SPVV 102 Lecture 6 2022 PDF

SPVV 102 Lecture 6 Cognitive, Personality and Social development of Pre-school Children  Areas of Focus  Cognitive development and the media  Early Childhood Education  Personality Development o Theories of personality development o Emot...

SPVV 102 Lecture 6 Cognitive, Personality and Social development of Pre-school Children  Areas of Focus  Cognitive development and the media  Early Childhood Education  Personality Development o Theories of personality development o Emotions (understanding and expressing, emotional regulation) o The self-concept (Development of self-concept and self-esteem) o Gender (Gender role development and theories thereof)  Social Development  Family relationships o Parents or caregivers (Attachment, parenting styles) o Sibling relationships o Peer relationships (Play, Aggression and theories thereof) o Prosocial Behaviour  Moral Development Cognitive Development & the Media – We live in the digital age - children are exposed to various forms of media as they grow up such as TV, tablets and the internet – debate amongst Psychologist to do research to establish whether the media and technology we expose our children to, are beneficial or harmful for their development – Digital media can either enhance or inhibit child development in various domains Cognitive Development & the Media –Criticism of television on children in early childhood include: – Displaced time view: Argues that television viewing inhibits cognitive development because it takes away time from other activities that are more beneficial such as reading or pretend playing. – Passivity view: Argues that television viewing creates a habit of inactivity because it takes little effort to watch television – Shallow information processing view: The rapid and short segments of many television shows over time may result in shorter attention spans and difficulty sustaining attention – Visual/iconic view: Argues that television viewing selectively enhances visual information processing at a possible expense of verbal processing which can lead to a lowered ability to imagine or infer information that is not visually present Cognitive Development & the Media –Principles for healthier media literacy – Parents, caregivers and teachers should assist children to: – Differentiate between entertainment (fantasy) and reality – Deconstruct and engage critically (Comment on the content of the programme/game and ask and answer questions) – Share viewing as family (Young children should not have television and internet access in their bedrooms and limit viewing to certain times a day) – Choose programme content and proportions (age-appropriate programmes and games) – View media and technology as a resource to understand the world better  Early Childhood Education Pre-primary is an important step that widens a child’s physical, cognitive and social environment. The early years are important for the acquisition of linguistic literacy skills necessary for reading and communication, motor-perceptual skills required for writing, numeracy skills and attitude towards learning. Approaches for teaching and learning in pre- primary school generally include the: – 1) Child Centred Approach – 2) Direct Instruction – 3) Montessori approach.  1.) Child-Centred Approach – Emphasis on nurturance and the process of learning instead of what is learnt. – Focuses on all aspects of development (emotion, social, cognitive and physical) – Each child follows a unique approach as instructions are organised around the child’s needs, interests and learning styles. – Three main principles of child-centred approach – Each child follows an unique approach – Young children learn best from first hand practical experiences with people and materials – Play is crucial in the child’s total development – Teacher takes responsibility of stimulating, directing and supporting children’s learning by providing experiences that each child needs. – Approach is referred to as developmentally appropriate practice – quality of instruction varies and not all children benefit from this approach  2.) Direct Instruction Approach – This method relies on abstract paper and pencil tasks presented to large groups of children. – The emphasis is on direct academic instruction with extensive use of workbooks and worksheets. – Children are mostly seat bound – Method largely ignores concrete hands-on approach and does not consider developmental needs – Social and emotional development neglected and criticized as developmentally inappropriate – Children of this age are very physically active, curious and playful – Children taught according to this approach slower growth in vocabulary and math application.  3.) Montessori Approach – Children are given freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities. – They are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire – Teacher acts as facilitator rather than instructor – Teacher shows the child how to preform intellectual tasks demonstrating interesting ways and offers help where needed – Criticised for emphasising independence and cognitive skills but de- emphasises verbal teacher and peer interaction – Neglects social development Personality Development in Early Childhood As children move through their preschool years, their personality and social development become more complex with many different facets. Freud & Erikson’s theory of personality development – phallic stage of development – the initiative versus guilt stage Theories of Personality Development Freud and Erikson’s theory of personality development can be applied to preschool children. According to Freud’s perspective: – Early childhood falls within the phallic stage of development – Foundations of personality are laid during these years if complex is successfully resolved – Boys have to resolve the Oedipus complex and girls have to resolve the Electra complex – Children identify with the same gender parent  Oedipus complex Electra complex Boy internalizes masculine attributes and behaviors when he is forced to identify with his father and repress Girl identifies with the mother unconscious desires for his mother. and incorporates the feminine Causes castration anxiety and attributes to please her father personality disorders if not resolved. Causes penis envy The beginning of the superego The superego is the ethical component of the personality Psychosexual development (gender and provides the moral standards by which the ego operates identity)  Theories of Personality Development Erikson’s perspective: – During the ages of 3-6 initiative develops (Initiative versus guilt) – Children become more resourceful in exploring their environment (For example during this age toddlers start walking; they start to join in activities with peers, play more actively) – Parents can either encourage or discourage exploitation. – When parents consistently discourage exploration or punish children for developing initiative they develop a sense of guilt (For example if a parent is overprotective and does not allow the child to explore environment) child develops unnecessary guilt which affects their development. Theories of Personality Development Social learning theory: – Children’s behaviour shaped by rewards, punishments and role models. – Rewards can also be internal where their self-esteem will be enhanced, feelings of pride and accomplishments. – According to the social-cognitive developmental perspective children increasing learn complex concepts such as those pertaining to gender, race, ethnicity and friendships  The main focus of personality development during early childhood includes emotions, emotional control (emotional regulation) and the self-concept.  Emotions in Early Childhood – Heightened cognitive and social development contributes towards changes in emotional experiences. – Basic emotions such as happy, sad, angry becomes more varied and self-conscious emotions such as guilt, pride and shame also start to develop – Children become more aware about their own and others’ feelings  Understanding Emotions – Understanding their own emotions help children navigate their behaviours and talk about their feelings in social situations. – Pre-schoolers’ vocabulary for talking about emotions develops rapidly between two and four years – From age 4/5, able to refer to causes, consequences and behavioural signs (“Happy because he is eating an ice cream”). However, more likely to emphasises external factors over internal states – changes as they grow older – Can begin to predict behaviour of other children from emotions, eg. becomes aware that their friend is sad,might predict that they will run to the teacher and cry.  Understanding Emotions continue.. – able to link their thoughts to their – Unable to understand conflicting emotions such as happiness and disappointment. Their cognitive ability only focus on one aspect. – Families that talk about emotions are more cable to judge emotions in themselves and in others. - Higher emotional intelligence. – Knowledge about emotions are important in their efforts to get along with others  Emotional Expression – Emotions become more complex. – Example: Happiness – Initially expressed through smiling and laughter now is often expressed through clapping, jumping up and down, Also learn to control and appropriately express of happiness – Fear and anxiety develops - Some fears help children become aware of possible dangers – safeguard against disaster – Sudden intense and unknown stimuli confronting a child will produce fear. Other factors that influence the development of fear include temperament, the environment and the parents. – Younger children experience more fears than older children – Fear vs anxiety – Anger = strong emotional reaction instigated socially under conditions of threat of frustration  Emotional Expression: Involving the self – Start to show emotions that reflect an understanding of the self and social relationships – Self-conscious emotions start to emerge before 2y – require the understanding of the perspective of others – Self-conscious emotions become linked to self-evaluation and serve as a guideline for their behaviour – Self-conscious emotions important for moral development and performance related development such as task completion.  Emotional Expression: Involving Others Empathy develops Parenting styles play an important Warm and empathetic towards their children enhance the development of empathy in their children Cold and have a punitive parenting style hamper their children’s development of empathy.  Emotional Regulation – Important aspect of personality and social development – Children learn different strategies to control their emotions – Important for school readiness and peer interactions – Avoidance of situations leading to negative emotions – Language (telling yourself something positive) and cognitive strategies (try not to think about it) – Masking (not showing authentic emotion) – Display rules (culture) – Parents role… – Emotion-coaching approach – Emotion-dismissing approach Self- Conce Person’s view of him or herself/ important pt part of personality development Self-awareness develops during the first year of life and continues during early childhood which then includes 1) self- esteem 2) gender and 3) ethnic identity. At this stage they tend to describe themselves in terms of external observable attributes with limited ability to describe their inner self  Self-Concept Children in early childhood establish a Categorical self (describe self in terms of external observable attributes, which means they can describe themselves their name, age, gender, possession, where they live and who they are friends with But can they describe their internal selves? can describe basic emotions and display signs of psychological awareness but not yet refer directly to psychological traits Self-concept often linked to possessions – therefore they become increasing assertive over their possessions This should not be attributed as selfishness but as a positive sign of children developing self-definition. Cultural influence  Self-Esteem – self-esteem is the evaluation of those characteristics that make up the self-concept – Positive self-esteem =good and acceptable, negative = dissatisfied with characteristics. – Degree of self-acceptance important role in all aspects of development. – Children with low self-esteem usually have high levels of anxiety – The development of self-esteem begins in early childhood. They draw perceptions of themselves through their experiences and compare themselves to others  Self-Esteem Pre-schoolers generally have high self-esteem and tend to believe that they do everything very well – although this is not true. The high self- esteem at this stage has an adaptational function Around the age of 7 years they start to realise that they have different competencies in different activities Self-esteem is generally based on: – The degree to which an individual feel loved, accepted, encouraged and supported by others. – The specific characteristics and skills the person has – The degree to which the person accepts the various aspects of the self – especially comparison with others  Self Concept: Gender – In most cultures a person’s gender (being male or female) plays an important role in defining his or her self- concept. – Throughout our lives we remain aware of ourselves as male and female and this influences how we interact with others. – Initially believed boys and girls are very different but today we know that there are few psychological differences between sexes. Only notable differences include:  Boys are physically more aggressive  Boys have better visual spatial skills  Girls are better at decoding social messages from non-verbal cues  Girls have a higher vocabulary than boys – Many characteristics that are attributed to males and female gender differences are based on gender stereotypes (For example, girls are more talkative and more emotional than boys)  Gender Role Development – Gender role development: Development of behaviour pattern and attitude seen as appropriate for a male and female. – Includes 3 processes: – 1) Acquisition of gender identity – 2) Development of gender stereotypes and – 3) Development of gender-typed behavioural patterns 1. Acquisition of gender identity Gender Role Development - The child’s knowledge of themselves as male or female - Critical milestone - age of 2-4 children can label themselves correctly as a boy or girl – not yet have a concept of gender constancy - 2. Development of gender stereotypes – Become aware of gender stereotypes – Identify toys, clothing, household items, games, colours like blue and pink, as linked to a specific gender – Gender stereotypes becomes stronger at age 6 and is often considered as absolute rules (boys cannot be ballet dancers) – Assumptions fade with onset of adolescents 3. Development of gender-typed behavioural patterns – Children typically display behaviours associated with their gender – Show preference for playmates of the same gender  Theories of gender-role development Biological Theories – Biological differences between the sexes begin at conception when XX chromosomes develops into a female and an XY chromosome combination develops into a male individual. – Hormones in the bloodstream before and at birth also play an important role in influencing gender differences. For example, the higher levels of testosterone in males accounts for aggressiveness, dominance, competitiveness. – Hormonal imbalance illustrates biological link to gender differences. For example female fetus that have excessive Androgens (male hormones) prenatally are born with male like genitals. This is known as condition called androgenital syndrome (AGS) – Hermaphroditism another example of biologically based contribution to gender differences: Children are born with ambiguous sexual organs (from part male/part female sexual organs) Theories of gender-role development Social Learning Theory: Argues that the social environment serves as the major influence in determining gender role. According to the social learning theory this can happen in two ways: 1. Differential reinforcement: Rewarded for gender roles – Children are often encouraged in and rewarded for gender appropriate behaviour and punished for gender inappropriate behaviour/ Genders are treated differently (differentially). – Parents tend to hold traditional views of gender roles. Research indicates that especially fathers tend towards treating genders differently, whereas mothers treat them similarly. – Girls allowed sometimes to step over gender boundaries, boys not so welcome to. 2. Observation and modelling: Children imitate individuals of their gender. Models from TV and home.  Theories of gender-role development Cognitive influences: Two theories include the Cognitive Developmental Theory, and the Gender Schema Theory. – Cognitive Developmental Theory: Kohlberg argues that once children typify themselves as male or female they gather information with regards to that gender and how to behave. – Gender role development is dependant on cognitive development. Children have to understand gender. – Children are actively involved in own socialisation. – Three stage process: 1) gender identity (age 3), 2) gender stability (stable over time, age 4), 3) constancy (same in different situations, age 5). – Critique of this theory: Children do develop an awareness of gender before these ages, and show preference for particular gender before the theory stipulates.  Theories of gender-role development Cognitive influences: Gender Schema Theory (Bem, Martin & Halverson) – Children actively searches for knowledge regarding values, attitudes and activities related to their own view of a specific gender. – This means that they actually socialise themselves (self-socialisation) – Self-socialisation begin when child develops gender identity at 2/3 years of age. – Thereafter children develop gender schemas (cognitive structure that organises the social world into male and female) – Firstly children develop same gender and opposite gender schema – Simple cognitive structure in which children classify appropriate behaviour for boys and girls (For example, girls play with dolls and like pink, boys play with cars and like blue) – Second they develop own-gender schema: More elaborate cognitive schema that includes own gender behaviour and serves as a basis for guidelines for gender-appropriate behaviour. – Example: Girls and boys will know that boys fix cars, boys will be focus on obtaining knowledge about this while girls will not – Children will remember information that fits in with schema, more likely to distort info that does not.  Social Development: Parent-Child Relationship Attachment – Clear attachment established to primary caregiver – bond between parent and child changes during early childhood – Age of 2-3 years attachment behaviours become less visible – less distressed when separated and has the knowledge that care giver will return. – This is referred to as goal-corrected relationship (The pre-schooler still wants to be in contact with the parent, but this no longer requires a constant physical presence.) – understands that the parent and relationship continue to exist even though they are apart. – Attachment influences behaviour – securely attached children experience fewer behavioural difficulties while insecurely attached children experience more anger and aggression towards parents and peers.  Social Development: Parent-Child Relationship Parenting styles – conflicts between parents and children arise. – the following dimensions of parenting were identified: – To ensure healthy development of children, parents need to incorporate the following into their parenting style:  Warmth and nurturance  Clarity and consistency  Expectations  Communication These dimensions do not occur in isolation but in combination. There are 4 parenting styles that consist of a combination of these dimensions.  Parent-Child Relationship: Parenting Styles 1. Authoritative high in all dimensions (nurturance, control, expectations and communication) 2. Authoritarian (high in control and expectations and low in nurturance and communication) 3. Permissive (high in nurturance but low in control, expectations and communication) 4. Uninvolved (low in nurturance, communication control and expectations)  Social Development: Sibling Relationship – become means for understanding social relationships – Conflict between siblings during early childhood often over possessions – Conflicts and their settlements should be viewed as opportunities for socialisation – Parents should be involved in sibling conflict and teach their children how to deal with disputes – Parents influence sibling relationships (the way parents treat siblings). – Positive parental relationships lead to positive sibling relationships, while conflict between parents can lead to conflict between siblings. – For many children the birth of a sibling can be distressing – They may become withdrawn, anxious and return to more childish behaviour to regain their parent’s attention and affection.  Social Development: Peer relationships peer relationships are one of the most important aspects of social development Play provides pre-schoolers many learning opportunities in social interactions and to enhance their cognitive skills. While they play pre-schoolers share affection, make demands of others, offer each other approval. Type of play reflect their development during preschool years: Functional play – Repetitive activities involve movement Constructive play – Manipulating objects to make something Social pretend play (fantasy play/socio-dramatic play)) – Make believe to change the function of objects or creating imaginary situations Games with rules - Board games, hide Play precedes in a sequence from solidary to parallel play to cooperative play where children interact by sharing, following one another and making suggestions.  Peer relationships Aggression Aggressive behaviour in peer relationships Aggression – physical and verbal behaviour intended to injure or harm someone. Usually emerges at one to two years when children interact more with others. Two types of aggression: 1) Instrumental aggression – aggression used to obtain something like a toy age 1 to 2 2) Hostile aggression – aggression intended to hurt someone by hitting or insulting. Age 4-7 Occasional aggression between pre-schoolers are to be expected and reflect the development of their self-definition but excessive aggression can be  Theories of the causes of aggression – Various theories on the cause of aggression: – Instinct theory: Argues that humans are programmed to act aggressively. Aggression is an inherent response characteristic of the whole species. Because of the vast difference between individuals and cultures regarding aggression therefore theory is not accepted. – Biological theory: Certain brain areas, hormones and genetics play an important role in the tendency towards aggression, – Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Argues that people experience frustration when the attainment of their goals are blocked. Criticised because not all frustration leads to aggression and not all aggression is caused by frustration. It was reformulated and now argues that frustration may cause aggression because it leads to negative feelings.  Theories of the causes of aggression – Cognitive factors (Interpretation of aggression) – Intentions – core determinant of aggression. If the child perceive the other child to have hostile intentions they are more likely to retaliate with aggression than when they perceive the action as accidental. – Inability to process social information adequately – child may only focus on the aggressive cues and ignore other social cues and wrongly and interpret the world as hostile place and therefore retaliate with aggression. – The view of the outcomes of aggression –Aggressive children view the outcome of aggression different to non- aggressive children. Aggressive children often view aggression as a means to obtain tangible rewards will reinforce aggressive behaviour. Social factors – Social learning theorist argues that children learn aggressive behaviours through reinforcement of such behaviour and imitation of aggressive models such as parents and the media. – Parenting styles are important – degree of nurturance and discipline. Parents that are cold, negative and rejecting towards their children tend to have more aggressive children. – Community violence – frequent exposure to violence in the community influences the level aggression for parents and children. The more children witness community violence the higher levels of aggression. – Media (video games and television) important influence on child’s behaviour. Children that often watch violent entertainment become desensitised, can become more aggressive, see the world as a scary place, become more callous and less sympathetic and develop an increased appetite for more violent entertainment.  Social Development: Prosocial Behaviour – voluntary action that is intended to benefit others. – Becomes evident at the age of 2 to 3 years – they will for example help another child who is hurt, share a toy or comfort another person – Not all children show equal amounts of altruistic behaviour – Children with better emotional regulation tend to show more empathic and altruistic behaviour – Parenting styles important – parents who display more nurturance towards their children tend to show more altruistic behaviours.  Moral Development – set of principles and ideas that enables individuals to differentiate between right and wrong and direct their behaviour accordingly – Building blocks of moral development are emotions, self-regulation and conscience – develops in the first few years of life – During this stage children should learn two lessons: 1) Experience negative emotions when they violate rules 2) Control their impulses to engage in prohibited behaviours.