Psych Review Final Exam PDF

Chapter 1 Slides (Sept 17) Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology How can we explain behaviour? There are seven primary schools of thought that have shaped modern psychology Which one is correct? The History E.G. Boring 1929 Originally psychology was considered a part of philosophy (...

Chapter 1 Slides (Sept 17) Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology How can we explain behaviour? There are seven primary schools of thought that have shaped modern psychology Which one is correct? The History E.G. Boring 1929 Originally psychology was considered a part of philosophy (thinking about the mind, observation and common sense) William Wundt – first psychology lab, 1879 (introspection- reflecting on your own thought process; interested in how long mental processes take) Breaking away from spiritualism Structuralism (What is conscious thought like?) William Wundt and later E. B. Titchener Aim: to identify the most fundamental elements of psychological experience Evolutionary Theory Charles Darwin and later David Buss Aim: Explains human behaviour on the basis of evolution including natural selection, variation selective advantage, and inheritance. ran (Why do we have thoughts, feelings, and behaviours?) William James, heavily influenced by Evolution Theory Aim: understand the adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics (aggression, phobias, memory, etc.) Behaviourism Watson and Skinner Aim: Uncovering the general laws of learning by focusing on external observable behaviors that can be recorded Cognitivism Piaget and Neisser Aim: understand how our thoughts impact our behaviour in a variety of contexts – focus is on attention, memory, adaptive thought patterns, problem solving, etc. Psychoanalysis Freud and Jung Aims: 1. Uncover internal processes we are unaware of- the unconscious drives our behaviour 2. Rooted in early (traumatic) childhood experiences that have been repressed 3. Conflict between biological drives and demands of society. Additional Approaches Humanistic Approach – Rogers, Maslow - Aim: focus on people’s capacity to thrive and grow; embraced free will, and altruism. Socio-Cultural Approach - Aim: focuses on how the social and cultural environment influence behaviour; interest in comparisons between and within cultures Biological Approach - Aim: focuses on how the brain, nervous system, and genetic dispositions influence behaviour What do Psychologists do? Diversity: one million psychologists worldwide Different settings and types Modern Psychology Clinical and counselling psychology: assess, diagnose, and treat people with mental health conditions. Health psychology: focus on how biological, social, and psychological factors intersect to promote optimal health (e.g., recovery from illness). School/Educational Psychology: work with teachers, parents and children to support children’s learning and adjustment to school. Community Psychology: improve relationships among individuals and their communities (e.g., community mental health services) Experimental Psychology: Research to understand memory, language, thinking, etc. Cross-Cultural Psychology: Studies the role of culture in understand behaviour, thought and emotion Forensic Psychology: Assess, diagnose, assist with rehabilitation of prison inmates or research on eyewitnesses or juries Industrial-organizational: help select employees, design equipment for maximum productivity Environmental Psychology: focuses on interactions between people and their environment. CHAPTER 2 Chapter 2 (Sept 24) The scientific toolbox Reminder: “science” is an approach to gathering evidence Naturalistic observation Case study Self-report measures and surveys Correlational Designs o Cross-sectional and longitudinal Designs Experimental designs Naturalistic Observation Watching behaviour in real-world settings High external validity – findings are generalizable to the real world Low internal validity – cannot draw cause-and-effect inference Case study Studying one or a small number of people for an extended period of time Breadth is traded for depth Used to study rare brain damage or mental illness Excellent for existence proofs, while it can be anecdotal – it can occur But not “proof” of a general rule or typical experience Not testing hypotheses, so still don’t know why Self-Report and Surveys Self-report measures characteristics such as personality, interests, or mental illness. Surveys measure opinions or attitudes For these measures to be accurate certain protocols must be met Random sampling: Every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate o (a) Ensures that the sample is representative of the population; (b) critical if we want to generalize our findings. Hite Report---Shere Hite – 1985 100,000 surveys (women’s magazine subscribers) How non-random sampling can lead to misleading conclusions 70% of women married 5+ years have had affairs 87% of married women say closest emotional relationship is not with their husband 95% of women are “emotionally and psychologically” harassed by their love partner 98% of women generally unsatisfied with present relationship Evaluating Self Report Measures Reliability o Consistency of measurement - scores are consistent over time and with repetition Validity o Extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure. A test that says is measures introversion, but measures anxiety is not valid. How? 1. Although head circumference is reliable, is it not a valid indicator of intelligence. 2. IQ tests are reliable, but do they actually measure intelligence? Types of Reliability Test-retest Reliability Similar scores over time Interrater Reliability Two or more raters should produce similar scores Self-Report Measures Pros  Easy to administer Direct (self) assessment of a persons state Cons Positive impression management o (faking good) o E.g., “I never get upset with other people” o “I always tell the truth” o “I have 0 drinks of alcohol per week” Malingering o (faking bad) o E.g., sandbagging in sports o Response sets Correlational Design Examine the extent to which two variables are associated, related, linked, occur together Correlations rage from -1 to +1 (strength is the # and the direction is the +/-) Positive: as one variable goes up, the other variable goes up, or as one variable goes down, the other variable goes down. Negative: as one variable increases, the other decreases Zero: no relationship between variables Illusory Correlation Perception of a statistical association where non exists o Animals not really affected by full moon o Lunacy effect ▪ “lunatic” luna= roman moon goddess o Rain and pain Correlation vs Causation Just because two things are related, does not mean that one causes another Many possible 3rd variables explanations for assoc b/q a b Cross-sectional Designs Cross-sectional design – compare/contrast people of different ages at a single time point Main limitation of these designs: cohort effects Longitudinal Designs Longitudinal design – follow the development of the same group of people over time Limitations: attrition (dropouts) Experiements need… Random selection of participants – for the study Random assignmemnt – to the group Random assignment of participants to: o Experimental group—receives manipulation, treatment, or intervention o Control group—does not receive manipulation, treatment or intervention  The independent variable is manipulated while The dependent variable is measured o Operation definitons revisited. Example: Will doing yoga 2x a week for 16 weeks reduce depression? Control group: - Read a yoga magazine twice a week for 16 weeks - DV- Depression (survey) weekly Experimental group: - Practice yoga twice a week for 16 weeks - Dv – depression (survey) weekly Experimentation Pitfalls Placebo effect – improvement because you expect improvement o Its important that participants be “blind” to condition they are in (unaware of which condition they are randomly assigned to-so… they have no idea if they are getting the drug or placebo) Nocebo effect- harm resulting from the expectation of harm Experimenter bias: researchers bias leads them to unintentionally influence participants’ responses o Double blind design can help overcome this design Research participant bias: Subtle cues that particiapnts pick up allowing them to guess the researchers hypothesis, and then behave in line what they think the researcers wants to them do o Disguising the studys purpose can decrease this Ethical issues Tuskegee study 1932 to 1972 Men diagnosed with syphilis Never given treatment in order to study the disease 28 died of syphilis, 100 died from complications, 40 wives infected, 19 children born with syphilis Statistics (descriptive and inferential) Descriptive statistics: mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way o 1.Central tendency: what score best represents the centre/middle of the distribution ▪ Mean: average of all scores ▪ Median: middle score in the data ▪ Mode: most frequent score in the data Variability or dispersion: how loosely or tightly bunched scores are  o : difference between the highest and lowest scores o Standard Deviation: measure of dispersion. The average amount that an individual data point differs from the mean Inferential statistics: allows us to determine whether we can generalize findings from a sample to the larger population o Statistical significance: results would have occurred by chance less than 1 in 20 times o Practical significance: real-world importance Chapter 3 – What are the biological foundations of behaviour? Neurons: The brain’s communicators Neurons are brain cells, specialized in communication with eachother Approximately 86 billion neurons, with 160 trillion connections between the, Unique shape compared to other cells Parts of a neuron Axon terminal o Knob at the end of the axon containing synaptic vesicles filled with passengers (neurotransmitters) Neurotransmitters (NTs) o Chemical messangers that allow for neuron-to-neuron communication ▪ E.g., Glutamate, GABA, Dopamine, Serotonin, etc. Synapse o Space between neurons ▪ I.e., How NTs travel from the axon terminal (neuron #1) to the dendrites of neuron #2 Neurotransmission o What happens to the neurotransmitters that didn’t bind to a receptor site? ▪ They go back up into the axon terminal, via a process called reuptake (natures recycling system) E.g. SSRIs – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors block the reuptake of serotonin, so it stays in the synapse longer Some NTs excite (glutamate) while others inhibit (GABA) the nervous system Types of Neurotransmitters Glutamate (excitatory) GABA (inhibitory) Acetylcholine (increases attention, alertness, memory) Monoamines (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin) Neuropeptides (endorphins; dampen pain responses) Oxytocin (intensifies love and social bonding) Hind brain Cerebellum (balance/posture) o Motor coordination, sense of balance, posture Pons (alertness) o Sleep-wake cycle (REM); alertness o Touch, pain, temperature (head and face) Medulla (life support) o “life support” part of the brain o Controls vital functions ▪ Heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, body temperature, digestion, swallowing, vomiting, etc. Midbrain Located between hindbrain and forebrain o Has many axons that ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain Reticular formation o Many integrative functions: sleep-wake cycles, respiration, pain. o Filters incoming information so the brain isn’t overloaded o Orients us toward or away from sights and sounds Substantia Nigra o Major source of dopamine implicated in voluntary movement o Implicated in Parkinson’s disease, and experiences of award Forebrain (largest brain division at the top) Thalamus o Sensorimotor relay station Hypothalamus o Eating, drinking, sexual behaviours o Regulates body’s internal states Basal Ganglia o Forebrain structure that helps control movement o Allows us to preform intentional movements to obtain rewards o Damage can contribute to Parkinson’s disease Limbic System o Amygdala (emotion) and hippocampus (memory) The cerebral cortex is part of the forebrain that is the most developed area of the human brain, giving us our advanced intellectual abilities Consists of two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum which allows communication between them Lateralization Each hemisphere has specialized functions, but those functions are integrated through the corpus collosum Cerebral Cortex The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes, each associated with a different function (Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Occipital lobe, temporal lobe) Frontal lobe Assist in motor function, language, memory Oversee and organize most other brain functions (executive functioning) The prefrontal cortex is responsible for thinking, planning, judgement & decision- making, impulse control. o Isnt fully “online” until age 25 o (e.g., Julia at 21: “my mom is my prefrontal cortex’) Broca’s area (speech production) Parietal Lobe Specialized for touch Contains the somatosensory cortex (full map of your body in your brain)-which is sensitive to pressure, pain, and temperature Communicated information to the motor cortex every time we reach, grasp, or move our eyes, etc. Temporal Lobe Lower part of the cerebral cotex, it plays a role in hearing, understanding language, and storing autobiographical memories Contains the auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area, which is responsible for speech comprehension Occipital Lobe Specialized for vision processing colour, shape, and motion Located at the back of the brain Autonomic Nervous System – 2 branches Emotion and internal physical states o 1. Sympathetic division is engaged during a crisis or actions requiring fight, flight or freeze o 2. Parasympathetic division controls rest and digestion o When one is activated, the other is inactive Brain Mapping Methods Electroencephalograph (EEG) Measures electrical activity via electrodes placed on the skull (noninvasive) Can tell which regions of the brain are active during specific tasks – but not especially specific Neuroimaging techniques allow us to see brain structure, function or both Computed tomography (CT) o Uses multiple X-rays to construct three-dimensional images (structure) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) o Uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure – measure release of energy from hydrogen atoms in tissue following exposure to a magnetic field (structure). Soft tissue pics/tumors Positron emission tomography (PET): o Measures consumption of radioactive glucose-like molecules to give a picture of neural activity Functional MRI (fMRI) o Uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity during specific tasks o Measures change in blood oxygen level neural activity o More precise than PET o Motion sensitive Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): o Applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull that can either enhance or interrupt brain function o Allows us to manipulate brain areas o Allows us to infer causation o May be used to treat depression (rTMS) and hallucinations Magnetoencephalography (MEG): o Measure tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain o Can track change millisecond by millisecond, so more exact than PET of fMRI Chapter 4 – Sensation and Perception: how do we sense and perceive the world? Sensation, Perception and Illusion Sensation: detection of physical energy by the sense organ Perception: the brain’s interpretation of raw sensory data Big psychological principle: Bottom-up vs Top-down processing o Bottom-up: sensation driven by external stimulus properties o Top-down: perception driven by internal properties (prior knowledge, goals) Sensation All our senses rely on a handful of principles Principle 1: The external stimulus is converted by a sense receptor into neaural activity via transduction o We are limited by our receptors Principle 2: activation is highest when a stimulus is first detected, then sensory adaptation occurs. Which is a good thing. Principle 3: Müller’s specific nerve energy theory o “all senses are independent” Psychophysics Study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics Absolute threshold is the lowest level of a stimulus we can detect 50% of the time o 50 airborne odorant molecules Just noticeable difference is the smallest amount of stimulus change humans can detect Weber’s law: the stronger the stimulus, the greater the change needed to detect The visual system Humans respond to a narrow spectrum of light, which we can see WE are limited by our receptors Other animals may have a more restricted or greater spectrum; i.e, ultraviolet Structure of the Eye Sclera: the white portion of the eye Iris: the coloured portion and controls how much light enters the eye Pupil is the hold where light enters the eye Cornea: transparent cells that focuses light on the back of the eye Lens: changes curvature (accommodation) to retract light onto back of eye Retina: thin membrane at the back of the eye Fovea: centre of retina; responsible for acuity Light hits two types of sense receptors on the retina-rods and cones o Dark adaptation comes from rods (shapes and forms) o Cones help us focus on detail and allow for colour vision. Need more light ro fite o Rhodopsin – Vitamin A ▪ Photopigment in rods Glasses change the way light enters the eye to help correct myopia or hyperopia The optic nerve exits the back of the eye and is composed of the axons of ganglion cells o Causes a blind spot Most of the axons go to the thalamus and then the visual cortex, but some go to midbrain The visual system The experience of colour depends on: o Brightness: amount of light reflected back to the eye o Hue: the colour o Saturation: perceived purity of colour Mixing lights produces white (additive) Mixing pigments produces black (subtractive) Colour perception – temporal lobe pathway Different theories of colour perception explain different aspects of our ability to detect colour Trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz) theory says colour vision is based on our sensitivity to three primary colours: blue, green, red (=trichromats – evolutionarily good) o Consistent with three types of cones in eyes – each sensitive to different wavelengths of light o Explains colour blindness: Missing or fewer cones or brain damage (very rare cases) Opponent process theory sees colour vision as a function of complementary, opposing colours o Red OR green o Blue OR yellow o Black OR white Perception: when senses meet the brain Variation of the external stimulus (light) results in different types of information being detected Helps to give rise to the perception of colour Another example: lines and orientation in primary visual cortex o Has feature detectors; sensitive to lines, orientatiions in specific parts of visual space After being transduced, our brains then organize the sensory data into meaningful concepts Our brains piece together o What’s in our sensory field o What was there a moment ago o What we remember from our past This interpretation, involving the combination of current stimuli with prior knowledge When perception does not match reality, that’s an illusion The role of attention in perception Selective attention allows us to choose which sensory inputs to focus on and which to “turn down” (RAS and forebrain) The other “channels” are still being processed at some level, though Big psychological principle: o You process information even without consciously aware of it We’re poor at detecting stimuli in plain sight if our attention is focused elsewhere Inattentional blindness and change blindness are two similar phenomeno Binding problem One of the reta mysteries of psychology is just how our brains combine all the variour stimuli around us into a coherent whole  The look, feel, smell, and taste of an apple all rely on different areas of the brain to process, but we just see an apple Shape, colour, motion, depth = “reality” A function of rapid, coordinated activity across multiple cortical regions of the brain Hearing Audition (our sense of hearing) is the sense we rely on most after sights Sound is simple vibration travelling through a medium (usually air) and has o Pitch: wave frequency (Hz) (affected by age) ▪ High frequency = high pitch ▪ Low frequency = low pitch ▪ Humans can perceive frequencies 0-20,000Hz o Loudness: amplitude (height) of the sound waves (dB) ▪ Jet engine = 140dB ▪ Vacuum cleaner = 70dB ▪ Whisper = 30dB o Timbre: complexity of sound ▪ Voices ▪ Instruments The Ear Outer: pinna (the part we see, skin and cartilage flap) and ear canal. Together they tunnel sound waves to the eardrum Middle: the ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup = malleus, incus, stapes) vibrate and transmit sound to the inner ear Inner: the cochlea converts vibration into neural activity. Inner champers filled with thick fluid. Inside the cochlea he organ of corti and basilar membrane convert auditory information into action potentials (hair cells contain cilia) Smell and Taste Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) work hand in hand Work together to enhance liking or disliking of some foods Described as the “chemical senses” o Our sensory experience is because of the chemicals in a substance Odours and Flavours Odours are airborne chemicals that interact with lining in our nasal passages (smell it before you eat it?) We can detect 2000-4000 odours We are sensitive to five basic tastes o Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, Umami o Some evidence for a “fatty” taste as well Smell and taste sense receptors Each olfactory neuron contains a single type of receptor, which recognizes odorants based on their shape The tongue contains separate taste buds (papillae) for each base taste o Tongue map myth o Supertasters Olfactory and Gustatory Perception Although they take different paths, our smells and taste sense converge in the orbitofrontal cortex Somatosensory system Somatosensory receptors are located in all body parts (inside and outside), although the distribution is not equal Body parts that explore the environment have more receptors (e.g., hands and lips) “two point” threshold: o Lips and fingers = low threshold o Legs or back = high threshold Skin sensations Many skin sensations all over body o Pressure o Vibration o Pain o Texture o Smoothness and wetness Homunculus The homunculus (little man) depicts the body surface with each area drawn in proportion to the size of its representation in the primary somatosensory cortex Chapter 5 – what is Consiousness? Consciousness Our subjective experience of our own thoughts, feelings, and sensations (e.g., hyper focused vs. zen-like meditation vs day dreaming). We constantly experience a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings (steam of consciousness; William james) Meta-cognition: thinking about our own thinking processes (allows for self reflection) Theory of mind: others think, feel, and perceive things differently than you do. Biology of sleep Our circadian rhythm (sleep-wake cycle/biological clock) is cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis Includes changes in body temperature and hormone release Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleas (SCN) of the hypothalamus (part of the limbic system) Falling asleep is also triggered by an increase in melatonin Disruptions of circadian rhythms can increase risk for injury and cause health problems Sleep Deprivation Building up a sleep debt can have negative consequences: o Depression o Decreases brain activity in the thalamus and prefrontal cortex o Slowed reaction time o Increased risk for cardiovascular and metabolic problems o Decreased immune system functioning o Hallucinations Stages of sleep We cycle through stages of sleep in 90 mintue cycles Stages 1-3 are non-REM sleep – no eye movements, fewer dreams REM sleep o Vivid dreams and quick eye movements Stage 1 (non-REM) Very light sleep 5-10 minutes o Beta – alert o Alpha – relaxed o Theta waves – light sleep Hypnagogic imagery – ghosts and spirits Myoclonic jerks Stage 2 (non-REM 2) 10-30 minutes Sleep spindles o Sudden intense burst of electrical activity K-complexes o Sharply rising and falling waves o Both spindles and k-complexes allows us to a) progress to depper level of sleep and b) help move information from short-term into long term memory Brain activity slows down, heart rate slows, body temp decreases, muscles relax, eye movement stops As much as 60% of total sleep Stage 3 (non-REM) After about 10-30 minutes deeper, slow wave sleep Characterized by Delta waves Crucial to feel rested and rejuvenated If jolted awake, you feel groggy Suppressed by alcohol Children: 40% Adults: 20% Stage R (REM sleep) Return to stage 2 then shift to REM o High frequency, low amplitude o Looks like awake brain waves REM sleep Vivid dreams and increases in HR, BP, irregular breathing, etc. REM sleep becomes longer as the night goes on (up to 45mins to an hour) – accounts for 20% of sleep 5-6 cycles per night Cycles last 90-100 minutes REM facts REM rebound occurs when we don’t rest well for several nights Function of the rapid eye movement is unknown o Scanning our dreams?? Muscles in middle ear are also active (MEMA) Paradoxical because our bodies are paralyzed but brain are active o 1:200: more common for men over 50 Lucid Dreaming Lucid dreaming occurs when you know a dream is a dream May be a mixed state of waking and REM sleep Increased likelihood of lucid dreaming Opens up possibility of controlling dreams o May help with nightmares, but not other problems Chapter 6 – How nurture changes us Types of learning Many different kinds of learning, most basic are: Habituation: when we respond less strongly to a stimulus over time o Itchy sweater o Uncomfortable chair o Subway Sensitization: when we respond more strongle, and more intensely to a stimulus over time Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist and 1904 Nobel Prize winner Most famous for work on digestion in dogs First work on classical conditioning Classical Conditioning Principles Acquisition is the phase during which a CR (drooling to the bell) is established (ring the bell and give the food, ring the bell and give the good, in that order, etc, etc, etc) Extinction is the reduction and eventual disappearance of the CR (drooling to the bell) after the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS Stimulus generalization is when similar CSs elicit a CR o Eg. Church bells, wind chimes Stimulus discrimination is when we exhibit a CR only to certain stimuli, not similar others Second-order condition Operant Conditioning Learning controlled by the consequences of the organisms behaviour The organism gets something because of its response Also known as instrumental conditioning The law of effect – thorndike Thorndike was the first to systematically study operant conditioning Infamous “puzzle box” (aka cat escape room) Law of effect: o Responses that are rewarded are more likely to be repeating, and responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be repeated Operant condition terminology Reinforcements are outcomes that strengthen the probability of a response Positive reinforcement involves adding (+) a pleasant stimulus (stickers) to increase the likelihood of a behaviour’s reoccurrence (clean room) Negative reinforcement involves taking away (-) an unpleasant stimulus (pain) to increase the likelihood of a behaviour’s reoccurrence (taking Tylenol) Positive punishment involves adding (+) something unpleasant (speeding ticket) to decrease the likelihood of a behaviours reoccurrence (speeding) Negative punishment involves taking away (-) a pleasant stimulus (iPhone) to decrease the likelihood of a behaviours reoccurrence (staying out too late) Chapter 7 – What is memory? Reconstructive Memory When remembering, we actively reconstruct memories, not passively reproduce them Remembering yourself taking a walk… o Observer memory vs. field memory ▪ But you never saw yourself, not really… Memory The retention of information over time Our memories are surprisingly good in some situations, and surprisingly bad in others: The Paradox of Memory Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory Differ in terms of span and duration Assembly line metaphor: moves from sensory to STM to LTM Each sense… Has its own form of sensory memory Echoic memory (hearing) last several seconds Iconic memory (vision) lasts about 1 quarter of a second Eidetic memory (photographic Short term memory Last roughly 30 seconds unless you use strategies to retain it longer The span of STM in adults is 7 +/- 2 pieces or units of information Chunking: grouping or packing information into higher order units 1. Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating the stimuli in the same form Elaborative rehearsal links stimuli to your life in a meaningful way 1. Link the information to your life 2. Use images, Pictures, etc 3. Rewrite in your own words 4. Make a mind maps to connect concepts 5. Use mnemonic strategies Long term Memory Relatively enduring store of information o Years, decades, a lifetime Includes facts, experiences, and skills we have acquired over a lifetime Storage – Keeping information in memory How we store our experiences in memory depends on our interpretations and expectations of them Schemas are organized knowledge structures or templates that we have stored in memory Measuring memory Recall – generating previously remembered information Recognition – selecting previously remembered information from an array of options Relearning – we reacquire something learned before much faster (method of savings) Why do we forget? Decay (memory fades over time) Encoding failures (never attended to in the first place, so never transferred to LTM) Failures of retrieval (available but not accessible) Using retrieval cues can help to access information in long-term memory (hints, cues, triggers)