PSYC528 Week 16 Prosocial Behaviour Students PDF

PSYC528 Prosocial behaviour Week 16 Dr L i n d s ey Cam ero n  Humans are exceptionally social from early on… This week: prosocial behaviour and social motivation Today’s topics W H AT IS DO CH ILDR EN W H AT MOT I VAT E S PROSOCIAL...

PSYC528 Prosocial behaviour Week 16 Dr L i n d s ey Cam ero n  Humans are exceptionally social from early on… This week: prosocial behaviour and social motivation Today’s topics W H AT IS DO CH ILDR EN W H AT MOT I VAT E S PROSOCIAL A L R E A DY SHOW THEM? BEHAVIOUR? PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR?  What is prosocial behaviour? “Any voluntary, intentional action t h a t produces a positive or benefi cial outcome for t h e re c i pi e nt , regardless of whether t h at action is costly to the donor, neut ral in its impact, or benefi cial.” 1 Helpful action t h at benefi ts other people without necessarily providing any direct benefi ts to the helper, and may even involve a risk for the helper Opposite of antisocial behaviour 1Grusec et al. Prosocial and helping behavior. In: Smith & Har t (Eds.) Blackwell handbook of childhood social development. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing; 2002. Prosocial Altruism beha viour 4 forms of prosocial behaviour Supporting others to (Instrumental) helping achieve their goal Sharing of useful Informing information Comforting Emotional support Sharing Sacrificing own resources 6  Helping Do infants spontaneously help strangers? (Warneken & Tomasello, 2006, Science )  Helping Do infants help strangers? 18 months infants help others achieve their goal (Warneken & Tomasello, 2006, Science)  Helping Do infants help altruistically? (Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology: Warneken & Tomasello, 2013, Infancy )  Helping Do infants help altruistically? Children help irrespective of being rewarded or whether the helping is costly No infl uence of parent al presence or encouragement (Warneken et al., 2007, PLoS Biology: Warneken & Tomasello, 2013, Infancy )  Helping Do infants really help – or just restore the order of things? (Hepach et al., 2016, Child Development )  Helping Do infants really help – or just restore the order of things? Children’s helping is not aimed at restoring the order of things but rather at seeing another person’s need fulfilled (Hepach et al., 2016, Child Development )  Helping Do children help empathically? Instrumental helping (action based) Empathic helping (emotion based) Altruistic helping (costly) (Svetlova et al., 2010, Child Development )  Helping Do children help empathically? Over t he 2nd year of life, prosocial behavior develops from relying on action understanding and explicit communications to understanding others’ emotions from subtle cues (Svetlova et al., 2010, Child Development )  Helping Do children help proactively ? At 2 years, children proactively remedy unnoticed accidents (Warneken, 2013, Cognition )  Helping Do toddlers help a peer? (Hepach et al., 2016, Child Development )  Helping Do toddlers help a peer? Toddlers’ skills and motivations of helping do not depend on having a competent and helpful recipient, such as a n adult, but rather they are much more fl exible and general (Hepach et al., 2016, Child Development )  1-minute break Please close your eyes or move your eyes away from the screen for one minute and breathe gently  Informing Providing or shar ing useful or needed information with others Pointing gesture Occurs with 10-12 months,  Imperative („Bottle!“) preverbal  Declarative („Look!“)  Informative?  Informing Do infants point to provide information for others? (Liszkowski et al., 2006, Journal of Cognition and Development)  Informing With 12 month of Do infants point to age infants point provide information towards object that for others? another person is looking for (Liszkowski et al., 2006, Journal of Cognition and Development)  Comfort ing Comforting requires sympathy & empathy  Diff erentiation between self and other Personal distress Emotional contagion Egocentric empathy Empathy increases gradually and becomes less self- centred (Zahn-Waxler et al, 1992; 2001)  Comfort ing Do toddlers comfort others in distress? Dunfi eld et al., 2011, Infancy  Comfort ing Do toddlers comfort others in distress? No. No? Dunfi eld et al., 2011, Infancy  Comfort ing Do young children comfort a person who is not distressed? Harm condition vs. Neutral condition Do children sympathize with harmed person if person shows no emotional cues? Vaish et al., 2009, Developmental Psychology Vaish et al., 2009, Developmental Psychology  Comfort ing Do young children comfort a person who is not distressed? With 18 months children show sympathy through aff ective perspective taking Vaish et al., 2009, Developmental Psychology  Comfort ing Do young children sympathize less in response to unjustifi ed emotional distress? 1. Appropriate distress (harm) 2. Inappropriate distress/ overreaction (minor har m) 3. Non apparent/ unrelated distress (no visible har m) Hepach et al., 2013, Developmental Psychology  Comfort ing Do young children sympathize less in response to unjustifi ed emotional distress? Hepach et al., 2013, Developmental Psychology  Comfort ing Do young children sympathize less in response to unjustifi ed emotional distress? With 3 years children’s sympathy and prosocial behavior are not automatic responses BUT involve tak ing into account whether the displayed distress is justifi ed Hepach et al., 2012, Developmental Psychology 10-minute break  Sharing … involves a n understanding of fairness & distributive justice  Sharing Do infants have a concept of fairness? Child observes a resource allocation (Schmidt & Sommerville, 2011; Geraci & Surian, 2011; Meristo 2012; Sloane et al., 2012; Sommerville 2013)  Sharing Do infants have a concept of fairness? (Schmidt 2011; Geraci 2011; Meristo 2012; Sloane 2012; Sommerville 2013)  Sharing Do infants have a concept of fairness? Already preverbal infants expect goods to be allocated equally, expects actors to distribute goods equally and prefer fair over unfair distributors (Schmidt 2011; Geraci 2011; Meristo 2012; Sloane 2012; Sommerville 2013)  Sharing Do infants share? Natural observations From early on: Sharing as giving Developing ownership understanding in 2nd year Toddlers don’t like to share their belongings (Rheingold 1979; Young 1979; Hay 1982, 1991, 2006; McGuire 2000)  Sharing Do children share between others? 3 r d party allocation 3-year-olds will allocate resources strictly evenly amongst others (Peterson 1975; Fr ydman 1988; Rochat 2009; Shaw 2012; Olson 2008)  Sharing Do children choose/prefer to share with others? Choice tasks 3-year-olds prefer to share with others If choice is costly, they don’t prefer to share until 5-8 years of age (Thompson 1997; Fehr 2008; Moore 2009; Brownell 2009; House 2012)  Sharing Do children share with others? Dictator Games Younger children usually keep majority to themselves Start to share more equally between 5 to 9 years (Beneson 2007; Rochat 2009; Blake 2010; Kogut 2012; Malti 2012; Smith 2013)  Sharing Do children share with others? Dictator Games Younger children usually keep majority to themselves St ar t to share more equally between 5 to 9 years ‘The knowledge behaviour gap’ (Beneson 2007; Rochat 2009; Blake 2010; Kogut 2012; Malti 2012; Smith 2013)  Sharing Do younger children share with others? Already 3-year-olds share the spoils of their collaboration with others (Warneken et al., 2011, Psych Science ; Ha m a n n et al., 2011, Nature )  Sharing Do toddlers share with each other after collaboration? (Ulber et al., 2015, JECP )  Take home message Children show a variety of positive social behaviors from early on in their lives Humans seem to have genuine concern for the welfare of others Prosocial behaviour does not depend on having a competent and helpful recipient, such as an adult, but is rather much more flexible and general  Infl uencing factors G r oup ilia r it y membe Fam e m bers I n - g ro rship f a m ily m up > O >N o n - Sim ila utg rou Fa m i ly f r i e n ds r to o p > No n - n e s el f Fr i e n d s ngers in race S t r a o r r e l ig r peop le > ion Fa m i l i a Ge n d e r C u l t u re N o d i ff e r e I n d iv i d u a l i s t i nce i n e m e r ge c v s. collec nc e t i ve v a l u es G i rl s > B oys S ib li n g s Pa r e n t i n g E m p a t h y a n d s e n s i t iv ity ss to dist r e s s ) n s i v e n e (s o c ia l u n d e r s t a n d i n g Res p o m ent t t a c h Secure a R iva lr y A n ge r a n d a g r e ss i o n  “Finetuning” Helping Comforting Fault Fault Competence Responsibility Moral dilemmas Kind of damage Byst a n der Age Shar ing V alue of resources Ownership underst a nding Merit Need  Today’s topics W hat is prosocial behaviour? ✔ Do children already show prosocial behaviour? ✔ But, is it only unique to humans?  1-minute break Please close your eyes or move your eyes away from the screen for one minute and breathe gently Prosocial behaviour in nonhuman primates Do chimps help others? (Warneken & Tomasello, 2006, Science; Warneken et al., 2007, Plos Biology )  Prosocial behaviour in nonhuman pr imates Do chimps help others? (✔) Similar tendency to help, though less robust & flexible Chimps helped in reaching tasks, but not in other types of helping t asks Experimenter was familiar keeper, chimps were rewarded, chimps were raised in captivity… (Warneken & Tomasello, 2006, Science; Warneken et al., 2007, Plos Biology )  Prosocial behaviour in nonhuman primates Do chimps inform others? ✗ No. Only chimps raised in captivity produce points Predominant communicative intentions are requests for objects and actions Mostly acquisitive motivation (Rivas, 2005, Journal of Comparative Psychology, see also Leavens et al., 1997; 1998)  Prosocial behaviour in nonhuman primates Do chimps comfort others? (✔) Potential for empathy Consoling behaviour observed in wild chimpanzees (e.g. kiss, embrace, grooming, gentle touch, or play ) Link to reduce stress of “victims” after aggressive attacks Sympathetic concern (Fraser et al., 2008, DeWaal, 2006; 2009)  Prosocial behaviour in nonhuman primates Do chimps share with others? ✗ No. Only “passive” sharing (under pressure of harassment, poor quality food, too big to monopolize) Dominant gets the most Competing over spoils of collaborative eff ort Do not show inequity aversion (Gilby 2006; Jensen et al., 2007; Ha m a n n et al., 2011; Ulber et al., 2017)  Today’s topics W hat is prosocial behaviour? ✔ Do children already show prosocial behaviour? ✔ W hat motivates them?  Nat ure vs. nur ture? Intrisically or extrinsically motivated?  Is prosocial behaviour intrinsically motivated? Intrinsic value of prosocial behaviour from earliest years of life Inborn motivation to form cooperative relationships with others Strategies for reaching out to others in spirit of mutual trust and giving Children show spontaneous prosocial behaviour Universal prosocial human qualities (Trevarthen & Logotheti, 1989; Eisenberg et al, 2006; Warneken & Tomasello, 2009)  Is helping intrinsically motivated? Young children are intrinsically motivated to see others helped The fulfi llment of others’ needs elevates children’s body posture 60 (Hepach et al., 2012; 2015; 2017) Is helping intrinsically motivated? Intrinsic motivation can be undermined by external incentives (Overjustifi cation effect) (Deci, 1971; Lepper et al., 1973; Warneken & Tomasello, 2008) Is helping intrinsically motivated? Intrinsic motivation can be undermined by external incentives (Overjustifi cation effect) 20-month-old infants are less likely to engage in further helping if they had received a material reward (Warneken & Tomasello, 2008) Is sharing intrinsically motivated? Baseline condition Praise condition Reward condition ok Thanks, that is really. nice of you! 63 (Ulber et al, 2006, Child Development ) Is sharing intrinsically motivated? Children’s willingness to engage in costly sharing is negatively infl uenced after receiving a reward t han when they had received praise or no reward (Ulber et al, 2006, Child Development )  What is the driving motivation behind concepts such as altruism and empathy? Why are we Can we give an evolutionary ultra-social? explanation? Can we think of alternative explanations?  Evolutionary Approach – Kin selection – Group selection – Signal of fi tness – Care for off spring Reciprocity approach – Tit for tat – Reputation Individual approach – Social lear ning (Hamilton, 1964; Trivers, 1971; Zahavi, 2003; Tomasello, 2012)  Selected references Hamann, K., Warneken, F., Greenberg, J. R., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Collaboration encourages equal sharing in children but not in chimpanzees. Hepach, Vaish, Tomasello (2012). Young children are intrinsically motivated to see others helped. Liszkowski, Carpenter, Striano, & Tomasello (2006). 12-and 18-month- olds point to provide information for others. Schmidt & Sommerville (2011). Fairness expectations and altruistic sharing in 15- month-old human infants. Svetlova, Nichols, & Brownell (2010). Toddlers’ prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping. Warneken & Tomasello (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Warneken & Tomasello (2008). Extrinsic Rewards Undermine Altruistic Tendencies in 20-Month-Olds. Warneken & Tomasello (2013). Parental presence and encouragement do not influence helping in young children. Thank you!