PSYC3270 (notes up to Midterm 1).pdf

Dr. Laurie Manwell Fall 2024 Week 1 1 Copyright © 2024 Laurie A. Manwell Course Description Neural bases of cognition and behaviour sensorimotor processing attention, learning, and memory emotion and social cognition cognitive control and consciousness Uses various methods: functional neuroimaging case studies of brain-damaged patients 2 Course Objectives Demonstrate competence with: basic anatomy and physiology of brain fundamental terminology and knowledge how the brain’s structure and function are interrelated 3 Course Objectives Describe and explain: various mechanisms by which the brain interprets and responds to its external and internal environments gives rise to specific behaviours including perception, attention, learning, memory, emotion, language, and social cognition. 4 Course Overview Describe common concepts and processes foundational to understanding the relationship between cognition and behaviour: organization of simple and complex systems i.e., stimulus, sensor, input signal, integrating centre, output signal, target, response production of basic reflexes and complex emergent phenomena 5 Course Overview Demonstrate transferrable skills essential for academic, personal, and career success: critical analysis knowledge synthesis and application interpersonal and team collaboration oral and written communication skills autonomous life-long learning skills self-driven direction, motivation, monitoring, regulation, assessment, and reflection 6 Course Readings Eagleman, D. (2015). The brain: The story of you. Vintage Books, United States. Gazzaniga, M.S., Ivry, R.B., Mangun, G.R. (2019). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind (5th Ed.). W.W. Norton & Company, New York. 7 Course Assessments 1. *Midterm Tests: 2 x 20% = 40% - Weeks 2, 12, & 13 - 4:00-5:20 pm in class - Multiple choice and/or short answer, etc…. 2. *In-Class Participation Assignments: 3 x 5% = 15% - Weeks 2, 12, & 13 during class time - Written assignments completed in-class - Bring pencils, pens, highlighters, and paper to class as needed - Note: these are the equivalent of scheduled quizzes 3. Research Essay: 15% - Week 13 (Nov. 28 @ 11:59 pm on Dropbox) 4. Final Exam: 30% - Week 14 (Dec. 7 @ 2:30 – 4:30 pm) *Considerations for missed tests/participation assignments must be accompanied by appropriate documentation of a legitimate reason (e.g., medical or emergency reason) and if approved will be re-weighted to final exam 8 Research Essay Students to independently explore common theme in the course: Understanding relationship between human brain and mind can help determine our future as a species and create a better world to live in Students to engage in critical analysis of a primary scientific peer- reviewed research article cited in Eagleman (2015, p. 227 to 241): Create thesis statement about the topic Provide summary of the article Discuss merits/limitations of the research Explain its significance to society 9 Research Essay For example, the research essay should answer the following prompts as demonstrated in the example* below: First, provide a proper introduction and clearly state the thesis of the essay in 1 to 2 sentences: e.g., “Active learning is associated with cognitive reserve which is known to be protective against neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and related dementias. Therefore, schools should create more active learning activities to build up cognitive reserve in young students now to reduce the significant burden of disease on society from neurodegenerative disorders in the future.” 10 Research Essay Second, describe the key components of the primary scientific article that form the basis of your thesis, specifically highlighting how they relate to concepts covered in the course (e.g., quality of the research question and arguments, including the theory, sources, testing methodology, evidence, interpretation of the evidence, and strengths and weaknesses of the study; application of principles of cognitive neuroscience; ethical implications; etc…): e.g., Bennett et al.’s (2012) Religious Orders Study provides evidence to support the conclusion that higher levels of cognitive stimulation are related to slower development of neuropathology and cognitive decline and could be used as a primary article here as it is cited in Eagleman (2015, p. 229) 11 Research Essay Third, summarize any other research that is relevant to the thesis: e.g., Manwell et al.’s (2022) model of the relationship between passive activities and increased risk of dementia would be a relevant recent study to discuss here Fourth, describe the significance of the theoretical and experimental findings in relation to the literature, course content, and their relevance to society today: e.g., Sociocultural changes surrounding the use of information technology are needed now to ensure that an increase in neurodegenerative disorders does not cripple healthcare and other social systems in the next few decades 12 Research Essay Technical Requirements: Students are permitted and strongly encouraged to use the many of the same research articles discussed throughout the course Essay must include a minimum of 2 of each type of academic source: Primary: original research or theoretical article Secondary: review article Tertiary: published textbook or manual or summary report by an agency Essay format: Must be between 3-5 pages not including title page and reference list; 2.0 spaced; 12-pt Times Roman font; 1” margins all around; APA (2020) style Refer to Appendix A for detailed marking rubric 13 Research Essay Please note the following very important points for your research essay: Students are required to understand and comply with APA (2020) and University academic policies regarding plagiarism. For example, plagiarism includes not providing in-text citations or providing incorrect or false citations, not properly paraphrasing text from other authors, using too many quotations rather than paraphrasing in your own words, and reusing your own or other students’ work for an assignment. Students should also note that aids such as Chat GPT are NOT permitted for this assignment. Below is a tutorial from the University on understanding plagiarism with examples that students should review and familiarize themselves with here: https://guides.lib.uoguelph.ca/c.php?g=129135&p=5002786 14 Research Essay Please note the following very important points for your research essay: Avoiding plagiarism includes providing APA (2020) formatted citations within the main body of the text. In-text citations MUST be provided for each statement of fact. This includes any information that you read in order to write your report and any information for which verification could be needed. For example, as an expert in the neuroscience of addiction, I know many facts about drugs of abuse, how they affect the brain and behaviour, and their legal status. However, I would still have to provide in-text citations for those facts from the authors that I learned or sourced them from (including my own published papers) so that readers could independently verify those facts. Students MUST also provide in-text citations for each fact presented. The APA Manual provides many examples of how to do this correctly. For example, it is NOT correct to simply cite an author at the end of a paragraph. Instead, one could cite an author at the beginning of a section and then make it explicitly clear which of the following sentences refer back to that author. When the source of the information changes, the citation must also change. Any reports that fail to provide sufficient in-text references for statements of fact and/or claims made will be penalized according to the marking rubric. Failure to provide any in-text citations will automatically result in a mark of zero for plagiarism. 15 Research Essay Please note the following very important points for your research essay: The Turn-It-In report is available for students to view so it is strongly recommended to do so. Here is a link to the University’s tutorial on how to view your Turn-It-In score and report: https://support.opened.uoguelph.ca/instructors/courselink/tools/content/turnitin The assignment MUST be submitted in a Word doc (.doc or.docx) or PDF format only. Other file types will NOT be accepted and will result in an automatic mark of zero. Students can submit revised versions if necessary until the deadline but only the MOST RECENT version will be marked. *Note: The example essay thesis and outline provided in the syllabus and lecture notes is NOT permitted to be used by students for their essay and if used will result in an automatic mark of zero. 16 Content and Comprehension: /10 0-2: Unacceptable. Does not meet the minimum criteria for acceptable work. Does not demonstrate critical thinking skills, organization, interpretation of primary and/or secondary sources, and/or logical flow of ideas; no evidence- based arguments presented; did not follow APA (2020) guidelines; missing in-text references completely; used more than 5 lines of quoted text with quotation marks. 3-4: Minimally acceptable. Demonstrates limited writing skills, organization, interpretation of primary and secondary sources, and logical flow of ideas; some grammatical and/or spelling errors; follows some APA (2020) guidelines; missing many in-text citations for facts and claims (e.g., 5+ missing); used no more than 5 lines of quoted text with quotations marks. 5-6: Acceptable. Adequate writing skills, organization, interpretation of primary and secondary sources, and logical flow of ideas; demonstrates that student has read the assigned readings and other academic sources and applied the content and critical thinking principles to student work; few grammatical and/or spelling errors; follows most APA (2020) guidelines; missing a few in-text citations for facts and claims (e.g., less than 5 missing citations); used no more than 3 lines of quoted text with quotation marks. 7-8: Well done. More than adequate writing skills, organization, interpretation of primary and secondary sources, and logical flow of ideas; demonstrates the student has read the assigned readings and applied the content and critical thinking principles to student work; student uses evidence to support arguments as taught during lectures and according to assigned readings and/or other relevant and academic sources; no or almost no grammatical and/or spelling errors; follows all APA (2020) guidelines; not missing any in-text citations for facts and claims; used less than 3 lines of quoted text with quotation marks. 9-10: Outstanding performance. Student demonstrates superior writing skills, organization, interpretation of primary and secondary sources, and logical flow of ideas; student uses evidence to support arguments as taught during lecture and according to assigned readings and/or other relevant and academic sources; student engages the reader with insight, critical arguments, and novel and/or unique perspective; no grammatical or spelling errors; follows all APA (2020) guidelines; provided in-text citations for all facts and claims; less than 2 lines of quoted text with quotation marks or did not use any quotes. 17 Approach to Questions: /10 0-2: Unacceptable. Does not meet the minimum criteria for acceptable work. Does not demonstrate reflective and/or critical thinking skills; did not answer assigned essay questions. 3-4: Minimally acceptable. Demonstrates limited reflective and/or critical thinking skills; did not answer all the assigned essay questions. 5-6: Acceptable. Demonstrates adequate reflective and/or critical thinking skills; answered some of the essay questions and/or partially answered questions; incomplete evidence and arguments presented. 7-8: Well done. More than adequate reflective and/or critical thinking skills; partially answered all of the essay questions; supportive evidence and clear arguments presented. 9-10: Outstanding performance. Student demonstrates superior reflective and/or critical thinking skills; thoroughly answered all of the essay questions; strong evidence and balanced arguments presented; student engages reader topic and various perspectives; student takes a risk focusing on controversial and/or less well known information/positions. References/Sources: /5 0-1: Unacceptable. Does not meet the minimum criteria for acceptable work. Sources are missing or not in proper APA (2020) format, incomplete, incorrect, or falsified. 1.5-2: Minimally acceptable. Primary/secondary/tertiary sources are missing, incomplete, or inadequate. 2.5-3: Acceptable. Primary/secondary/tertiary sources are complete, adequate at minimum requirements. 3.5-4: Well done. Primary/secondary/tertiary sources extend beyond the minimum requirements and are highly relevant, novel, and interesting, providing a unique perspective. 4.5-5: Outstanding performance. Primary/secondary/tertiary sources extend beyond the minimum requirements and are highly relevant, novel, challenging, thought-provoking, and compel the reader to re-evaluate their understanding of the issues discussed. 18 Research Essay Plagiarism deductions: The Turn-it-in report score will be assessed for text copied from other sources: No deduction – report does not indicate that there are more than 4 or 5 consecutive words that are verifiably derived from a cited or non-cited source (note that common ways of phrasing things like “In this experiment the researchers…” does not count as plagiarism) -6 points – 1 or 2 phrases / sentences where a reasonable person reviewing the evidence would conclude that the most likely explanation is that those phrases were copied from another author -12 points – 3 or 4 phrases / sentences where a reasonable person reviewing the evidence would conclude that the most likely explanation is that those phrases were copied from another author 0 on the assignment – 5+ phrases / sentences where a reasonable person reviewing the evidence would conclude that the most likely explanation is that those phrases were copied from another author 19 Class Attendance Lecture Attendance, Participation, and Professionalism Class expectations: reviewing assigned readings, offering and challenging ideas, asking questions, demonstrating interest and respect towards peers and their ideas Material is conceptually difficult, technical, and often quite different from everyday language for talking about the brain, cognition, and behaviour Your final mark will be based upon quizzes and in-class assignments, thus regular class attendance is strongly recommended and expected If you miss a class, you are responsible for obtaining any required documentation and are still responsible for missed notes, announcements, or any other information relevant to the course, the assignments, or other requirements from a classmate before the next class Students are to be respectful of and engaged fully in the university learning environment as a place to demonstrate higher order thinking skills involving analysis, evaluation, and synthesis of knowledge 20 Learning Contract Learning Contract: 1. Everyone has the right to learn and the responsibility not to deprive others of this right. 2. Every student is accountable for their own actions. 3. In order for you to get the most out of this class, please consider the following: - Attend all scheduled classes and arrive on time prepared with lecture notes. - Laptops and other devices are restricted to class-related activities only. - Late arrivals and early departures are very disruptive and will be considered negatively in your participation mark - Please let the instructor know immediately if you have a problem that is preventing you from performing satisfactorily in this class. 4. Each student’s success in this course is very important to me; please help me to help you achieve your professional and personal goals for this course! ☺ 21 Technology Policy Guidelines for Technology use During Class and During Course Instructors are permitted to regulate use of technology for social communicative purposes. Students requiring assistance can register with Student Accessibility Services (SAS). Image, video, and audio recording of instructors or in -class activities strictly prohibited without written consent of instructor, students, and SAS. Lecture notes taken in class and materials provided by the instructor (e.g., slides), are not to be shared, sold, or posted electronically or otherwise with any person, website, forum or external source. This is a violation of copyright rules; students will be penalized accordingly. Any behaviour that is disruptive to student learning in the classroom, including off-task use of technology and unnecessary talking, will not be tolerated and students will be immediately asked to leave. Students asked to leave are still responsible for any material covered in class. Obligations of Students: Off -task use of technology (e.g., communicating with friends/family; using social networking sites; playing games; accessing the internet on websites not related to course; reading an electronic book not related to course; playing music or video, etc.) during instruction which are distracting to self or others are prohibited. 22 Missed or Late Assessments Missed Classes/Assignments and Late Policy: In the event of a missed assignment or quiz a mark of zero will be recorded. All deferral requests and accompanying documentation must be submitted within 24 hours after the missed assessment and will be taken into consideration on a case-by-case basis. Medical notes will not normally be required for singular instances of academic consideration, although students may be required to provide supporting documentation for multiple missed assessments or when involving a significant portion of a final grade (e.g., tests or major assignment). However, requests for Academic Consideration may still require medical documentation as appropriate. Appropriate accommodations will be made at the Instructor’s discretion. Travel plans are not a valid reason to miss a class or assignment and will result in a mark of “zero”. The penalty for late assignments is 25% per day (including Saturday and Sunday) up to a maximum of 4 days after which a mark of zero will be applied. 23 Schedule of Topics Week 1 (Sept. 5):. Course Introduction /Syllabus Review Key Questions for Neuroscience Research Week 2 (Sept. 10 & 12):. What is Your Brain’s Story? (Eagleman Ch. 1) Learning Strategies for Neuroscience Study Participation Assignment 1: 5% Brief History of Cognitive Neuroscience (Gazzaniga Ch. 1) Week 3 (Sept. 17 & 19):. Structure and Function of the Nervous System (Gazzaniga Ch. 2) Week 4 (Sept. 24 & 26):. Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience (Gazzaniga Ch. 3) Experience, Reality, and Plato’s Cave (Eagleman Ch. 2) 24 Schedule of Topics Weeks 5 and 6 (Oct. 1, 3, 8, & 10):. Midterm 1: 20% Sensation, Perception, and Action (Gazzaniga Ch. 5 & 8) Week 7 (Oct. 15 & 17):. Fall Study Break – No Class Oct. 15 Independent Study Time for Research Essay – No Class Oct. 17 Week 8 (Oct. 22 & 24):. Consciousness: Is there an Agent in the Machine? (Eagleman Ch. 3) The Consciousness Problem (Eagleman Ch. 14) Week 9 (Oct. 29 & 31):. Midterm 2: 20% Mental Time Travel and Decision Making (Eagleman Ch. 4) Weeks 10 and 11 (Nov. 5, 7, 12, & 14):. Attention and Memory: What Makes Us Who We Are (Gazzaniga Ch. 7 & 9) Emotion: Motivation and Control (Gazzaniga Ch. 10) 25 Schedule of Topics Week 12 (Nov. 19 & 21):. Language: Modes of Communication (Gazzaniga Ch. 11) Social Bonds and the Brain: Do We Need Each Other? (Eagleman Ch. 5) Participation Assignment 2: 5% Week 13 (Nov. 26 & 28):. Volitional Evolution of the Human Brain (Eagleman Ch. 6) Participation Assignment 3: 5% Research Essay: 15% Make-Up Class or Independent Study Week 14-15 (Dec. 7, 2024): TBA. Final Exam: 30% 26 Neuroscience Research Activity Two key questions: What are some major challenges in society today? How could neuroscience address these challenges? 27 Research Programs in Neuroscience Neuropsychopharmacological Effects of drugs of abuse on Learning, memory, anxiety, social interaction, locomotion, development, neural activity Role of endogenous cannabinoid and opioid systems Neuropsychotechnological Effects of sensory overstimulation on Attention, learning, memory, social interaction, emotion, drug seeking, neural activity Role of monoamine neurotransmitters and HPA axis Translational Applying neuroscience principles to promote health Cognitive-behavioural brain reserve Predicted effects on later-life risk of dementia Sensory priming, brief education, drug substitution 28 Neurodevelopmental Changes Adolescence in humans (12-18 years) and rats (PND 35-49): Refinement of cognitive-dependent circuitry Adolescent-type behaviors: sociability, risk-taking, impulsivity Onset of sexual maturity Increased cognitive control capacities Adulthood in humans (20+ years) and rats (PND 60+): Adult levels of neurotransmitters, synaptic density, ongoing myelination and declining grey matter Emergence of adult-type behaviors: reduced risk-taking, reduced impulsivity and increased parental tendencies Semple et al 2013 Sengupta (2012) Sengupta (2012) Semple et al 2013 29 Semple et al 2013 Sengupta (2012) Sengupta (2012) Semple et al 2013 30 Effects of Overstimulation 31 Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress Effects of Overstimulation 32 Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress Cognitive-Behavioural Effects 33 Neural Effects 2 hour Exposure Fos immunostain 34 Cognitive-Behavioural Effects Locomotor activity Overstimulation increased physical activity e.g., traveled more distance and faster Risk-taking behaviour Overstimulation increased risk-taking e.g., more entries into open spaces, less time in enclosed spaces Anxiety-like behaviour Overstimulation increased anxiety-like behaviour e.g., greater self-grooming and burying activity Social behaviour Overstimulation reduced social interaction e.g., less following and grooming behaviour towards conspecifics Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress 35 Neural Effects Visual and auditory stimulation (VAS) for 2 h Wide-ranging effects on many brain regions Hypothalamus Amygdala Nucleus accumbens Visual cortex Auditory cortex Hippocampus Cingulate cortex Caudate Thalamus Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress Manwell et al (2019) Research in Progress 36 Acute Overstimulation and Drug Effects Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study 37 Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study Acute Overstimulation and Drugs Effects ** Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study 38 Acute Overstimulation and Drug Effects * * * * * * * * * * * * Fos+ cell counts for overstimulated and control rats administered mephedrone (15 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle. Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study 39 Acute Overstimulation and Drug Effects A B C D Comparison of Fos positive cells in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (100x mag). A: Control Vehicle B: Control Mephedrone; C: Overstimulated Vehicle D: Overstimulated Mephedrone Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study 40 Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study Acute Overstimulation and Drug Effects Link between overstimulation and responses to drugs of abuse: environmental experiences (isolated or overstimulated housing conditions) alterations in brain regions involved in stress and reward processes (HPA, MDS) Preliminary results indicated only 14 days of overstimulation: significant housing-by-drug effects for cognitive-behavioural and neural activity Overstimulation during critical periods of brain development: contributes to hyperactivity and neurobiological mechanisms (e.g., enhanced sensitivity) underlying increased risk of attentional problems and drug-seeking behaviour 41 Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study Manwell et al (2021) PS363 Pilot Study Top Five Goals What are your top five goals for Cognitive Neuroscience? 42 Dr. Laurie Manwell Fall 2024 Week 2 1 Copyright © 2024 Laurie A. Manwell What is Your Brain’s Story? Discuss and elaborate on Eagleman’s claims that: We are born unfinished It is not the number of neurons that matters but their connections The brain develops according to its “expected” environment An adolescent brain’s is more sensitive than a child’s brain and less inhibited than an adult’s brain. Plasticity does not end at adulthood Changes in the brain change who you are and vice versa 2 Eagleman (2015). Ch. 1 Cognitive-Behavioural Brain Reserve Cognitive-Behavioural Brain Reserve (CBBR): Brain structure and function shaped by environmental experience – Protective reserve against Insult Injury Disease Disorder Age-related deterioration Manwell, Tadros, Ciccarelli, & Eikelboom (2022) 3 Cognitive-Behavioural Brain Reserve Higher CBBR – Enriched experiences can lead to more complex patterns and flexibility Sensory stimulating environments, attentive caregiving, quality education, interdependent psychosocial relationships, etc…can positively impact cognition, emotion, and behaviour Fundamental capacities: “ability to adapt to uncertain, changing, and open- ended environments” (Collins & Koechlin, 2012, p. 1) Manwell, Tadros, Ciccarelli, & Eikelboom (2022) 4 Cognitive-Behavioural Brain Reserve Lower CBBR – Stressful or deprived experiences can lead to less complex patterns and rigidity Abusive or neglectful environments and non-normative stimulation can negatively impact: – attention, inhibitory control, focused concentration, learning, memory, reasoning, and creativity, particularly during critical periods in brain development Increased risk of psychopathology and neurodegenerative conditions Manwell, Tadros, Ciccarelli, & Eikelboom (2022) 5 Cognitive-Behavioural Brain Reserve Accounts for stressful and enriched experiences and their cumulative effects Continuum of sensory-motor and cognitive-emotional stimulation: No stimulation (deprivation) Understimulation mild, moderate, severe (neglect) Adequate stimulation (average, normative) Enriched stimulation Overstimulation (non-normative): mild, moderate, severe (abuse) e.g., effects of proximal separation on nervous system 6 Screen Time and Proximal Separation 7 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOR7jId8wYk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOR7jId8wYk Sensory Isolation in Development Studies that René Spitz conducted in the 1940s in Hungary First to show more systematically that: Social interactions with other humans are essential for children’s development. Spitz followed two groups of children from the time they were born until they were several years old. 8 http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/histoire_bleu06.html Sensory Isolation in Development First group: Babies raised in orphanage, where they were more or less cut off from human contact in their cribs Or a single nurse had to care for seven children. Second group: Babies were raised in a nursery in a prison where their mothers were incarcerated Mothers allowed to give their babies care and affection every day, and babies were able to see one another and the prison staff throughout the day. 9 http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/histoire_bleu06.html Sensory Isolation in Development Age 4 months: State of development of the two groups of babies was similar; Babies in the orphanage even scored a higher average on certain tests. Age 1 year: Motor and intellectual performance of those reared in the orphanage lagged badly behind those reared in the prison nursery; Orphanage babies were also less curious, less playful, and more subject to infections. 10 http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/histoire_bleu06.html Sensory Isolation in Development Age 2-3 years: Children raised by mothers in prison walked, talked confidently Showed development comparable to that of children raised in normal family settings. Of 26 children reared in the orphanage, only 2 could walk and manage a few words. Since the time of Spitz’s pioneering study, many other experiments have shown what catastrophic effects sensory and social deprivation at certain critical periods in early childhood can have on children’s subsequent development. 11 http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/histoire_bleu06.html Emotional Deprivation in Infancy - Dr. Rene Spitz 1952 12 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvdOe10vrs4&feature=related Developmental Effects of Aversive Environments Brain Plasticity Brain constantly changing with experience – Internal events – External events Case of Romanian orphans in 1980s Early environmental effects can profoundly influence brain development Age of adoption is critical Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Increase risk of addiction, suicide May affect frontal-lobe development, function Generational effects Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 13 Developmental Effects of Aversive Environments Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 14 Developmental Effects of Aversive Environments ACE Pyramid: Centres for Disease Control and Prevention Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 ACE Pyramid: Centres for Disease Control and Prevention 15 The Adolescent Brain Brain qualitatively different from child’s and adult’s brain Rapid synaptic pruning, growth of connections Differences in volumes of gray and white matter Differences in levels of transmitters (DA, GABA) Behavior qualitatively different from children and adults More risk-taking, impulsivity, novelty- and reward- seeking, less inhibition Vulnerability to drugs of abuse; related to overexpression of DA, 5-HT, CB receptors Vulnerability to onset of mental disorders; related to pubertal hormones, stressful psychosocial factors Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23; Paus et al (2008) 16 Learning Strategies for Neuroscience Two key questions: What are some effective learning strategies? How do you know that they are effective? 17 Transformational Education Focuses on developing active learning skills in students through: – student-centered, problem-based, exploratory, experiential, and collaborative interactions – promoting paradigmatic shifts in thinking for personal and professional growth Activities aim to increase students’ efficacy and mastery in course concepts and to produce positive shifts in students’ learning-related cognitions, emotions, and behaviour Essential in facilitating student learning that can be transferred beyond the classroom for academic, workplace, and community success 18 (Slavich & Zimbardo, 2012) Active vs. Passive Learning What are differences between active and passive learning? How are those differences related to the brain? 19 Human Memory Memory: – learners’ ability to mentally “save” newly acquired information and behaviors Can be a process of saving knowledge or skills Can be a location where the knowledge is held (e.g., working and long-term memory) Storage: – involves putting something into memory Retrieval: – involves finding something in memory 20 Ormrod & Jones (2018) How Does Memory Work? Ormrod & Jones (2018) 21 Meaningful Learning & Memory Retention Meaningful learning that is retained long-term usually involves: Organization Visual imagery Elaboration Ormrod & Jones (2018) 22 Meaningful Learning & Memory Retention Organization: – making connections among new pieces of information Visual imagery: – forming a mental picture of an object or idea Elaboration: – using prior knowledge to embellish on new information Practice: – practice over time leads to automaticity that is quick and efficient Learning strategies: – intentionally using one or more cognitive processes for a learning task Ormrod & Jones (2018) 23 10 Principles of Brain Plasticity 1. Plasticity is common to all nervous systems and the principles are conserved 2. Plasticity can be analyzed at many levels 3. The two general types of plasticity derive from experience 4. Similar behavioral changes can correlate with different plastic changes 5. Experience-dependent changes interact 6. Plasticity is age-dependent 7. Plastic changes are time-dependent 8. Plasticity is related to an experience’s relevance to the animal 9. Plasticity is related to the intensity or frequency of experiences 10. Plasticity can be maladaptive 24 Kolb & Wishaw (1998, 2015) Applying Principles of Neuroplasticity R Relevant to organism E Experience-expectant: “rough draft”, undifferentiated C Conserved, common L Levels: whole organism, neural circuits cellular/molecular A Age-related I Interacts: Experience-Expectant X Experience-Dependent M Maladaptive vs adaptive (also more rigid or flexible) E Experience-dependent: “fine details”, differentiated D Degrees: intensity, frequency, duration T Time-dependent: exposure parameters 25 Misperceptions about Learning 26 Misperceptions about Learning Illusion of Knowing Preferences ≠ Performance Print vs. Digital Massed vs. Spaced Practice Dunning-Kruger Effect 27 Cognitive Neuroscience History Key questions to consider: – What is cognitive neuroscience? – What historical evidence suggested that the brain’s activities produce the mind? – What can we learn about the mind and brain from modern research methods? 28 Gazzaniga et al. (2019). Ch. 1 Aims of Cognitive Neuroscience Study of how the brain enables the mind – Considers relationship between brain structure and function – Mechanisms underlying affect, behaviour, and cognition (ABCs) – Factors that alter the brain and mind – Focuses on human brain with information from other animals 29 Gazzaniga et al. (2019). Ch. 1 Study of Brain – Mind Connection Historical evidence that brain activity produces the mind – Studying patients with brain lesions changes to structure/function of brain affect/alter activities of the mind – e.g., consciousness, learning, memory, language, etc.. – Scientific investigations with healthy people and animals 30 Gazzaniga et al. (2019). Ch. 1 The Scientific Method Morris (2013) Ch.1 The Scientific Method Experiment: tests one or more falsifiable hypotheses one or more variables are systematically manipulated to observe their effect(s) on an outcome variable Variables: Independent (IV): predictor variable manipulated by experimenter Dependent (DV): outcome variable observed by experimenter changes in value associated with manipulation 32 Morris (2013) Ch.1 The Scientific Method Hypothesis: prediction about the state of the world Null hypothesis: H0 Alternative (experimental) hypothesis: H1 Finding: evidence that disproves or fails to disprove hypothesis (H0) Theory: explanatory framework Empirical theory: set of hypotheses supported by large body of evidence from observations and experiments Non-empirical theory: explanations based on contemplative, rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking Modern Research Methods We learn about the mind and brain from: – Measuring changes in biological activity of brain regions Changes in electrical impulses Fluctuations in blood flow Shifts in oxygen and glucose levels – Measuring changes in biological activity of neurons Changes in neurotransmitters Changes in electrical potentials – Measuring changes in grey and white matter structures Collections of cell bodies Collections of axons 34 Gazzaniga et al. (2019). Ch. 1 Mind-Body Problem How do physiological processes become transformed into our perceptual experience of the world? – Easy problem of consciousness Neural correlate of consciousness (NCC) How physiological responses correlate with experience – Hard problem of consciousness How do physiological responses cause experience? 35 Goldstein (2010). Sensation and Perception. Chapter 2. Dr. Laurie Manwell Fall 2024 Week 3 1 Copyright © 2024 Laurie A. Manwell Nervous System Three key questions: What are the organizing principles of the brain? What are the emergent properties arising from the nervous system? How do these principles and properties relate to behaviour? 2 Nervous System Structure & Function 3 The Human Brain Three Divisions of the Brain – Forebrain Cerebral cortex, limbic system, basal ganglia Performs higher functions like thinking, perception, and planning Prenatal development – Brainstem Underlying tube Performs regulatory and movement-producing functions – Spinal Cord Connected to brainstem and descends down the back Conveys sensory info to the brain and sends commands from the brain telling muscles to move 4 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 1 Navigating the Human Brain 5 Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 Navigating the Human Brain 6 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 1 White Matter and Grey Matter Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 15 Ventricles of the Human Brain 8 Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 Central Nervous System Consists of the brain and the spinal cord Has many functions Integration of information Learning and memory Coordination of activity Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3; Gazzaniga et al. (2019) 13 Telencephalon Characterized by cortex (gyri and sulci) Commissures connect two hemispheres Manages complex cognitive functions Cerebrum – Four Lobes Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital – Limbic System – Basal Ganglia Landmarks Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 10 Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3 15 Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 15 Topographical Memory Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 15 Limbic System and Basal Ganglia Limbic System – Regulates motivated behaviors – Structures Basal Ganglia – Regulates movement – Structures 14 Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 Limbic System Limbic system: Amygdala Hippocampus Cingulate cortex Fornix Septum Mammillary body Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3; Gazzaniga et al. (2019) 43 Basal Ganglia Basal Ganglia: Amygdala Dorsal striatum (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus) Ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercle) Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3; Gazzaniga et al. (2019) 44 Diencephalon Thalamus Sensory relay nuclei Reciprocal connections Hypothalamus Above pituitary gland Endocrine function Motivated behaviors Mammillary Bodies Optic Chiasm Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3; Gazzaniga et al. (2019) 45 Hypothalamus Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3; Gazzaniga et al. (2019) 46 Mesencephalon (midbrain) Tectum Superior colliculi Inferior colliculi Tegmentum Reticular formation Red nucleus Substantia nigra Periaqueductal gray Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3; Gazzaniga et al. (2019) 47 Myelencephalon/Metencephalon Myelencephalon (medulla) Medulla Reticular formation Metencephalon Cerebellum Pons Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3; Gazzaniga et al. (2019) 48 Divisions of the Nervous System 29 Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Autonomic Effects Means by which CNS Regulates organs and (brain and spinal cord) regulatory systems we receive information are not usually and allows us to conscious of for interact with our normal functioning environment Anatomical distributions Organs that we Organs that we normally have normally do not have voluntary control over voluntary control over Cranial nerves, Heart muscles, striated muscle, etc.. intestines, glands, etc.. Location Peripheral Peripheral McKim & Hanock (2013) Ch.35 22 PNS: Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Parasympathetic Effects “Fight-or-Flight” “Rest-and-Digest” Arousal and increased Internal functioning activity Anatomical distributions Middle region of spinal Brain and lower levels of cord spinal cord Location Autonomic Autonomic Morris (2013) Ch.35 23 PNS: Autonomic Nervous System Morris (2013) Ch.35 Components of the Nervous System Parts of a Neuron Nucleus Axon Axon (initial Myelin sheath Postsynaptic hillock segment) neuron Synapse: The region where an Cell Presynaptic Synaptic Postsynaptic axon terminal Dendrites body axon terminal cleft dendrite communicates with its postsynaptic target cell Input Integration Output signal signal Neurons: basic units that analyze and transmit information Around 86+ billion neurons in system ▪ Stimulation of receptors by natural ligands or psychoactive drugs can activate or inhibit a neuron and can alter affect, behaviour, and cognition 25 Components of the Nervous System Glial cells (Glia) Provide firmness/structure to the brain Get nutrients into the system Eliminate waste Form myelin Create the blood-brain barrier Communicate with other glia & neurons 26 Hart et al. (2019). Ch. 4 Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) Blood-Brain Barrier Tightly packed cells Protects the brain from toxic chemicals in the blood. Molecules have to be small and lipophilic to cross the blood brain barrier Active transport for large molecules 27 Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 9 28 The Nervous System Integration of function across many levels of organization – Complex systems have emergent properties Emergent Properties – Cannot be predicted to exist based only on knowledge of system’s individual components – Greater than a simple sum of components – Result from complex, nonlinear interactions of components – Examples: Emotions Reasoning Self-awareness 29 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 1 Neurons Parts of a Neuron Nucleus Axon Axon (initial Myelin sheath Postsynaptic hillock segment) neuron Synapse: The region where an Cell Presynaptic Synaptic Postsynaptic axon terminal Dendrites body axon terminal cleft dendrite communicates with its postsynaptic target cell Input Integration Output signal signal Analyze and transmit information Over 86+ billion neurons in system ▪ Stimulation of receptors by psychoactive drugs can activate or inhibit a neuron 30 Signals in a Multipolar Neuron Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 4 Pinel & Barnes (2018, 2021) Ch. 4 Ionic Basis of Resting Membrane Potential Concentrations of Ions – Na+ – K+ Diffusion Pressure Electrostatic Pressure Ion Channels Sodium-Potassium Pump 32 Pinel & Barnes (2018, 2021) Ch. 4 Resting Membrane Potential 33 Morris et al. (2015) Resting Membrane Potential https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSKLKc6ictI 34 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSKLKc6ictI Electrical Signals: Ion Movement Resting membrane potential determined primarily by – K+ concentration gradient – Cell’s resting permeability to K+, Na+, and Cl– Gated channels control ion permeability – mechanically gated – chemically gated – voltage-gated Threshold voltage varies from one channel type to another Action potentials are short Graded potentials are variable 35 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Neurotransmission Action potential a brief electrical signal transmitted along the axon Neurotransmitters are the chemical “messengers” Resting membrane potential is caused by uneven distribution of ions Action potential occurs when sodium ions move across channels Blocking channels prevents action potential disrupts communication between neurons 36 Hart et al. (2019). Ch. 4 Generation of an Action Potential https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-h_kWFM2faQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-h_kWFM2faQ Action Potential 38 Hart et al. (2019). Ch. 4 Propagation of an Action Potential 39 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 A single channel shown during a Where more than one channel of a phase means that the majority of particular type is shown, the channels are in this state. population is split between the states. Both Na+ Both channels channels Na+ channels close and Na+ channels reset to original position channels closed open. K+ channels open. while K+ channels remain open. closed Na+ Na+ and K+ channels K+ K+ K+ Absolute refractory period Relative refractory period During the absolute refractory period, no During the relative refractory period, only a stimulus can trigger another action potential. larger-than-normal stimulus can initiate a new action potential. High +30 Action potential 0 Membrane potential (mV) Na+ Ion permeability K+ −55 −70 Low High High Excitability Increasing Zero 0 1 2 3 4 40 Time (msec) Action potentials appear to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next. Only the nodes have voltage-gated Na+ channels. Node Node 1 2 Myelin sheath Node of Ranvier Na+ Depolarization Demyelinating diseases reduce or block conduction when current leaks out of the previously insulated regions between the nodes. Degenerated myelin sheath Na+ Current leak reduces conduction. 41 Slide 2 Synaptic Communication Neurotransmitter Release An action potential depolarizes the axon terminal. Synaptic vesicle Action potential with neurotransmitter arrives at molecules axon terminal. Synaptic cleft Receptor Postsynaptic cell 42 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Synaptic Communication Neurotransmitter Release An action potential depolarizes the axon terminal. Synaptic vesicle Action potential with neurotransmitter The depolarization opens voltage- arrives at molecules gated Ca2+ channels, and Ca2+ axon terminal. enters the cell. Ca2+ Synaptic cleft Receptor Postsynaptic cell Voltage-gated Ca2+ channel 43 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Synaptic Communication Neurotransmitter Release An action potential depolarizes the axon terminal. Synaptic vesicle Action potential with neurotransmitter The depolarization opens voltage- arrives at molecules gated Ca2+ channels, and Ca2+ axon terminal. enters the cell. Calcium entry triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicle contents. Docking protein Ca2+ Synaptic cleft Receptor Postsynaptic cell Voltage-gated Ca2+ channel 44 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Synaptic Communication Neurotransmitter Release An action potential depolarizes the axon terminal. Synaptic vesicle Action potential with neurotransmitter The depolarization opens voltage- arrives at molecules gated Ca2+ channels, and Ca2+ axon terminal. enters the cell. Calcium entry triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicle contents. Neurotransmitter diffuses across Docking protein Ca2+ the synaptic cleft and binds with Synaptic receptors on the postsynaptic cell. cleft Receptor Postsynaptic cell Voltage-gated Ca2+ channel 45 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Synaptic Communication Neurotransmitter Release An action potential depolarizes the axon terminal. Synaptic vesicle Action potential with neurotransmitter The depolarization opens voltage- arrives at molecules gated Ca2+ channels, and Ca2+ axon terminal. enters the cell. Calcium entry triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicle contents. Neurotransmitter diffuses across Docking protein Ca2+ the synaptic cleft and binds with Synaptic receptors on the postsynaptic cell. cleft Neurotransmitter binding initiates a response in the postsynaptic cell. Receptor Postsynaptic cell Voltage-gated Ca2+ channel Cell response 46 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Termination of Neurotransmitter Activity Diffusion Enzymatic breakdown Uptake by presynaptic axon terminal Frequency of action potentials: – determines how much neurotransmitter is released 47 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Termination of Neurotransmitter Activity Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pinel & Barnes (2018, 2021) Ch. 4 Seven Steps in Neurotransmitter Action Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pinel & Barnes (2018, 2021) Ch. 4 Mechanisms of Drug Action Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pinel & Barnes (2018, 2021) Ch. 4 Neurotransmitter Receptors Ionotropic receptors (receptor-channels) – mediate rapid responses – alter ion flow across membranes Metabotropic receptors – G protein–mediated receptors – mediate slower responses – some open or close ion channels 51 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 8 Ionotropic Receptor 52 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 5 Metabotropic Receptor 53 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 5 Neurotransmitter Activating Systems Neurotransmission of the Central Nervous System – Cell bodies of ACH, NE, DA, 5-HT within restricted regions of the brainstem – Axons widely distributed in the forebrain, brainstem, spinal cord – Activating Systems Systems of neurons that coordinate wide areas of the brain to act in concert 54 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 5 Activating Systems 55 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 5 Activating Systems 56 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 5 Activating Systems 57 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 5 Activating Systems 58 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 5 Dr. Laurie Manwell Fall 2024 Week 4 1 Copyright © 2024 Laurie A. Manwell Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience Three key questions: Why is cognitive neuroscience an interdisciplinary field? How do the various methods differ in terms of their spatial and temporal resolution? How do these differences impact the kinds of insights that can be drawn? 2 Controlling Neural Activity With Light Optogenetics: (Six Steps) Research technique that uses light to control the activity of cells, usually neurons, which are transfected with genes expressing light-sensitive ion channels http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100505/pdf/465026a.pdf Doidge (2015). Ch. 4 http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100505/pdf/465026a.pdf 3 Controlling Neural Activity With Light 4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I64X7vHSHOE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I64X7vHSHOE Single Cell Recordings Animals Humans Extensively used in a variety Occasionally used in treating epilepsy of visual and auditory tasks of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 3 5 Brain Imaging Techniques Brain Imaging: – Allows rapid correlation (instead of waiting for autopsy) between symptoms and brain – Uses computers to produce 2- and 3- dimensional images of the brain Computed Tomography (CT) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) 6 Gazzaniga et al. (2019); Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 X-Ray Imaging Computerized Tomography (CT scan) – Passes narrow X-ray beams through brain at different angles – Combines images to create a 3-D image of the brain – Bone shows white; fluid shows darker – CT scan cannot discriminate between gray and white matter – Ventricles and major fissures can be seen Damaged areas have fewer neurons and more fluid, so show dark 7 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 Dynamic Brain Imaging Provides a way to look at the brain without using dangerous or unpleasant procedures Can measure changes in blood flow and oxygen in the brain to infer brain activity Produces more sophisticated images: – Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) 8 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 Dynamic Imaging Techniques: PET Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – Radioactive substances (e.g., 15O) injected into the blood – More active neurons use more oxygen – As the radioactive substance decays, it gives off photons – Computers detect origin of photons →construct image of brain Advantages: Disadvantages: 9 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 PET Scanner and Image 10 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 Technique of PET Imaging 11 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 The Procedure of Subtraction 12 Dynamic Imaging Techniques: MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): – Identifies location of moving molecules by detecting the electrical charge generated by their movement – Uses high resolution – Can use relative concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide to determine regional differences in brain activity fMRI: superimposes MRI on brain anatomy Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 13 The Physics of MRI 14 The Physics of MRI 15 Dynamic Imaging Techniques: DTI Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) – MRI method that images fiber pathways by detecting directional movements of water molecules in ventricles – Movement in nerve fibers tends to follow the longitudinal axis, a property called anisotropy – Can detect degeneration of axons and distortion of and damage to fibers – Can be combined with MRI, fMRI, ERP 16 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 Dynamic Brain Imaging: fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Active neurons increase their use of oxygen and increase blood flow to the area Before neural activation, deoxyhemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin are about equal After neural activation, oxyhemoglobin is higher Different relaxation curves for protons in oxygenated and unoxygenated blood provides the means for obtaining a functional image (T2 most sensitive) – Advantages: – Disadvantages: Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 17 Imaging Changes in Brain Activity 18 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 Comparing Brain-Imaging Techniques X-ray PET MRI and fMRI Quick static snapshot Shows biochemical High resolution status of the brain 19 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 Toward Multimodal Atlases of the Brain 20 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 7 Experience, Perception, and Reality Three key questions: How does experience affect brain development? How does the brain give rise to one’s individual experience of conscious awareness? How does this relate to explanations of reality in Plato’s Allegory of the Cave? 21 Brain Development and Plasticity Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 Nutton et al (2011) The First Five Years. 22 Approaches to Studying Brain Development Correlate nervous system development with the development of specific behaviors Look at behavior and make inferences about brain development Examine factors that influence both brain development and behavioral development Serfaty (2011) Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition. Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 Serfaty (2011) Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition. 23 Stages of Brain Development Pinel & Barnes (2018) Ch. 3 24 Development of the Human Brain Stages Cell birth (neurogenesis; gliogenesis) Cell migration Cell differentiation Cell maturation (dendrite and axon growth) Synaptogenesis (formation of synapses) Cell death and synaptic pruning Myelogenesis (formation of myelin) Developmental Abnormalities Due to deficits in genetic program, trauma, toxins – Anencephaly – Microencephaly – Callosal agenesis – Cerebellar agenesis Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 25 Embryonic Brain Development Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 15 Gazzaniga et al. (2019) Ch. 2 Embryonic Brain Development Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 9 27 Post-Natal Brain Development 28 Silverthorn (2016). Ch. 9 Imaging Studies of Brain Development Shifting patterns in brain matter: Reduction in gray matter begins (age 6-7) in dorsal parietal and sensorimotor regions and spreads Increase in white matter begins (age 6-7); continues through adolescence Decline in gray matter may continue though age 30 and until age 60 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 29 Mechanisms of Brain Development Experience-expectant Experience-dependent 30 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 Environmental Influences on Brain Organization Brain differences between animals raised in the wild and those raised in the laboratory Effects of complex vs. impoverished environments Old and young brains respond differently to experiences Prenatal experience can influence brain development Gibb (2014) manipulated prenatal and preconceptual experience in rats Effects of Complex Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 Housing on Rats 31 Brain Injury and Plasticity Kennard Principle (e.g., 1942) Functions are spared when injury occurs during infancy Effects of brain injury depend on: Brain region injured Precise developmental stage at injury Age at assessment Type of behavior measured Exposure to gonadal hormones Newborn Babies Who Suffered Stroke Regain Language Function in Opposite Side of Brain Newborn Babies Who Suffered Stroke Regain Language Function in Opposite Side of Brain 32 Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 Michelle Mack: Born with Half a Brain 33 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/10/13/michelle-mack-woman-born_n_318179.html Studying Plasticity After Early Brain Injury Early brain lesions affect behaviors later in life Complete recovery of function if injury occurs during neurogenesis Injury during migration and differentiation is devastating After migration and differentiation the brain can recover Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 34 Early Brain Lesions & Later Life Brain Structure Brain plasticity to support recovery after early injury: Can change the organization of the remaining, intact circuits Can generate new circuitry Can generate neurons and glia to replace at least some lost neurons Kolb & Wishaw (2015) Ch. 23 35 Nervous System Changes During Normal Aging 36 Nervous System Changes During Normal Aging Four main changes occur in the brain during normal aging: – Reduction of brain weight – Loss of grey matter – Decline in the density of dendrites – Slower synaptic speed Loss of dendrites is not only primary aging, but is linked to education: – less cerebral cortex atrophy occurs in those with more education When significant interconnectivity is lost, "computational power" declines 37 Using Light to Heal the Brain Photobiomodulation (PBM): – Use of red or near-infrared light to stimulate, heal, regenerate, and protect tissue that has been either injured, is degenerating, or else at risk of dying – Also known as low level laser/light therapy (LLLT) Mechanisms of action Mitochondria and cytochrome c oxidase Reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, blood flow Light sensitive ion channels and calcium Signaling mediators and activation of transcription factors Biphasic dose response and effect of coherence http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 Doidge (2015). Ch. 4; Hamblin (2016) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 38 Photobiomodulation http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 Hamblin (2016). BBA Clinical, Volume 6, 2016, 113–124 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 39 Photobiomodulation http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 Hamblin (2016). BBA Clinical, Volume 6, 2016, 113–124 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 40 Photobiomodulation Fig. 4. tPBM for controlled cortical impact TBI in a mouse model. (A) Mice received a single exposure (810 nm laser, 36 J/cm2 delivered at 50 mW/cm2 over 12 min). (B) Mice received 3 daily exposures starting 4 h post-TBI and were sacrificed after 7 or 28 days. BDNF and neurogenesis (BrdU) were increased at 7 days , while synaptogenesis was increased at 28 days. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 Hamblin (2016). BBA Clinical, Volume 6, 2016, 113–124 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214647416300381 41 Photobiomodulation Fig. NSS scores after laser treatment. (A) Time course of neurological severity score (NSS) of mice with TBI receiving either control (no laser-treatment), or 810-nm laser (36 J/cm2 delivered at 50 mW/cm2 with a spot size of 0.78 cm2) in either CW, PW 10 Hz or PW 100 Hz modes. Results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M (n = 10). *** P

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