Research Hypothesis PDF

The purpose of a hypothesis is to find the RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS answer to a question. A formalized After specifying your research questions, you hypothesis will force the research...

The purpose of a hypothesis is to find the RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS answer to a question. A formalized After specifying your research questions, you hypothesis will force the researcher to think can now formulate the hypotheses for your study. To about what results s/he should look for in an learn about what is not known or to verify a notion, experiment. the so-called "scientific method" might be carried out and an actual experiment may be conducted. It does The first variable is called the independent not matter that your experiment has been done a variable. This is the part of the experiment thousand times before or that your teacher already that can be changed and tested. The knows the results. What matters is that you do not independent variable happens first and know the results and that you can independently find can be considered the cause of any a verifiable answer. Hypotheses formulation is changes in the outcome. The outcome is employed when conducting correlational, ex called the dependent variable. post facto (causal-comparative), quasi- experimental, and experimental studies. A hypothesis should always: Research Research Title Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis Type Directional Non- Directional Non-Directional Directional Experimental or Ex Post Facto The effects of Group study Group study Group study will Group study will group study on will not will not affect improve the affect the academic the academic improve the the academic academic performance of high performance of academic performance performance of school students high school performance of of high school high school students high school students students students The relationship There is no There is no There is a There is a relation- Correlational between a positive relation relationship positive ship between a person’s weight ship between a between a relation- person’s weight and and the length of person’s weight person’s ship between a the length of time time spent and the length weight and the person’s spent watching TV watching TV of time spent length of time weight and the watching TV spent watching length of time TV spent watching TV 1. explain what you expect to happen HYPOTHESIS (singular) or HYPOTHESES (plural) 2. be clear and understandable  a statement that defines the testable 3. be testable relationship you expect to see from 4. be measurable examining the variables in your research 5. and contain an independent and  describes in concrete terms what you expect dependent variable. will happen in a certain circumstance  in an experiment it defines the relationship between two variables  translates a quantitative research question into a precise prediction of expected outcomes Two Types of Hypothesis The researcher knows the specific areas of the research that he has to investigate. He knows what data to collect and what data are not needed in the research. 4. Direction- Without hypothesis the researcher looks at various aspects of the research as he has to decide how to start the research. Hypothesis makes the research directional and to the point. It also improves the quality of the research because as the research becomes directional it also becomes Guidelines in formulating your hypothesis objective. The chances of bias are also  Identify the independent and dependent reduced in a directional research. variables in your study, as they need to be stated in your hypothesis 5. Empirical- One of the most important  Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. This quality of the hypothesis is that it makes the means that your hypothesis can be proven research empirical and the findings of such wrong through experiments or empirical data research are valid and generalizable. Every  Your hypothesis must show a relationship research should be based on scientific between your variables. Will your methods and hypothesis makes it easier for independent variable increase, improve or the researcher to use scientific methods in decrease with the dependent variable? the research. Importance of Hypothesis Qualities of a Research Hypothesis 1. Well-defined- The research hypothesis The significance of the hypothesis cannot be should have to be well-defined so that you underestimated in a research. A hypothesis is second can easily focus on it, a vague hypothesis can most important consideration in formulating research be misleading and it can ruin the whole problem. Here are some importance of a research research. Simplicity in wording is important hypothesis: so that you can easily understand it and you 1. Clarity- A hypothesis brings clarity to a do not take double meanings of the research hence making it easier to hypothesis. understand. Hypothesis clears any ambiguities in the research problem. A well 2. Relevant- The research hypothesis should stated hypothesis makes it clear to the have to be relevant to the research study. An researcher that in what way he has to carry irrelevant hypothesis has no value and such out his research. hypothesis can mislead the whole study. 2. Specificity- When hypothesis is formulated 3. Measurable- There are certain scales on the researcher gets to know that he has to which to test a hypothesis. If the hypothesis work only on specific areas of the research is not measurable the researcher cannot test problem. The researcher has to test only the significance of the hypothesis. Without those aspects of the research problem that measurement of the hypothesis the can reject or accept the hypothesis. researcher cannot reach any conclusion. 3. Focus- No research can be conducted 4. Verifiable- Every hypothesis should have to properly unless there is some focus on it. The be verifiable. Verification is necessary as it hunch or the guess that the researcher helps in analyzing the research and reaching formulates gives the research a focal point. a conclusion. Lesson 2 only those that are closely related to your Learning from Others and Reviewing the research topic. Literature 3. Drafting the literature review It is in this stage where you actually write A literature review is an academic text that your literature review. In drafting your provides an overview of a particular topic. It helps review, you need to consider how you are identify what is known and not known about a going to arrange the works you will cite. certain subject of the study. It involves the use of You also need to consider how these higher-order thinking skills, such as the review, works will be linked to one another to better provide an overview of the topic evaluation and synthesis of several scholarly works. you are studying in your research. These scholarly works include journal articles, professional books, online sources, and specialized a. One strategy that you may use in writing references. (Barrot, 2017). your literature review is to get a model paper that deals with a topic similar to Functions of Literature (Barrot, 2017) yours. You may pattern the sequence of 1. It establishes the relevance of the study. your ideas on your model paper. 2. It further helps in establishing the research b. In the introductory portion, provide an gap that the study intends to fill. overview of what can be found in your 3. It provides important information about your literature review. topic and the concepts related to it. Example: 4. It presents the contradictions between and This section contains literature and studies on among previous literature. acquisition-learning integration, the biological 5. It justifies your research methodology, as its basis behind the separation of learning and effectiveness may be determined by a survey acquisition, comprehensible input, grammar, of previous studies relevant to your research. affective factor, and communicative 6. It presents and discusses your theoretical competence. These materials were gathered and conceptual frameworks which are the from books on language teaching, psychology backbone of your study. and curriculum development, journals and other periodicals, theses and dissertations, online sources, and other unpublished materials. These materials provided the researcher with an exhaustive review of the Stages in Writing the Literature Review topic and the essential background 1. Searching for works relevant to the knowledge to pursue this study. study c. Divide the literature review into two Literature Search is the stage in which the subsections: researcher systematically looks for and c.1. the conceptual literature- section selects reference materials relevant to the which explains concepts relevant to your study. It is necessary to survey all study; possible sources of references, especially c.2. the related studies- section which those that were written by the leading presents studies similar to your own. scholars in your field of study. 4. When writing the conceptual literature, 2. Analyzing these scholarly works you may use concepts from the title of the reference or specific questions and objectives This stage is performed once you have of your research. For the related studies, you selected all your potential references. In may arrange them in three ways: this stage, you further screen the selected a. by theme (i.e. Similar studies are references for reliability and usefulness. grouped together) This stage also further ensures that the b. by chronology (i.e. From the materials you will use in your paper are earliest to the latest)  c. by type (i.e. Foreign or local 5. Insert the corresponding citations while studies) writing the synthesis. These three ways of writing the related studies section depend on the objectives and b. Macrolevel synthesis is performed features of your review. when several studies are consolidated to 4.a. Thematic arrangement- if your establish a research gap and not just to intention is to make the readers focus on how explain a concept. It also involves drawing your study is similar to or different from the conclusions based on the similarities and previous ones. differences of the reviewed references and 4.b. Chronological arrangement- if you studies. This type of synthesis does not only want to emphasize the development and involve the description of certain aspects in progress in a specific field of study these materials such as the methods and 4.c. Typological arrangement- if there are conclusions generated. It also relates the sufficient studies conducted locally about the various issues and topics in these materials to topic of your research one another, and highlights how these can be used in your paper. 5. At the end of the related studies section, Here are some strategies that you can use in write a synthesis that shows the research synthesizing your references: gap. 1. Note any similarities and differences across your references that are relevant to your 6. Cite your sources. Use the appropriate paper. documentation and citation style in your 2. Take note of issues that were not addressed literature review. The by your references. 7. documentation and citation style you will use 3. Arrange the related studies and references depends on the subject matter of your logically; this can be done either thematically research. Be consistent in using it when or chronologically. documenting sources and writing your 4. Draw conclusions about the materials in order literature review. to highlight their importance. Important Skills in drafting your 2.Note-taking is another skill that you can literature review particularly use in drafting the literature review as well as in the other stages of the research 1. Synthesizing. This skill involves the undertaking. It involves writing information from review of several references that talk about a source text and integrating this information the same subject and consolidating them into into your current study. Two of the most one cohesive text. This can be done at the common forms of note-taking in writing micro and macro levels. academic works are summarizing and a. Microlevel synthesis involves the paraphrasing. consolidation of ideas to explain a concept. To effectively perform microlevel synthesis, a. Summarizing is a form of note-taking you may follow these strategies: that involves condensing a lengthy piece 1. Look into and take note of related ideas of source material. It can be done in two in the materials you are examining. ways: an outline or a non-outline form. 2. Cluster the ideas shared among the Through effective summarizing, you can materials, determine those that are improve your skills in studying, writing distinct, and put them in a separate list. and reading, as well as establish your 3. Decide on how you will arrange the ideas. credibility as a researcher. Discuss first the common ideas to give a general overview of the topic. Then, present b. Paraphrasing is a form of note-taking the distinct ideas and relate them to your that involves rewording ideas from the study. original text in a more detailed way. Since 4. Use multiple citations if one idea can be paraphrasing focuses on the details and found in several sources. not only on the main idea, the length of a paraphrased text is almost the same as  that of the original text. Paraphrasing is spaced, and use the hanging indent method (all typically done to simplify a complex text. lines after the first one are indented). Citing Sources using Standard Styles Direct quotation- use quotation marks around the quote and include page numbers Characteristics of the Material Cited Samovar and Porter (1997) point out that Sarno (2010) enumerated the different “language involves attaching meaning to characteristics of the literature and studies to be symbols” (p.188). Alternatively, “Language cited in the present study: involves attaching meaning to symbols” 1. The materials must be as recent as possible, may Samovar & Porter, 1997,p.188) be 10 years back. 2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as Indirect quotation/ paraphrasing - no quotation possible. marks 3. Materials must be relevant to the study. 4. Coherence principle must be observed in writing Attaching meaning to symbols is considered to literature review. be the origin of written language (Samovar & Porter, 1997). Citation Style Guide Reference is an important part of a research paper. Citations from a secondary source It must be consistent and easy to read across different papers. There are predefined styles stating As Hall (1977) asserts, “culture also how to set them out- these are called citation defines boundaries of different groups” (as cited styles. Different subjects prefer to use different in Samovar & Porter, 1997, p.14) styles. Referencing is a method used to demonstrate to the readers that you have conducted a thorough and appropriate literature search, and reading. TYPES of RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 1. APA (American Psychological Association). A framework is defined as “a set of ideas APA is an author/date-based style.This means that provide support to something” (Merriam emphasis is placed on the author and the Webster,n.d.).Essentially, any concept or theory date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it. requires a strong framework to establish its 2. MLA (Modern Language Association). MLA is general feasibility. In the case of research, it most often applied by the arts and serves as the building blocks for the foundation humanities, particularly in the USA. It is of the study. There are two types of research arguably the most well used of all the citation framework: theoretical framework and styles. conceptual framework. 3. Harvard. Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA, Harvard referencing is the most well used referencing Theoretical and Conceptual Framework style in the UK and Australia, and is encouraged Theoretical Framework is a general frame for use with the humanities. of reference used for observation, defining 4. Vancouver. The Vancouver system is mainly concepts, developing research designs, and used in medical and scientific papers. interpreting and generalizing findings. This 5. Chicago and Turabian. These are two can be used in different types of studies. separate styles but are very similar, just like Harvard and APA. These are widely used for Conceptual Framework refers to a system history and economics. Most of the education of ideas, beliefs, assumptions, and theories researches and social science researches used that inform, support, and cater specifically to APA referencing. your study. APA requires that information be cited in 2 Together, the theoretical and conceptual different ways- within the text (in-text) and in frameworks function like a map or travel plan a reference list at the end of the paper. The that will help you traverse an unfamiliar reference list should be on a new page, double territory. This means that your theoretical  and conceptual frameworks help you study research navigate through understanding your research. They serve as the backbone of your study. For a clearer presentation of information, Selecting your Theoretical Framework theoretical and conceptual frameworks may The following guidelines will help you choose be presented using both the visual and which theoretical framework best suits your narrative forms. The visual form is study. characterized by the use of diagrams and 1. Understand the variables included in your charts, while the narrative form is study as well as their relationship with one characterized by the use of paragraphs that another. explain the visual representation of the 2. Review the existing literature related to your frameworks. research topic. Their Similarities: 3. Using the information that you have gathered 1. Both of them provide a comprehensive from the literature, look for possible theories that understanding of a phenomenon. may potentially account for the expected results 2. They both provide a theory that underpins of your research topic. your study. 4. From these theories, select the one that is 3. They help justify the methods you will use most relevant to your study and can provide a and assumptions that you will make in your blueprint for your research. research. 4. They help you refine your objectives, develop Developing your Conceptual Framework relevant research questions, choose 1. Identify the key concepts in your study by appropriate methods referring to your research questions or objectives. and identify possible threats to validity. 2. Search for existing theories that incorporate 5. They both guide you in exploring and the same concepts and look into their interpreting your data to arrive at your desired relationships with one another. results. 3. Using the existing theories as a guide, plot your conceptual framework using a concept map. Differences between the theoretical and 4. In case that there are concepts not covered by conceptual frameworks the selected theories, incorporate them into your Theoretical Conceptual framework. However, make sure that you are Framework Framework incorporating this concept into your framework Scope Broader in scope More focused in because it is necessary for your paper. as it can be used scope as it 5. Write a narrative explanation of each concept in different directly relates and how each of them relates with one another. studies to a specific Again, there should be a basis for the study relationship among concepts being incorporated. Focus of A particular A set of related 6. Refer once again to your research questions. Content theory concepts that Check if the conceptual framework is aligned will be with them. specifically used 7. Note that the process of creating a conceptual in the study framework is developmental. This means that it may still be refined or changed as you read more Number of Contains only one May combine literature and look into more theories. Theories theory in one different theories 8. In some cases, the research hypotheses are framework into one presented at the end of the conceptual cohesive framework. framework Time of Already existing Developed while development prior to the planning and conduct of the writing a specific  Ethical Standards in Writing the Literature Review Writing your literature review does not only entail naming your sources and mentioning the ideas that they contain. Writing the literature review requires honesty, objectivity, and other ethical principles observed in scholarly work. The following are ways to observe ethical standards in writing your literature review and your research as a whole: 1. Report the finding in your cited studies objectively. Refrain from distorting the findings of other research works. 2.Avoid injecting editorial comments or manipulating the ideas in a certain study just to make it support your own claims. 3. Always cite your sources as a way of acknowledging the studies relevant to your own and practicing intellectual honesty. 4. Refrain from fabricating information or making up data and reporting them as actual data from a certain research work. 5. Avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is the most widely recognized and one of the most serious violations of the contract between the reader and the writer. (Roig,2002). It is the using of someone else’s words or ideas, and passing them off as your own. It can happen accidentally, if you are careless in your note- taking (University of Leicester,2010). Types of Plagiarism 1. Plagiarism of ideas “Appropriating an idea ( e.g. An explanation, a theory, a conclusion, a hypothesis, a metaphor) in whole or in part, or with superficial modifications without giving credit to its originator” (Roig, 2002). 2. Plagiarism of text “Appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results or words without giving appropriate credit, including those obtained through confidential review of others’ research proposals and manuscripts”. (Office of Science and Technology Policy, 1999).