Production Practices in Horticultural Crops PDF

CROP SCIENCE PRODUCTION PRACTICES FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS Malvin B. Datan Steps in Crop Production Site selection and evaluation Land preparation Preparation of Planting materials Crop establishment Care and maintenance Harvesting Postharvest Hand...

CROP SCIENCE PRODUCTION PRACTICES FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS Malvin B. Datan Steps in Crop Production Site selection and evaluation Land preparation Preparation of Planting materials Crop establishment Care and maintenance Harvesting Postharvest Handling/processing 2 Land Preparation 3 Site Characterization Environmental Factors Edaphic Factors Soil Type Climate Soil Structure Precipitation Soil pH Temperature Soil fertility status Wind Relative Humidity Light Biological Factors Prevalence of pest and diseases Existence of destructive animals Weed population 4 Site Characterization Economic Factors Sociological factors Cost of land Population Local taxes Peace and order Available labor Law enforcement Economic status of the people School, churches and hospitals Facilities Neighborhood Recreational facilities 5 Land Preparation Creates favorable conditions for seed germination, seedling establishment, and management of the crop. It eliminates most of the weeds and soil- borne pathogens. Improves the water holding capacity, drainage, and soil aeration. It facilitates field operations. 6 Basic Operations in Land Preparation Clearing/Mowing/Under brushing Under certain conditions, the farm may be too weedy to be plowed. Before plowing, then, it may be necessary to clear the field of obstructions and tall weeds. 7 Basic Operations in Land Preparation Tillage The manipulation of the soil into a desired condition by mechanical means; tools are employed to achieve some desired effect (such as pulverization, cutting, or movement). 8 Different Tillage Operations Plowing to cut soil into furrow slices to partly pulverize the soil (still in cloddy condition) to incorporate weeds and stubble underneath the soil 9 Different Tillage Operations Harrowing To pulverize the clods left after plowing To level the field To compact soil to a certain degree To destroy weeds as they start to grow Done 2 to 3 times 10 The number of plowing and harrowing depends on: Soil type Weed density Moisture content Crop to be grown Seed crop – require better seedbed than a crop normally planted by cuttings Over- pulverization - avoided 11 Characteristics of well- prepared upland field Granular, mellow yet compact enough so that seeds are in close contact with the soil for better germination Free of trash or vegetation Field is level, with minimum depressions where water may accumulate 12 Soil Moisture Consideration in Land Preparation Tilling soil when it is too dry increases power requirements and the likelihood of implement breakage. Tilling soil when it is too wet promotes soil compaction, reduces soil granulation, lengthens land preparation. Ideal moisture content – at a level field capacity. 13 Practical Indicators: Soil should slide freely from the moldboard Soil is friable and breaks easily Freshly cut surface should not glisten with moisture 14 Other Land Preparation Procedures Field Layouting appropriate planting distance and planting systems should be used depending on the terrain and cropping systems to be adopted. Furthermore, proper row orientation should be considered to allow optimum utilization of sunlight. 15 Other Land Preparation Procedures Field Layouting Factors to consider when deciding on planting distance to use: The final size of the crop (whether pruning and training will be implemented to control size) The cropping system/pattern (mono or intercropping) Fertility status of the soil The size of farm machineries 16 Other Land Preparation Procedures Field Layouting For example, for triangular planting system, the rows should be oriented north to south to minimize shading of neighboring plants. However, for avenue planting rows should be oriented in east-west direction for maximum exposure. 17 Other Land Preparation Procedures Establishment of Roads and Drainage Network In large farms, roads should be a major consideration and spaced 200 meters apart. Roads should be always laid out across the slope or along contours. 18 Other Land Preparation Procedures Staking and spacing The planting points are to be marked with stakes using suitable size and length of plastic twine or cable wire as guide for straight planting. Spacing and planting system depend on population, cropping system, variety and shade condition. 19 Other Land Preparation Procedures Hole Digging The size of the planting hole should be big enough to accommodate the ball of the soil mass. In preparing holes, the surface soil should be separated from the subsoil. This allows the utilization of the surface soil to cover the base of the ball of soil holding the seedling. 20 Other Land Preparation Procedures Hole Digging Plant immediately after digging holes. This is done to preserve the available moisture. If the soil however is a bit hard (heavy soil), digging of hole should be done in advance of the schedule of field planting to allow weathering thus soften the soil. 21 Planting Material Selection and Production 22 Planting Materials Selection and Preparation While quality planting materials of horticultural crops could now be bought from registered and accredited nurseries, it is still essential to establish plant nursery and produce your own planting materials particularly for large scale planting. There should be reliable supply of quality water, a good soil and it should be near or close to the proposed plantation. Recommended nursery practices for raising planting materials of the crop should be followed as much as possible. 23 Propagation Depending on the kind of crop to mass produce, propagation could be done sexually (using seeds ) or asexually (using vegetative parts of the plant). Sexual propagation as the name suggests, involves contribution of both female & male sexes for creation of new plants. On the other hand, asexual propagation involves production of species through vegetative parts of the plants such as roots, leaves, stems, bulbs, tubers, runners, corms, suckers etc. 24 Advantages of Sexual Propagation Simplest, easiest and the most economical process among various types of plant propagation. Some plants, trees, vegetables or fruits species can propagate only through sexual propagation. This type of propagation leads to better crop species that are stronger, disease-resistant and have longer life-span. Viral transmission can be prevented in this type of propagation. 25 Advantages of Sexual Propagation Sexual propagation is responsible for production of large number of crops and that too with different varieties. It is the only propagation process in which resultant offspring have genetic variation and exhibit diversity of characters from parent crops. Easy storage and transportation of seeds. 26 Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation Seeds take a long time to turn into mature plants i.e. time interval between sowing and flowering is longer. Seedlings propagated through sexual propagation are unlikely to have same genetic characteristics as that of parent plants. Some plant species do not produce viable seeds through sexual propagation and hence are unsuitable to propagate for the same. Plants that do not have seeds can’t be propagated through this process. 27 Advantages of Asexual Propagation As resultant species formed through asexual process are genetically identical, useful traits can be preserved among them. Asexual propagation allows propagation of crops that do not possess seeds or those which are not possible to grow from seeds. For e.g. Jasmine, sugarcane, banana, rose etc. Plants grown through vegetative propagation bear fruits early. 28 Advantages of Asexual Propagation In this type, only a single parent is required and thus it eliminates the need for propagation mechanisms such as pollination, cross pollination etc. The process is faster than sexual propagation. This helps in rapid generation of crops which in turn balances the loss. Injured plants can be recovered or repaired through techniques involved in asexual propagation. 29 Disadvantages of Asexual Propagation Diversity is lost in asexual propagation which is the main reason behind occurrence of diseases in future plant species. As many crops are produced with this process, it leads to overcrowding & lack of nutrients. New varieties of crops cannot be developed in this type of propagation. 30 Disadvantages of Asexual Propagation Asexual propagation is an expensive process that requires special skills for successful cultivation of crops. Crops produced through this process have shorter life-span than those grown through sexual process. Species involved in this process are less likely to resist pests and diseases. 31 Planting Materials Selection and Preparation Types of Planting Materials Seeds Vegetative Propagules 32 Planting Materials Selection and Preparation Types of Seeds Inbred Hybrid or F1 Open pollinated 33 Types of Seeds Inbred An inbred variety is a pureline. This means that the offspring or succeeding generations produced by this variety will have the same genetic makeup. 34 Types of Seeds Association of Colleges of Agriculture in the Philippines, Inc. F1 hybrid F1 hybrid means literally ‘first offspring after a crossing’. In the case of F1 hybrids the breeding process is divided into two phases: inbreeding and combinations of crossings. So, the process is more complicated and requires more intervention by breeders than in the case of an open-pollinated variety. 35 Types of Seeds Open-pollinated variety Produced using the traditional method of crossing and then selection of offspring in several generations (base population). After a few years (usually after 5 - 6 generations) of systematic selection the variety becomes stable, and the characteristics hardly ever segregate out again. 36  Classes of Seed Breeder Seed comes directly from plant breeder Foundation Seed grown from breeder seed Registered Seed grown from foundation seed grown from either foundation, Certified Seed registered or certified seed seed that may be produced from Good Seed varieties not yet approved by NSIC Preparing Seeds for Sowing Soaking or Pre-germination This is a common practice for large-seeded crops with hard seed coats. Before they are sown, the seeds are soaked in water and wrapped in damp cloth until they start to germinate. 38 Preparing Seeds for Sowing Seed Treatment refers to procedures that aims to disinfect the seeds or protect them against pest that may pose hazards during germination and subsequent stages of plant growth. 39 Preparing Seeds for Sowing Scarification Done in hard-seeded crops Soften or make wound on the seed coat Hard-seeded crops - e.g., okra, some legumes 40 Preparing Seeds for Sowing Scarification Chemical means: treating winged bean seeds – concentrated sulfuric acid Physical means: Passing okra seeds through a metal brush in a rotating drum Clipping - with a nail cutter for melon seeds 41 42 Preparing Seeds for Sowing Vernalization/Stratification exposing the germinating seeds to low temp. 0-5 C for a certain period to induce early flowering and higher seed yield. 43 Methods of Planting Seeds Crops that are usually transplanted Species under this group are usually having smaller-sized seeds and slow- growing at the onset of germination. Cabbage, Chinese cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, tomato, eggplant 44 Methods of Planting Seeds Crops usually direct seeded This group has medium to large-sized seeds which facilitates direct sowing in the prepared plots or furrows in the field. Crops are characterized as fast-growing after germination; hence, they can quickly establish in the field. Watermelon, cantaloupe, squash, cucumber, snap bean, cowpea, soybean, garden pea 45 Methods of Planting Seeds Crops that should be direct seeded This group is never transplanted because the tip of their taproots may be damaged in the process, resulting in deformed or forked roots which are undesirable Radish, carrots, turnips. 46 Methods of Planting Seeds Factors to be considered in selecting a planting method Cost and availability of the seeds Quality of land preparation Root-regeneration ability of the crops 47 Nursery Management Nursery The facility for growing transplants, otherwise called the nursery, can be as simple as a raised bed in a selected corner of the field Or as sophisticated as a glasshouse with micro sprinklers and an automatic temperature control system. 48 Nursery Management All these nurseries seek to provide the following conditions for growing seedlings: a. Protection from pests, including higher animals. b. Protection from rain and sun. c. Protection against temperature extremes. 49 Nursery Management Nursery Requirements Shade cloth or UV stabilized plastic roofing. If using plastic, make sure it is cleaned regularly to allow light to penetrate Raised benches at least 0.9m off the ground with metal mesh benchtops Good light – do not locate under trees Good ventilation to avoid heat buildup: 20-25ºC is best for seedling growth 50 Germination and Seedling Growing Medium Soil is the universally available medium for germinating seeds and growing seedlings. However, it is not necessarily the best medium. Some soils are unsuitable for growing seedlings. 51 Germination and Seedling Growing Medium Water-holding capacity and aeration Organic materials, such as peat, are able to retain moisture without causing waterlogged conditions. This characteristic is crucial because the germinating seeds and the roots of seedlings need both water and air. 52 Germination and Seedling Growing Medium Capacity to supply plant nutrients Vermiculite, perlite, and their tropical counterpart such as coconut coir dust and rice husk, are essentially inert and they contribute very little if at all, to plant nutrition. Thus, nutrient-rich materials, such as compost, manure, and fertile soil, should be added to this nursery mix. 53 Germination and Seedling Growing Medium Freedom from soil-borne plant pathogens The soil contains millions of different kinds of microorganisms; some are disease causing. The nursery mix should retain only the beneficial types. To achieve this the nursery mix is often sterilized, either with the use of heat or chemicals. 54 Hot plate sterilization The soil mix is moistened; so that the steam generated by the heated soil serves as the sterilant in addition to the effect of the hot plate itself. During sterilization, the soil is constantly stirred to ensure even heating. Sterilization is completed when the soil has dried up. 55 Seedling Production and Care of Seedling Modified seed box method or cellular method Prepare small pots made of either used paper, banana leaves, coconut fronds Fill the pots with the same kind of sterilized soil used in the seed box method Sow 2-3 seeds in each small pot, 7-10 days after germination, thin the seedlings to only one per pot 56 Seedling Production and Care of Seedling Pricking Transfer the seedlings 7-10 days after germination to another plot or seed box Water the newly pricked seedlings and protect them from direct sunlight 2-3 days after pricking, sprinkle the seedbed with starter solution 57 Seedling Production and Care of Seedling Hardening Gradually expose the seedlings to sunlight 7-10 days after pricking Reduce and withhold watering until the seedlings start to exhibit temporary wilting then re-water the seedlings 58 Transplanting Use only transplants that are healthy and are in good condition. Seedlings can be transplanted into the field after 4 weeks, when they have 4-5 true leaves. Avoid damaging roots when removing seedlings from the seedling tray or lokong. 59 Transplanting Dig a small hole and place basal fertilizer. Avoid roots in direct contact with inorganic fertilizer. Water the seedlings in with a generous amount of water as soon as possible after transplanting. Transplanting is best done early in the morning or late in the afternoon. 60 Planting Materials Selection and Preparation Vegetative Propagules There are certain plant modifications which are used for vegetative propagation of plants. These modified plant parts may be stem, root, or leaves and are usually specialized for food storage. 61 Vegetative Propagules Bulbs Produced by monocotyledonous plants in which the stem is modified for storage and reproduction. Bulb is a specialized underground organ consisting of a short freshly, usually vertical stem axis bearing at tip apex or growing points and enclosed by thick freshly scales. Ex: Tulip, Daffodils, Onion, Garlic, (cloves) 62 Vegetative Propagules Tubers A tuber is the short terminal portion of an underground stem which has become thickened because of accumulation preserved food material. Ex: Irish potato 63 Vegetative Propagules Tuberous roots Certain herbaceous perennials produce thickened roots which contain large amount of stored food. The tuberous roots differ from the tubers in that they lack nodes and internodes Ex: Sweet potato, Dahlia. Tapioca (Cassava). 64 Vegetative Propagules Rhizomes The horizontal, thick and fleshy or slender and elongated stem growing underground are known as rhizomes. Rhizomes have nodes and internodes and readily produce adventitious roots. Ex: Ginger, Ferns, Turmeric, and Cardamom. 65 Vegetative Propagules Corms A corm is solid underground base of a stem having nodes and internodes and is enclosed by a dry scale like leaves. Ex: Gladiolus 66 Vegetative Propagules Runners Runners are specialized arial stems (stolons) arising in the leaf axils of plant having rosette crowns. New plants arise from nodes at interval along these runners. Ex: Strawberry. 67 Vegetative Propagules Suckers Adventitious shoot from the underground portion of the stem or from their horizontal root systems are known as suckers, they may be utilized as propagation materials. Ex: Chrysanthemum, Curry leaf, Banana. 68 Vegetative Propagules Offsets/ offshoots An offset is a shoot or thick stem of rosette like appearance arising from the base of the main stem of certain plant. Ex: pineapples are propagated vegetative by separating away the offshoots and replanting them. 69 Methods of Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops There are crops that do not produce seeds, hence they cannot be reproduced sexually. There are also those that are capable of producing seeds, yet for economic reasons, convenience and expediency they are not commonly propagated by seeds. 70 Methods of Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Instead, they are multiplied by cuttings or using suckers and other vegetative plant parts. All these types of propagation techniques fall under the so called asexual or vegetative plant propagation. 71 Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Separation and Division Separation uses naturally occurring vegetative structures such as bulbs and corms. Individual bulbs or corms are separated from a clump. Division involves digging up the plant or removing it from its container and cutting (dividing) the plant into separate pieces. 72 Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Layering Stems still attached to their parent plant may form roots where they come in contact with a rooting medium. This method of vegetative propagation is generally successful because water stress is minimized, and carbohydrate and mineral nutrient levels are high. 74 Different Types of Layering Simple layering Bend the stem to the ground. Cover part of it with soil, leaving the remaining 6 to 12 inches above the soil. Bend the tip into a vertical position and stake in place. 75 Different Types of Layering Compound layering Bend the stem to the rooting medium as for simple layering, but alternately cover and expose stem sections. Wound the lower side of the stem sections to be covered. 76 Different Types of Layering Mound layering Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the ground in the dormant season. Dormant buds produce new shoots in the spring. Mound soil over the new shoots as they grow. Roots develop at the bases of the young shoots. 77 Different Types of Layering Air layering Ring of bark is removed from the stem. Scrape the newly bared ring to remove the cambial tissue in order to prevent callus from forming. After the rooting medium is filled with roots, sever the stem below. 78 Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Budding and Grafting Budding and grafting are methods of asexual propagation that join parts of two or more different plants together, so they unite and grow as one plant. These techniques are used to propagate cultivars that do not root well from cuttings or to alter some aspect of the plant (for example, to create weeping or dwarf forms). 79 Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Budding and Grafting The scion consists of a short stem piece with one or more buds and is the part of the graft that develops into the top of the grafted plant. The rootstock (also called stock or understock) provides the new plant's root system and sometimes the lower part of the stem. Seedling rootstocks are used commonly. 80 Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Budding Budding, or bud grafting, is the union of one bud, with or without a small piece of bark, from one plant (scion) onto a stem of a rootstock. It is especially useful when scion material is limited. Budding is usually done during the growing season when the bark is slipping (soft and easy to peel back from the cambium). 81 Common types of Budding Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Grafting Grafting is the union of the stems of two plants to grow as one. There are several kinds of grafting; which method to use depends on the age and type of plants involved. 83 Common types of Grafting Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Budding and Grafting Six conditions must be met for bud grafting to be successful: The scion and rootstock must be compatible (capable of uniting). The scion and stock plant must be at the proper physiological stage of growth. The cambial region of the scion and the stock must be in close contact - touching if possible. 85 Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Budding and Grafting Proper polarity must be maintained (the buds on the scion must be pointed upward). Immediately after grafting, all cut surfaces must be protected from drying out. Proper care must be given to the graft after grafting. 86 Asexual Reproduction of Horticultural Crops Micropropagation (Tissue Culture) The use of tissue culture techniques to propagate plants from very small plant parts. The small plant part is grown (cultured) in a sterilized container with a culture medium and precise environmental conditions. 87 Cultural Management Practices 88 Cultural Management Practices Mulching To control soil temperature, either by keeping it cool or keeping it warm; Prevent loss of soil moisture; to control weeds by shading them and diseases by preventing soil contact with the plant foliage. Some reflective mulches are said to be effective in repelling insects. 89 Cultural Management Practices Staking or Trellising With few exceptions, all viny vegetables are staked. There are three types of plants for purposes of staking: a. Plants with special structures such as tendrils; b. plants that twine c. plants that do not have the natural ability to climb. 90 Cultural Management Practices Staking or Trellising Staking facilitates management operations, such as irrigation, intertillage, pest control, and harvesting. It also helps produce better products Training or repositioning of the vines is done with viny crops that are grown under prostrate culture (without stakes) to prevent overcrowding in some spots in the field. 91 Cultural Management Practices Staking or Trellising In insect-pollinated crops, such as watermelon and squash, dense vines and foliage may interfere with insect activity and reduce fruit set. In staked crops, training is necessary in the initial stages to keep the vines off the ground. 92 Cultural Management Practices Shading Sunlight is the primary energy source plants use in photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars, which the plant uses to make stems, leaves, roots, and fruits. However, if the leaves or fruit are exposed to harmful ultraviolet radiation or they accumulate too much light radiation, damage to cells and tissues occurs. 93 Cultural Management Practices Shading Shade cloth and nets impacts air and fruit surface temperature as well as incoming solar radiation. Shading also alters plant architecture. Plants grown under shade are taller, have larger leaves, and possibly more nodes. Shading increases relative humidity under the structure and decreases wind. An increase in relative humidity decreases evaporation which causes soil and plants to retain more moisture under shade. 94 Cultural Management Practices Pruning Reduces stored carbohydrates and leaf area available for carbohydrate production temporarily arrest apical dominance excessive top pruning stimulates vegetative growth and suppresses flowering but root pruning increases flowering. 95 Cultural Management Practices Pruning It is a horticultural practice involving the selective removal of certain parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, roots, fruits or flowers. It is done to strike a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth. Making them safe, healthy, productive, and aesthetic is the most concerned reason to prune plants. 96 Cultural Management Practices Pruning Pruning can manipulate branching habit and influence the hormones involved in growth of plant. Increases uptake of water and nutrients by the remaining shoots and buds, which results to flushing and rejuvenation in old trees. Increases the amount of light penetrating the canopy resulting to higher rate of photosynthesis 97 Cultural Management Practices Types of Pruning Formative pruning - method of pruning during the early years of a tree to establish a framework of branches. Corrective pruning- removal of dead, pest infected/infested parts and damage plant parts Preventive pruning - used to help mitigate the risks from tree defects promoting good structure, making trees more resistant to storms and other natural forces. Rejuvenation- reinvigorate old and non-productive crops and involved heavy pruning. 98 Cultural Management Practices Pruning Cuts Heading back removes the terminal portion of shoots or limbs. By removing apical dominance, heading out stimulates regrowth near the cut. 99 Cultural Management Practices Pruning Cuts Thinning out removes an entire shoot or limb to its point of origin from the main branch. As a result, new growth occurs at the undisturbed shoot tips while lateral bud development and regrowth is suppressed. 100 Cultural Management Practices Fruit Thinning To control fruit size, some fruits are removed before they enlarge. Some plants, particularly cucurbits, produce female flowers and set fruit so early that vegetative growth is still insufficient to support the normal growth of the fruit. 101 Cultural Management Practices Fruit Thinning To promote the formation of bigger and better fruits, the first one or two fruits on the vine is removed. The number of fruits per vine is subsequently limited to one. The practice of fruit thinning is widely used in melons and watermelons 102 Cultural Management Practices Training Establish a strong tree framework Facilitate management of tree and crop Harvest sunlight efficiently Maintain productivity by renewing fruiting wood 103 Cultural Management Practices Training Open center- vase pruning shapes a tree to a short trunk and three or four main limbs, each with several lateral branches. This style creates an open center that allows light and air to reach all branches and promotes fruiting on the interior and lower branches. 104 Cultural Management Practices Training Central leader- in central leader training, the dominant upright branch (trunk) is promoted, and other branches are allowed or forced to grow at an angle from it, somewhat resembling a Christmas tree 105 Cultural Management Practices Training Modified central leader - Trees are trained to a single, upright trunk with evenly paced limbs until they reach a desired height, usually 6 to 10 feet. At that point, you prune out the leader and maintain the tree at that height. All fruit trees can be trained to this form. 106 Irrigation and Drainage 107 Irrigation and Drainage Water Management Refers to the regulatory or control system employed in the farm in which water is made available to crops at the time it is needed. Also deals with drainage Water supply – rainfall or irrigation 108 Irrigation and Drainage Crop Water Requirement Total amount of water required to bring a crop to complete its life cycle Represents a fraction used by plant for hydration and biological processes. Greater amount is lost due to evaporation, transpiration, runoff and percolation. Evaporation is greater when the crop is still young Shading reduces evaporation 109 Irrigation and Drainage Transpiration loss of water from the plant in vapor form A necessary evil plant transpire because the vapor pressure of the leaf is greater than that of the surrounding air could be stomatal, cuticular or lenticular main bulk of water loss from plants is by stomatal transpiration 110 Irrigation and Drainage Transpiration Beneficial effects: Stabilization of plant body temperature Enhanced rate of nutrient absorption from the soil 111 Irrigation and Drainage Evapotranspiration The sum of transpiration and evaporation water lost to the atmosphere in gaseous form from soil and water surfaces and from plant surfaces. 112 Irrigation and Drainage Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration Temperature: Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the growing season, when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air masses. Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the transpiration rate falls. Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a higher transpiration rate. 113 Irrigation and Drainage Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration Soil-moisture availability: When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce (premature aging, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water. Type of plant: Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid regions, such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water than other plants. 114 Irrigation and Drainage Irrigation The artificial application of water Different types of irrigation system: a. Surface Irrigation b. Sub-surface irrigation c. Spray irrigation d. Trickle system 115 Irrigation and Drainage Irrigation Methods Surface Irrigation: applying water at the soil surface, via furrow and flooding About 90% of the irrigated areas in the world are by this method. Sprinkler Irrigation: Applying water under pressure. About 5 % of the irrigated areas are by this method. 116 Irrigation and Drainage Irrigation Methods Drip or Trickle Irrigation: Applying water slowly to the soil ideally at the same rate with crop consumption. Sub-Surface Irrigation: Flooding water underground and allowing it to come up by capillarity to crop roots. 117 118  LEPA- Low Energy Precision Application LESA- Low Elevation Spray Application Irrigation and Drainage Irrigation Methods Drip or Trickle Irrigation: Applying water slowly to the soil ideally at the same rate with crop consumption. Sub-Surface Irrigation: Flooding water underground and allowing it to come up by capillarity to crop roots. 121 Irrigation and Drainage Factors Affecting Irrigation Requirements Stage of growth of the crop Type of crop Depth of the absorbing system field capacity of the soil Soil structure 122 Irrigation and Drainage Drainage The removal of excess water from the soil root zone reservoir Detrimental effects of poor drainage: a. Reduction of oxygen in the soil b. predisposes the plants to diseases c. reduction in stem growth d. Yellowing of leaves e. Twisting of petioles and production of adventitious roots 123 Irrigation and Drainage Drainage Methods Surface drainage This method eliminates ponding, prevents prolonged saturation, and accelerates the flow to an outlet without siltation or erosion of soil. In some cases, orientation of row crops with the land slope may accomplish this purpose. 124 Irrigation and Drainage Drainage Methods Subsurface drainage Lowers the high-water table caused by precipitation, irrigation water, leaching water, seepage from higher lands, irrigation canals, and ditches. 125 Soil Nutrient Management Soil Nutrient Management Soil productivity is defined as the capability of soil to produce a specific crop (or sequence of crops) under a specific management system which includes planting date, fertilization, irrigation schedule, tillage, and pest control. 127 Soil Nutrient Management Soil productivity is an economic concept which considers inputs (a specified system of management), output (yields of particular crops), and soil type. Soils differ in their capacity to absorb management inputs on a given type of soil for maximum profit. 128 Soil Nutrient Management A soil must be fertile to be productive; however, some fertile soils are not necessarily productive. For instance, many fertile soils in the arid regions are not considered productive for vegetable crops because of lack of irrigation. 129 Soil Nutrient Management Factors Determining Fertilizer Needs When a fertilizer is applied, it contacts the soil and the crop and undergoes some changes. The fertilizer reacts with the soil and its efficiency to supply nutrients either increases or decreases depending on some conditions. 130 Factors Determining Fertilizer Needs Kind of crop The economic value, the nutrient removal, and the absorbing ability of the crop should be considered. High-value vegetables can be fertilized heavily to ensure high yields. 131 Factors Determining Fertilizer Needs Precipitation Rainfall affects the availability of the nutrients to the plant; between the time it is applied and the time the nutrients are used by the plant. 132 Factors Determining Fertilizer Needs Temperature It affects the release of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur from organic matter. Likewise, it affects nitrification and absorption of phosphorus and potassium by plants. 133 Factors Determining Fertilizer Needs Nutrient Mobility Mobile nutrients are usually translocated to the growing sections when intake is limited, leaving a deficiency symptoms to the older leaves. Immobile nutrients, cannot be translocated within the plant, resulting in deficits in the younger leaves. 134 Factors Determining Fertilizer Needs Nutrient Mobility Mobile nutrients: Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorus and Magnesium Immobile nutrients: Sulfur, Calcium, Iron, Molybdenum, Manganese, Boron and Zinc 135 Soil Nutrient Management Soil Testing To effectively manage soil nutrients, optimize productivity, and save expenses, soil testing is required. The results of soil tests reveal the state of numerous chemical aspects of the soil. Nutrient levels, soil pH, CEC, and percent base saturation are among them. 136 Soil Nutrient Management Association of Colleges of Agriculture in the Philippines, Inc. Lime Application The pH of a soil is a good chemical indicator of its quality. Liming to adjust pH to the levels required by the crop to be grown can enhance the soil quality of acid soils. 137 Soil Nutrient Management Organic fertilizers Such as manure and plant waste, are by-products of everyday living. They deliver nutrients in a slow-release form that lasts longer in the soil. The nitrogen is usually in a complicated organic structure that is difficult to dissolve in water. 138 Soil Nutrient Management Inorganic fertilizers Usually far more concentrated than organic fertilizers, which are made from a variety of sources. The available nutrients are usually quite soluble, and if they aren't provided appropriately, they can quickly drain from the soil. 139 Soil Nutrient Management Method of application One important factor to consider in the efficient use of fertilizers is the placement of the material in relation to the plant. The fertilizer should be placed in the soil zone where it will serve the plant to the best advantage. 140 Soil Nutrient Management Method of application There are three important considerations in determining the proper application method: 1. The efficient use of the nutrients from the time of plant emergence to maturity 2. Prevention of salt injury to the seedling 3. Convenience of the grower 141 Method of Application Broadcast -The fertilizer is applied uniformly over the field before planting. It is then incorporated by tilling or cultivating. Banding -The fertilizer is applied in bands on one side, both sides, or below the seeds or transplant. Care should be taken not to injure the seedlings through contact with the fertilizer. 142  Method of Application Topdressing or side-dressing -Topdressing means broadcasting the fertilizer on the crop, while side-dressing means applying the fertilizer beside the rows of the crop. Both are done after crop emergence. Fertigation -This is the application of fertilizer through the irrigation water. Nitrogen and sulfur are the principal nutrients commonly used. 144 145 Method of Application Foliar application-This method can be used with fertilizer nutrients readily soluble in water. It is also used when there is a soil- fixation problem. In this method, however, it is difficult to apply sufficient amounts of the major elements. 146 Pest Management 147 Pest Management Pest Defined as plant or animal or any other organism that is detrimental to a crop. Major Types of Pests: a. Pathogens b. Insects and Mites c. Vertebrate Pests d. Weeds 148 Pest Management Pathogens Microorganisms which cause diseases or abnormalities in susceptible plants under certain environmental conditions fungi, bacteria, viruses, mycoplasma and nematodes. 149 Pest Management Pathogens’ Mode of Action Killing host cells or slowing down their metabolism with their toxins. Blocking the passage of food, water or nutrients. Absorbing or consuming the cell contents Taking over the genetic control of the plant cells causing the multiplication of viral cells. Multiplying on the surface of the leaves, fruits and stems. Blocking the sunlight and slowing down the diffusion of gases. 150 Pest Management Insects and Mites Reduces the area for Photosynthesis and quality of the produce They eat or tear portions of plants; or pierce or suck cell sap They also serves as vector for plant pathogens Induces growth abnormalities in plants through toxins 151 Pest Management Weeds Defined as an undesirable plant Characteristics of weeds: a. Easy to germinate b. Fast growing c. Deep-rooted and resistant to most diseases and insect pests d. Competes for light, nutrients &moisture e. Alternate host for insects and diseases 152 Pest Management Vertebrate pests includes rats, birds, wild and domestic animals are common vertebrate pests in the tropics. Rats are the most destructive vertebrate 153 Pest Management Parameters of pest population levels Economic injury level Lowest population density that will cause economic damage Economic threshold Population size large enough to trigger an action to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching economic injury level 154 Pest Management Factors Affecting Pest incidence Nutritional/ physiological conditions of the plants Nutrition either improve the resistance or increase susceptibility of plants Drought causes plant to develop thick cuticles Climate – macro and microclimate affects incidence, population dynamics and persistence of pest Introduction of new crops or new pests. 155 Pest Management Integrated Pest Management (IPM) a pest control strategy that uses a variety of complementary strategies including: mechanical, physical, genetic, biological, cultural management, and chemical management. 156 Pest Management Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strives to enhance health and eventual productivity of the crops and maintain the integrity of the environment does not rely solely on one particular method; considers all possible means of regulating pest population 157 Pest Management Advantages of an IPM program Protects environment through elimination of unnecessary pesticide applications Improves Profitability Reduces risk of crop loss by a pest Peace of Mind 158 Pest Management Disadvantages of an IPM program Requires a higher degree of management More labor intensive Success can be weather dependent 159 Pest Management Important considerations in producing a sound IPM strategy Proper identification of Pest Learn pest and host life cycle and biology Monitor or sample environment for pest population Establish action threshold 160 Pest Management General Principles of Integrated Pest Management Prevention and Suppression The prevention and/or suppression of harmful organisms should be achieved or supported among other options especially by crop rotation, use of adequate cultivation techniques, use of resistant/tolerant cultivars 161 Pest Management General Principles of Integrated Pest Management Monitoring Harmful organisms must be monitored by adequate methods and tools, where available. Such adequate tools should include observations in the field as well as scientifically sound warning, forecasting and early diagnosis systems, where feasible, as well as the use of advice from professionally qualified advisors. 162  Pest Management General Principles of Integrated Pest Management Decision-making Based on the results of the monitoring the professional user must decide whether and when to apply plant protection measures. 163 Pest Management General Principles of Integrated Pest Management Non-chemical methods Sustainable biological, physical and other non-chemical methods must be preferred to chemical methods if they provide satisfactory pest control. 164 Pest Management General Principles of Integrated Pest Management Pesticide selection The pesticides applied shall be as specific as possible for the target and shall have the least side effects on human health, non-target organisms and the environment. 165 Pest Management General Principles of Integrated Pest Management Anti-resistance strategies Where the risk of resistance against a plant protection measure is known and where the level of harmful organisms requires repeated application of pesticides to the crops, available anti-resistance strategies should be applied to maintain the effectiveness of the products. This may include the use of multiple pesticides with different modes of action. 166 Pest Management Evaluation Based on the records on the use of pesticides and on the monitoring of harmful organisms the professional user should check the success of the applied plant protection measures. 167 Components of IPM Strategies Varietal resistance use of high yielding and resistant varieties Biological control living organisms such as pathogens, predators and parasites are used to suppress pest population. Advantages: a. permanence in control b. nontoxic residues involved c. less disrupting to non-target organisms 168 Components of IPM Strategies Biological control is the reduction of pest numbers by predators, parasites and pathogens to levels lower than that would occur in their presence Three living organisms of biological control a. predators b. parasitoids c. pathogens/entomopathogens 169 Components of IPM Strategies Physio-cultural control reduction of pest population by making the male insect's sterile thru exposure to cobalt radiation Cultural method Includes sanitation, rouging, thinning out removal of all fruits left in the field, disking and harrowing, fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping, cover cropping 170 Components of IPM Strategies Physical control flaming and smoking, physical irritants ( scarecrow), sound waves, physical attractants (light),physical barriers (metal collar for coconut and bagging for fruits) Chemical Control The most common method of pest control is the use of pesticides chemicals that either kill pests or inhibit their development. 171 Components of IPM Strategies Regulatory Control fundamental regulatory control principles involve preventing the entry and establishment of foreign plant and animal pests in a country or area and eradication, control and suppression of pests already established in a limited area 172 Cropping Systems 173 Cropping Systems The crop production activity of a farm Comprises all cropping patterns grown on the farm and their interaction with farm resources, other household enterprises and the physical, biological, technological and sociological factors or environments. 174 Cropping Systems Objectives of Cropping System Efficient utilization of all resources land, water and solar radiation maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource in a unit time 175 Cropping Systems Basic Principle of Cropping Systems Choose crops that complement each other Choose crops and a cropping rotation which utilize available resources efficiently Choose crops and cropping that maintain and enhance soil fertility 176 Cropping Systems Basic Principle of Cropping Systems Choose crops which have a diversity of growth cycle Choose a diverse species of crops Keep the soil covered Strategically plan and modify the cropping system as needed 177 Cropping Systems Benefits of Cropping Systems Maintain and enhance soil fertility Enhance crop growth Minimize spread of disease Control weeds 178 Cropping Systems Benefits of Cropping Systems Inhibit insect and pest growth Increase soil cover Reduce risk for crop failure Use resources more efficiently 179 Cropping Systems Monocropping refers to the presence of a single crop in a field. This term is often used to refer to growing the same crop year after year in the same field; this practice is better described as continuous cropping, or continuous monocropping. 180 Cropping Systems Monocropping Advantages Disadvantages Treat the whole area the it is difficult to maintain cover same on the soil; Fewer kinds of equipment it encourages pests, diseases needed and weeds; and Economically efficient it can reduce the soil fertility system and damage the soil structure 181 Cropping Systems Multiple Cropping or Polycropping It is a cropping system where two or more crops are grown annually on the same piece of land. 182 Cropping Systems Multiple Cropping or Polycropping Advantages maximizing returns from limited resources Increase food security and farm income Improve soil cover Increase soil fertility Biodiversity enhancement 183 Cropping Systems Multiple Cropping or Polycropping Advantages Erosion control Reduced downstream flooding/siltation Reduced groundwater pollution Control pest Increase crop yield 184 Cropping Systems Multiple Cropping or Polycropping Disadvantages Competition is higher Increase labor constraints Require skilled workers Requires better knowledge Crop choice Possible Allelopathy 185 Cropping Systems Types of Multiple Cropping or Polycropping Intercropping Crop rotation Sequential cropping Multi-storey cropping Contour cropping Alley cropping Sorjan cultivation SALT cropping system 186 Cropping Systems Intercropping This means growing a two or more crops simultaneously in alternate in rows or sets of rows in the same piece of land. It is possible to do this in different ways: a. Row intercropping b. Mixed intercropping c. Strip intercropping d. Relay intercropping 187 Cropping Systems Intercropping Row intercropping - growing two or more crops in well-defined rows Mixed intercropping - the seeds of two or more crops are sown in a field without any particular arrangement 188 Row intercropping Mixed intercropping 189 Cropping Systems Intercropping Strip intercropping - is the production of more than one crop in strips that are narrow enough for the crops to interact, yet wide enough to permit independent cultivation Relay intercropping - is a kind of intercropping in which two or more crops grow simultaneously during part of the life cycle of each 190 Strip intercropping Relay intercropping 191 Cropping Systems Crop Rotation This means changing the type of crops grown in the field each season or each year (or changing from crops to fallow) 192 Crop Rotation Pattern Cropping Systems Sequential cropping Growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same field within a 12 month period, with the succeeding crop planted only after the preceding crop has been harvested such that a farmer managed only one crop at any time on the same field. 194 Sequential Cropping Pattern 195 Cropping Systems Multi-storey Cropping to accommodate two or more crops of different heights, canopy patterns and rooting system, to maximize the use of available sunlight, nutrients, moisture and land area the fundamental objective is to increase the yield and income 196 Multi-storey Cropping 197 Cropping Systems Sorjan cultivation System of crop cultivation in parallel beds and sinks wherein lowland crops are planted in the sinks and upland crops are grown in beds Two successive upland crops can be grown in beds during the year and the rice crops in the sinks 198 Sorjan Cropping 199 Cropping Systems SALT Cropping System (Sloping Agricultural Land Technology) Can prevent soil erosion, improves soil fertility and provides a continuous income from diverse crops planted on the hilly land 200 SALT Cropping System 201 Cropping Systems Alley Cropping defined as the planting of rows of trees (nitrogen-fixing plants) at wide spacings, creating alleyways within which agriculture or horticultural crops (annual or perennial) are produced is a simple technique that restores nitrogen to the top layer of soil so that farmers can use the same piece of land year after year to grow their crops. 202 Alley Cropping 203 Postharvest Handling 204  Postharvest Handling Covers the series of procedures, operations, steps or movements undertaken in order to control changes in harvested crops, including the technological aspects of marketing and distribution. 205 Farm to market value chain 206 Postharvest Handling Importance of proper postharvest management Reduce postharvest losses: a. 10-50% of production (average of 35% = 35.52 billion PHP) b. 1% loss reduction=355.2 million PHP gain in productivity Causes of loss: a. Technical – improper handling, high temperature, diseases b. Non-technical – lack of infrastructure, inadequate policies, socio- economic factors 207 Postharvest Handling Proper postharvest management contributes to food security increasing income and employment opportunities reducing price volatility of fruits and vegetables reducing the impact of increasing urbanization meeting consumers’ needs 208 Postharvest Handling Harvest maturity Essential to optimize quality for consumers and postharvest life Harvest too immature: poor taste and flavor fruit will not ripen-susceptible to water loss susceptible of damage susceptible to pathogens 209 Postharvest Handling Harvest maturity Harvest too mature short shelf life poor texture; soft fruit overripe taste and off flavor susceptible to pathogens 210 Postharvest Handling Types of Maturity Physiological maturity state of development when the commodity has attained maximum growth and development Commercial maturity state of development when the plant part possesses the necessary characteristics preferred by consumers. 211  Growth Maturation Ripening Senescence Inflorescence Fully developed fruits Broccoli, cauliflower, Tips and Tops Tomato, pineapple, banana, banana blossom, squash sweet potato, kangkong, squash asparagus, celery, pechay, squash Partially developed fruits Sprouts Cucumber, green beans, sweet Storage roots and seeds mungbean, radish, peas, okra, sweet corn, jackfruit, sweet potato, sugar mustard squash beet, radish Farm to market value chain Source: Esguerra and Bautista, 2007 APO National Training Courses on Postharvest Operations for Vegetables, Fruits and Meat 212 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Signs or indications of the readiness of the plant for harvest Types of indices: a. Subjective – uses the senses, appearance, touch, smell, resonance, sweetness b. Objective – measurable indices, chemical constituents, computation, dimensional fullness of finger (banana) 213 Different types of maturity index 214 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Skin color This factor is commonly applied to fruits, since skin color changes as fruit ripens or matures. Some fruits exhibit no perceptible color change during maturation, depending on the type of fruit or vegetable. 215 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Shape The shape of fruit can change during maturation and can be used as a characteristic to determine harvest maturity. For instance, a banana becomes more rounded in cross-sections and less angular as it develops on the plant. 216 Change in Shape Light Light full Full three Full Immature Mature three three quarters quarters quarters Banana hand Banana caliper 217 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Aroma Most fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as they ripen. Such chemicals give fruit its characteristic odor and can be used to determine whether it is ripe or not. 218 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Abscission As part of the natural development of a fruit an abscission layer is formed in the pedicel. 219 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Acoustics (Resonance) Watermelon, jackfruit or durian produced hollow sound when gently tapped by hand; commercial acoustic and resonance detectors developed for mechanical grading. 220 Postharvest Handling Minimum SSC (%) for selected fruit Apple 10 Cherry 14-16 Maturity Indices Kiwifruit 6.2 Soluble solids content (SSC) Litchi 16-17 Papaya 15 sugar content; use of refractometers Pineapple 12 ranges 0-5, 0-20, 10-50; need regular Watermelon 10 calibration 221 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Acidity measured by titration; sugar to acid ratio (SSC:acid) often better related to fruit palatability than either SSC or acid level alone. 222 Postharvest Handling Maturity Indices Firmness Use of penetrometer/pressure tester; best to automate to remove bias of individual testers For sweet corn For mangoes For apples plus starch test 223 Postharvest Handling 1 = Full starch (all blue-black) Maturity Indices 2 = Clear of stain in seed cavity and halfway to vascular area Starch content 3 = Clear through the area including vascular bundles Iodine test (iodine reacts with 4 = Half of flesh clear starch resulting in blue to black 5 = Starch just under skin color); 2% iodine solution 6 = Free of starch (no stain) Source: Sivakumar and Korsten, 2007 224 Postharvest Handling Harvesting method Proper harvesting/picking essential to avoid physical injury Use appropriate harvesting tools and containers Educate pickers about techniques and safety during harvesting 225 Postharvest Handling Manual harvesting common in Asian countries labor and time consuming advantageous to minimize physical injury & for selective harvesting 226 Postharvest Handling Mechanical harvesting shake and catch action could save labor and management costs as high as 30-45% increases physical injury increases cost in culling undesired produce and foreign matter only recommended for large-scale operations where labor is scarce & expensive. 227 Postharvest Handling Harvesting Time The time of the day when harvesting is done has impact on produce quality. Harvesting at cooler time of the day minimizes product heat load & increases worker efficiency. Harvesting when sun is up exposes produce to high temperature, so they must transfer to a shaded area and allowed to dissipate heat. 228 Packinghouse Operations Freshly Cooling harvested fruit Air-drying Unloading Hot water treatment Reject fruit in Sizing plastic crates Empty bamboo Maturity baskets testing Empty plastic Packed fruit crates Packaging for transport to market Immature batch of fruits Sorting / trimming/ Weighing delatexing Temporary holding 229 Thank You for Listening 230