values in the prosocial category are equality and salvation. Consumer Culture ­Instrumental values such as loving, forgiving, helpfulness, Because values are an important influence on consumer honesty, and belief in a higher power help a person to behavior, and markets are further globalizing, marketers achieve these terminal values. need to understand the values that characterize global con- The framework contains two superordinate categories of sumer culture. Although societies across the world retain values. The maturity, security, prosocial, and restrictive con- their uniqueness, they are also increasingly becoming part formity values jointly express the importance of “others and of a global consumer culture due to increased cross-national stability.” The enjoyment, achievement, and self-direction institutions and legislation; worldwide online connectivity; values jointly express the importance of “self and growth.” shared educational practices; migration; cultural exchange of Exhibit 14.2 shows this. Similar values are placed close people, products, and ideas; and global brands, retail chains, together on the circumplex. Values within each of the two and media.10 Indeed, “global consumer culture is now a criti- broad value clusters are alike and dissimilar from values on cal force in everyone’s lives.”11 We describe 11 domain-specific the opposite side of the circumplex. values that characterize this global consumer culture, and People cannot value everything to the same extent but refer to previous chapters for other components of global have natural orderings from values that are most to least culture such as increased interconnectivity and social media important to them at the current stage in their life. Therefore, (Chapter 11), consumer diversity (Chapter 12), and evolving there may be a tension between valuing mature love, wisdom, household structures (Chapter 13). Seven of these domain-specific values are part of the Core values A person’s most enduring, strongly held, and abstract values that hold in many situations. These values are “self-and-growth” cluster in the core value circumplex in at the center of a person’s value system. Exhibit 14.2, specifically, materialism, hedonism, individual- Terminal values The desired end states such as equality and ism, work-and-leisure balance, technology attraction, health pleasure. focus, and youth focus. These values express the importance of Instrumental values Intermediate values needed to attain enjoyment, achievement, and self-direction to consumers. the desired end states such as honesty to attain equality, and cheerfulness to attain pleasure. Materialism Domain-specific values Values that apply to a particular life One domain-specific value in a global consumer culture domain or area of activities, such as consumption, health, is materialism.12 People are materialistic when they place work, leisure, family, technology, the environment. a high importance on acquiring and owning material pos- Materialism The tendency to place a high importance on acquiring and owning material goods and money. sessions, and money. Then they seek pleasure in the act of shopping itself, believe that they would be happier than 380 Part 4 | The Consumer’s Culture Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Terminal values Instrumental values 1. MATURITY 2. SECURITY Mature love National security True friendship Freedom Wisdom Inner harmony A world of beauty Family security Courageous A world at peace B. Others-and- Stability Values 7. SELF-DIRECTION 3. PROSOCIAL Sense of accomplishment Equality Self-respect Salvation Imaginative Forgiving Independent ? Helpful Broadminded Belief in a higher Power Intellectual Honest Logical Loving 6. ACHIEVEMENT 4. RESTRICTIVE CONFORMITY Social recognition Obedient An exciting life Polite Ambitious Self-controlled Capable Clean Responsible 5. ENJOYMENT A. Self-and- Comfortable life Growth Values Pleasure Happiness Cheerful Exhibit 14.2 A Circumplex of Core Values The core value circumplex contains seven major values placed in a circle. Some values are more self-oriented, such as enjoyment and self-direction, and other values are more other-oriented, such as prosocial and restrictive conformity. Some values are more growth oriented, such as achievement, and other values are more stability oriented, such as maturity and security. Values close to each other in the circumplex are similar, such as maturity and security, and potentially conflict with values opposite in the circumplex, such as enjoyment. Terminal values (desirable end states) are marked with a bullet sign; instrumental values (desirable intermediate states) have an open circle. There are two main categories of core values in the ­circumplex. First, “other and stability” values capture the (1) maturity, (2) security, (3) prosocial, and (4) restrictive conformity domains, located clockwise from the top left to the bottom right in the circumplex. Second, “self and growth” values capture the (5) enjoyment, (6) achievement, and (7) self-direction domains, located clockwise from the bottom to the left in the circumplex. Can you indicate which three or four terminal and instrumental values in the framework are most important to you at this stage in your life? Are some of these values conflicting, and when is this the case? Which three or four terminal and instrumental values are least important to you? Are there people in your direct environment with very different values? Chapter 14 | Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles  381 Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  those of material possessions.20 Spending on durable pur- chases such as a winter coat, videogame console, or tablet computer makes sense because these provide long lasting experiences as well.21 Materialism relates to several of the values in Exhibit 14.2. For example, possessions may be instrumental in achiev- Image Courtesy of The Advertising Archives ing the higher-order value of social recognition, and they provide a sense of accomplishment and a comfortable life. Such values are transmitted between consumers and across generations by the media, the commercial environment of stores, promotions, and so on, and from parents to their children by specific socialization practices.22 Materialism may also arise from fundamental survival needs. According to terror management theory (see Chapter 13), consum- Exhibit 14.3 Materialism ers relieve anxiety over the inevitability of death by acquir- Ads for luxury items, like Coach, Prada, and Gucci, tar- ing and possessing things.23 On the other hand, members get consumers who focus on materialism as a gauge of of communes and certain religious orders have chosen a satisfaction. lifestyle that rejects material possessions, and some people more generally try to shift away from materialism and live a life of frugality and material simplicity, as this chapter they currently are if only they would have more material describes later.24 possessions, and measure their success in life based upon the amount and type of material possessions they have Hedonism accumulated. Materialistic individuals tend to value items Part of a global consumer culture is hedonism, the principle like cars, jewelry, and boats (see Exhibit 14.3). In contrast, of pleasure seeking, by searching for goods, services, and sen- symbolic items such as family mementos, photos, and a sory experiences that make life comfortable and enjoyable, mother’s wedding gown are more important to those low in such as good-tasting foods and beverages, music, shopping, materialism.13 vacations, intimacy, and the company of friends.25 Hedonism There is evidence that materialists are more likely to maps one-to-one on the enjoyment values in the core value overspend, possibly because they anticipate that buying will circumplex. Boldly flavored foods are selling well, including do more to increase their happiness than it does.14 Because barbecued meals, gourmet pickles, and spicy sauces such as materialistic consumers believe that they would be happier sriracha, which was popularized by Huy Fong Foods and is if they had a bigger house, a nicer car, or more expensive now available from Tabasco and other U.S. companies.26 The clothes—and because this boost is often only temporary— Barry Callebaut firm offers chocolate with seaweed, curry, they may experience more stress and reduced subjective and pansy flowers to help consumers’ “journey of discovery, well-being.15 Emphasizing material possessions and money adventure & excitement to fulfil their hedonistic dreams.”27 might even detract attention from social relationships and Thus, despite concerns about health, consumers will not spending time with others, which might contribute to feel- switch to low-fat, low-calorie varieties unless they taste good. ings of loneliness.16 Consumers who are materialistic and In fact, one study found that consumers possess an implicit who also value social relationships and family life may expe- intuition that healthy foods taste bad.28 rience a value conflict, which further reduces well-being.17 There is a sunny side to materialism as well. Materialistic Individualism consumers may work harder to achieve and earn more, Global cultures place a high value on individualism.29 Placing which is consistent with achievement and self-direction a high value on individualism and being independent can values, and searching and shopping can be enjoyable itself, be expressed ruggedly by wearing hunting boots, but also which improves overall well-being.18 by placing a high value on owning one’s own car rather During an economic recession, however, consumers who than using public transportation, by engaging in individual previously placed a high value on materialism begin shifting sports (golf, biking, running) rather than team sports (bas- away from it. They begin to seek hedonic value in positive ketball), or relying on self-medication rather than consult- experiences, smaller purchases, and durable purchases.19 ing a physician. Refocusing on experiences, such as using movie streaming Even in a generally individualistic culture, there are services, social gatherings with friends and family, and joint allocentric consumers who prefer interdependence and cooking parties, makes sense because the positive feelings social relationships. In contrast, idiocentric ­consumers associated with such experiences often linger longer than tend to put more emphasis on individual freedom and assertiveness. The behavior of these two types of ­consumers Hedonism The principle of pleasure seeking. reflects such differences. Idiocentric consumers exhibit more interest in sports and adventure, financial satisfaction, 382 Part 4 | The Consumer’s Culture Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. gambling, and brand consciousness. When these consum- accessibility, for example, by face recognition or iris scans, ers make unilateral choices for a whole group (movie to and usability, for example, by voice-controlled appliances. watch, restaurant to go to, dish to eat), their choices differ Still, some fear the dark side of technology, such as con- depending on group size: For smaller groups, they make stant surveillance, robot drones, artificial intelligence taking choices that balance self and others’ preferences, while for over jobs, and identity theft, and they try to shift toward a larger groups, they make choices that more strongly reflect more frugal, minimalistic lifestyle with little technology, as their own preferences.30 Allocentric consumers exhibit more described later in this chapter. interest in health consciousness, group socializing, reading, and food preparation.31 Health Focus Consumers in the United States and elsewhere place a high Work and Leisure Balance value on health for self-esteem reasons (how the body looks) Not everyone in every culture shares the same values of and to maximize longevity and survival. The health focus work and leisure. In the United States, consumers are in a global consumer culture is reflected in the popular- working harder and longer than ever before, partly due to ity of exercise and foods low in fat, calories, carbohydrates, corporate downsizing, an emphasis on productivity, and a salt, sugar, and/or cholesterol, as well as foods with special drop in real income. In fact, 70 percent of U.S. employees nutritional benefits. Consumers who desire to control their say they work at least part of the time when on vacation— weight but have a hard time may prefer a lower-calorie ver- and 91 percent report that their workload prevented them sion of the original food (“same taste, less sugar”) rather than from taking the time off they needed.32 Cultures differ in the a smaller portion of the original food (“the real thing, in a importance they place on work and leisure. In a study across smaller bottle”).39 Consumers also prefer simple front-of- over 30 countries in Europe, the percentage of people who package labeling on ingredients and health benefits to guide consider work more important than leisure time was high- their choices, but time constraints may prevent them from est in the U.K., the Netherlands, Denmark, and Serbia and systematically relying on the labels.40 To accommodate this, lowest in Albania, Armenia, Georgia, and Bulgaria.33 grocery chains such as Dave’s Supermarkets in C ­ leveland When people work longer hours, they value their spare use green “Go! Food” stickers to show shoppers which time as much as they value money, and they will pay for fruits, vegetables, side dishes, and entrees are low in fat and services so that they can spend more nonwork time on lei- sodium.41 Responding to trends in health consciousness, sure activities. Online grocery companies, such as Amazon, the Wendy’s fast-food chain offers a gluten-free menu and Kroger (United States), Carrefour Hypermarches (France), ­notifies consumers of all potential allergens in its foods.42 Edeka Zentrale (Germany), and Tesco (U.K.) have expe- Growing concern about pesticides, additives, food- rienced rapid growth as a result. Instant delivery grocery related illnesses, and contaminants has enhanced U.S. retailers such as Flink, Getir, and Gorillas serve customers demand for organic foods year after year. Likewise, there who order small baskets from a narrow assortment and is concern among consumers about the immediate and want home delivery in 30 minutes or less.34 Many consum- long-term health consequences of genetically modified ers make leisure-time choices with the express purpose of foods, which may further spur sales of organic food.43 As slow consumption and getting completely away from work. Table 14.1 shows, sales of organic non-food products have This has made exotic resorts and remote destinations more also soared as U.S. consumers seek out natural products in popular for vacations, along with hobbies that can be pur- all categories. Moreover, consumers who value health tend sued during a few hours of free time.35 Themed cruises for to be less price sensitive than consumers who do not hold lovers of chocolate, needlework, music, tattoo art, and other that value—an important consideration because organic interests are increasingly popular because they offer the foods sometimes cost more than nonorganic foods.44 opportunity to get away from home for a few nights or even longer.36 U.S. Sales (in billions of dollars) Technology Attraction Consumers in many cultures are fascinated by and attracted Type of Organic Product 2006 2014 2022 to technological advances. Some speak of “technophilia” Organic foods $17.2 $35.9 $57.5 when this attraction turns into love. 37 More than ever, consumers in the United States, Japan, and other nations Organic non-foods $0.9 $3.2 $6.0 believe that computers, smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, the Internet, and mobile Wi-Fi are essential to the quality of Source: Organic Trade Association, State of the Organic Industry 2015 and 2011, and U.S. Organic Industry Survey 2022: Organic Industry Survey, www.ota.com their lives. An estimated 86 percent of the adult population worldwide owns a smartphone, and in the United States, Table 14.1 U.S. Sales of Organic Food and an estimated 89 percent uses online (mobile) banking. 38 Non-Food Products Nevertheless, technological advances can be so rapid and From 2006 to 2022, annual sales of organic foods and with unknown consequences that consumers may also have organic non-food products in the United States grew trouble keeping up, spurring marketing efforts to maximize steeply year after year. Chapter 14 | Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles  383 Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  The emphasis on health has also paved the way for Home walk-in medical clinics located inside popular stores. CVS Consumers increasingly place a high value on the home has located Minute Clinics in its U.S. stores and inside and believe in making it as attractive and as comfort- Target stores, since its acquisition of Target’s pharmacy able as possible. Sixty-six percent of U.S. residents own departments.45 ­Antismoking campaigns, bans on smoking their own home. 52 Because the outside world is becom- in public places, and tobacco and alcohol warning labels in ing more complex, exhausting, and dangerous, consumers many nations are consistent with health values. Wellness often consider their home a haven, but they also look for vacations are increasingly popular, not just for weight loss opportunities to connect with others. The home is “com- but also for fitness and other health-related reasons. Health mand central”—a place to coordinate activities and pool concerns also figure in new home construction, as con- resources before family members enter the outside world. sumers choose building and decorating materials that are Over three quarters of all U.S. residences have a high-speed safe and avoid materials that give off fumes or that contain broadband Internet connection to facilitate the use of tech- harmful chemicals.46 Health and fitness apps and gadgets nology at home, including TVs, game devices, computers, are in high and rising demand.47 and ­smartphones.53 The home is also the personal haven to Values and behavior can be inconsistent. Many con- feel warm, comfortable, and safe in, which home furnishing sumers value and talk about exercising and healthy diets, companies such as IKEA understand (see Exhibit 14.4). but fewer walk or jog their talk. More than 40 percent of U.S. adults have obesity, and obesity is also rising in Family and Children Europe and other regions. 48 Some marketers have been Cultures differ in the values that they place on their families criticized for offering excessively large food portions or and children. Parents in Asia and Europe, for example, tend packages, whereas others have come under fire for missing to value education more than U.S. parents do. Among Asian or excess ingredients in their food products (Chapter 17 middle-class families, educating children is second in pri- has more on the issue of social responsibility). Consum- ority only to providing food. American consumers do still ers who are price sensitive and buy their groceries in bulk place a high value on children. Companies are increasing at “warehouse club” stores such as Sam’s Club or Costco the number of weeks of paid maternity and paternity leave may inadvertently consume more sugar, fat, and calories available to employees, and well-known leaders such as than before from their stocked-up items at home.49 These Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg are publicly advocating concerns have resulted in, among other issues, fast-food the advantages of using parental leave to spend time with restaurants posting nutritional information on their web- their new babies.54 sites and menus. McDonald’s has downsized the serving U.S. parents are generally quite receptive to child- size of fries that comes with Happy Meals and includes related products, as are families in many cultures (see apple slices with each order to encourage children to Exhibit 14.5). LEGO, based in Denmark, is now the world’s eat healthier, along with choices like clementines and largest toy company because so many families are buying its yogurt.50 plastic interlocking blocks for children who want to build structures straight out of the Harry Potter books and Star Youth Focus Wars movies.55 Marketers are targeting children with an end- A global consumer culture places a high value on youth, as less range of cereals, juices, desserts, soft drinks, and other evidenced by the wide range of offerings for combating or snack products, not to mention games and other playthings. reducing signs of aging (think of wrinkle creams, hair dye, When targeting children, brands in certain product catego- and hair transplants). Companies such as L’Oréal offer hair ries face limitations and strict guidelines for marketing. For coloring, makeup, and other beauty products to men and instance, due to concerns over children’s wellness, Taiwan women in the United States, China, and India, and increas- bans offering free toys with children’s fast-food meals.56 ingly via online channels.51 Generations of older consum- ers are more active than before and try to look younger, as Authenticity Chapter 12 described. Cosmetic surgery is one of the fastest- People across the globe value authentic things. They desire growing medical specialties worldwide for both men and either the original article, such as the first Levi’s 501 jeans women. (manufactured in 1873) or the first Fender electric bass Together, these values, materialism, hedonism, individ- guitar (built in 1951) or a faithful reproduction, such as the ualism, work and leisure balance, technology attraction, current Levi’s 501 or Fender precision bass.57 The impor- health focus, and youth focus capture the “self-and-growth” tance of authenticity is associated with the maturity and self- orientation that characterizes global consumer culture. direction value orientations at the top left in Exhibit 14.2. Four of the values characterizing a global consumer cul- These values concern mature love, true friendship, a world ture fit into the “others-and-stability” category in our core of beauty, a sense of accomplishment, and self-respect, value circumplex in Exhibit 14.2, specifically the home, among others. For consumers who endorse these values, family and children, authenticity, and the environment. cheap knockoffs or counterfeits tend to be valued much These values express the importance of maturity, security, less than the real thing. Consumers may feel a close attach- prosocial, and restrictive conformity to consumers. ment to brands they feel are “authentic”—and may drop or 384 Part 4 | The Consumer’s Culture Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Pio3/Shutterstock.com Exhibit 14.4 Placing a High Value on the Home As consumers are placing a greater value on the home and are spending more time there, companies such as IKEA develop furnishings such as comfortable couches that consumers can customize with online tools to their individual needs by adding various sofa sections, changing covers, and adding cushions. even disparage brands that cease to seem authentic.58 For to comply with sustainability regulations and accommo- example, U.S. craft beer brands, brewed locally or in small date consumer demand.62 The Nissan LEAF and the Toyota batches, are often viewed as more authentic than mass- Prius are two car models attracting buyers because they produced beer brands.59 A service or experience may also run more cleanly and deliver more fuel efficiency. Tesla, be valued for its authenticity. For example, some consumers Renault, Ford, and other car manufacturers experi- may perceive the experience of sipping espresso in a small, ence rising demand for their electric vehicles. In 2020, locally owned coffee shop as a more authentic experience Tesla launched its first crossover vehicle, the Model Y, than going to Starbucks, which has a global presence and in hopes of appealing to a wider market (see Exhibit 14.6). a consistent in-store brand identity. Sales of major league Interest in the environment is fueling the popularity of sports-branded merchandise such as team caps and jerseys ecotourism, both domestically and internationally, and are increasing as fans seek out authentic products that mir- increasing demand for hands-on vacations where volun- ror what star athletes wear during sporting events.60 Yet, teers help endangered places and species. being overly authentic and honest about the brand’s benefits Various forces work against consumers’ pro-environmental may provoke backlash for hedonic products, which may rely behavior, including its potential financial costs, difficulty on some hyperbole.61 of breaking habits and changing lifestyles, and short-term reduction in comfort. Also, both men and women hold The Environment the stereotype that “green is feminine,” which may hamper Environmental protection and sustainable consumption pro-environmental action by men with a masculine, rugged have become an important value across the globe. Con- self-identity.63 sumers are increasingly interested in conserving natural resources, preventing pollution, sustaining the natural world at large, and supporting environmentally friendly 14-1c Why Values Change goods, services, and activities. This holds for all consum- Because societies and their institutions are constantly evolv- ers, but certainly for members of the generations born in ing, value systems are also changing. In addition to the key this century, the Zoomers and Gen Alphas, as Chapter 12 trends already discussed, U.S. values are moving toward casu- described. Businesses can profitably build on these envi- alness in living, greater sophistication in behavior, a change ronmental values of consumers. Packaged food firms in gender roles, and the desire to be modern. Although the across the world are replacing the current plastic packaging United States was different from Western Europe 100 years Chapter 14 | Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles  385 Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  LightField Studios/Shutterstock.com Exhibit 14.5 Valuing Family and Children Advertisers target children and family by focusing on the value of ­spending quality time together with games or hobbies. ago, both cultures (and to a certain extent Japan as well) are on materialism is associated with positive attitudes toward now becoming more similar in values, even though differ- global products, for example.65 ences still exist. This increase in value consistency is driven In a classic study, Geert Hofstede found that cultures can in part by the increase in communication across the globe. vary along four main value dimensions:66 Still, value systems are not completely homogenous around ▪▪ Individualism versus collectivism. The degree to the world, which means marketers must dig deep to under- which a culture focuses on the individuals rather than stand consumer values in each market they are targeting. the group. ▪▪ Uncertainty avoidance. The extent to which a culture 14-1d Drivers of Values prefers structured, ordered to unstructured, unordered How do values differ across groups of consumers? This sec- situations. tion explores the ways that culture, ethnicity, social class, ▪▪ Masculinity versus femininity. The extent to which and age can influence or drive our values. a culture stresses masculine values (as defined by Hofstede) such as assertiveness, action orientation, Culture and Values success, and competition over feminine values such People are increasingly part of a global consumer culture. as quality of life, warm personal relationships, and Still, people in different countries are exposed to different caring. cultural experiences, a situation that leads to cross-cultural ▪▪ Power distance. The degree to which a society’s members differences in values. One study found that the three most are equal or different in terms of status. important values among Brazilians are true friendship, mature love, and happiness, whereas U.S. consumers named Cultures can be classified according to these four dimen- family security, world peace, and freedom.64 Consumers in sions. Notice that some of these value dimensions of cultures China place the most importance on values such as preserv- map well on our core value circumplex in Exhibit 14.2. For ing the best that one has attained, being sympathetic to oth- instance, the individualism versus collectivism dimension ers, having self-control, and integrating enjoyment, action, maps on the self-oriented versus other-oriented values. The and contemplation. Some values cross national boundaries. masculinity versus femininity maps on the achievement ver- Research spanning 28 ­countries found that an emphasis sus prosocial values. 386 Part 4 | The Consumer’s Culture Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Roschetzky Photography/Shutterstock.com Exhibit 14.6 Valuing the Environment Environmental concern and sustainable consumption are increasingly important value trends. Combined with an increased focus on safety, technology, design, and comfort, this boosts the sales of electric vehicles such as the Tesla Model Y. Understanding where a given culture falls may provide China by positioning itself as a premium chocolate brand insight into cross-cultural differences. For example, tipping and marketing boxed assortments appropriate for every gift in restaurants is less likely to occur in countries where power occasion.72 distance and uncertainty avoidance are low, feminine values are strong, and individualism is high.67 Also, price sensitiv- Social Class and Values ity for smartphone and tablet apps is higher in countries Different social classes hold specific values, as described with higher masculinity and uncertainty avoidance. 68 As in Chapter 13, which in turn affect their acquisition and expected, humorous ad themes tend to focus on groups in consumption patterns. As countries in Eastern Europe collectivist societies like Thailand and South Korea and on and Latin America are now embracing market economies, unequal status relationships in countries with high power the size of the global middle class is increasing dramatically, distance like the United States and Germany.69 Finally, there along with middle-class values of materialism and a desire is a tendency among U.S. men to use everyday consumption for less government control over their lives and greater to support their self-view as men of action, which is valued access to information. Upper–upper-class consumers have in a culture that is high on masculinity.70 the resources and value giving back to society, a characteris- tic that explains why they become active in social, cultural, Ethnic Identification and Values and civic causes. These consumers also prize self-expression Ethnic groups within a larger culture can have some values as reflected in their homes, clothing, cars, and other forms that differ from those of other ethnic subcultures. As noted of consumption.73 in Chapter 12, Hispanic and Latino Americans strongly value the family and home; similarly, Black and African Age and Values American, and Asian American consumers place a high Members of a generation often share similar values that value on the extended family. 71 Consumers in different differ from those of other generations. For example, Baby countries may have different ethnic values. For example, Boomers who grew up in the 1960s—a time of politi- consumers in China seek out premium brands for status cal upheaval, self-indulgence, and rebellion—often value reasons and are especially insistent on premium brands for hedonism, morality, self-direction, and achievement. 74 gift-giving situations. Knowing this, Ferrero has profited in As ­C hapter 12 explained, it is sometimes challenging to Chapter 14 | Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles  387 Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. determine to what extent certain values such as national security, equality, or a comfortable life are due to their age, buying clothes, individuals who value status might the period people live in, or their birth cohort. Nevertheless, look for attributes like price and luxury, those who differences due to age, period, and cohort exist, and these value fitting in with the crowd might look for cloth- exert a sizeable influence on consumer behavior. ing that is trendy, and those who value uniqueness might look for new or nonmainstream styles. For example, the Body Shop beauty retailer targets the segment of Millennials and Gen Z who prefer natu- ral ingredients, seek out ethical businesses, and are Marketing Implications environmentally conscious.79 Marketers need to understand how the global con- New Product Ideas sumer culture and consumers’ specific values affect consumption patterns, market segmentation, new Values can also influence consumers’ reactions to product development, ad development strategy, new and different products. The more a new prod- and ethics. uct is consistent with important consumer val- ues, the greater the likelihood of its success. For Consumption Patterns example, good-tasting, microwaveable, low-fat, Consumers usually buy, use, and dispose of prod- and low-calorie frozen entrees have succeeded ucts in a manner consistent with their values. 75 in part because these items are consistent with Thus, marketers can know more about what con- multiple values like work-and-leisure balance, sumers like if they understand their values. For hedonism, health focus, and technology attrac- example, those who value warm relationships with tion. Yet sometimes balancing conflicting values others are more likely to buy gifts and send cards can be a challenge for marketers with new prod- than those who place less value on relationships.76 uct ideas. This was the case for the Campbell A growing number of consumers place a high value Soup Company, which tried to balance hedonism on sustainability, which is why retailers such as and health values. When the firm noticed that package goods firms such as Unilever and Proctor & sales of its all-natural Select Harvest soups had Gamble, and retailers such as Marks & Spencer plateaued, the company increased the amount have created targets for reducing waste, minimiz-