polimitestprep History of Art Guide for the Arched Test complete - compressed 2.pdf

HISTORY OF WESTERN ART History of Art Guide for the ARCHED Test Compiled by polimitestprep History of Art Guide for the ARCHED Test ANCIENT GREEK ART (610 - 31 BC) When we speak of Ancient Greek Art, we refer to the period between the 7th and 1st century B.C. It is divided i...

HISTORY OF WESTERN ART History of Art Guide for the ARCHED Test Compiled by polimitestprep History of Art Guide for the ARCHED Test ANCIENT GREEK ART (610 - 31 BC) When we speak of Ancient Greek Art, we refer to the period between the 7th and 1st century B.C. It is divided into 3 periods: Archaic Period (610-480 BC) Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Greeks began again to carve in stone. Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models. After about 575 BC, figures such as these, both male and female, began wearing the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic. Three types of figures prevailed—the standing nude male youth (kouros, plural kouroi), the standing draped girl (kore, plural korai), and the seated woman. All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. Kouros (male) and Kore (female) Kleobis and Biton (580 BC) and the Calf Bearer (570 BC) Classical Era (480 - 323 BC) Classical Greek sculpture has long been regarded as the highest point in the development of sculptural art in Ancient Greece, becoming almost synonymous with "Greek sculpture". The Canon, a treatise on the proportions of the human body written by Polykleitos around 450 B.C., is generally considered its starting point, and its end marked with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., when Greek art began a great diffusion to the East, from where it received influences, changed its character, and became cosmopolitan. Classical sculpture can be characterised as idealised and perfected. Iktinos and Phidias are the most acclaimed artists of the period, Iktinos being the architect of the Parthenon, while Phidias the sculptor of the Athena Parthenos, located inside the Parthenon. The charioter of Delphi The Spear-bearer by Polykleitos Discobolus (discus Apollo Belvedere, 330 BC, thrower) by Myron by Leochares Late Classical Art (400 - 323 BC) Late classical signifies a transition from high classical era to the hellenistic era. Lysippos and Praxiteles are the two representative sculptors of this era. This text I saw on wikipedia summarizes the style best: “commentators noted his grace and elegance, and the symmetria, or coherent balance, of his figures, which were leaner than the ideal represented by Polykleitos and with proportionately smaller heads, giving them the impression of greater height. He was famous for his attention to the details of eyelids and toenails.” Hermes and the infant Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles Dionysus by Praxiteles Hermes by Lysippos Hellenistic Era (323-30 BC) In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII (30 BC), followed by the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year. The Ancient Greek word Hellas was gradually recognized as the name for Greece, from which the word Hellenistic was derived. "Hellenistic" is distinguished from "Hellenic" in that the latter refers to Greece itself, while the former encompasses all ancient territories under Greek influence, in particular the East after the conquests of Alexander the Great. Among his original contributions to the Greek tradition of sculpture were the development of new techniques, the refinement of the representation of human anatomy and emotional expression, and a change in the goals and approaches to art, abandoning the generic for the specific. The Altar of Pergamon, 170 BC, Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Germany Barberini Faun, 2nd Century BC Battle of the Giants, Altar of Pergamon, Pergamon Museum Laocoön and His Sons The Winged Victory of Venus of Milo Samothrace (Nike) The Alexander Mosaic - It is typically dated between c. 120 and 100 B.C. and depicts a battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. This work of art is a combination of different artistic traditions such as Italic, Hellenistic, and Roman. The original is preserved in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples. The mosaic is believed to be a copy of a late 4th or early 3rd-century BC Hellenistic painting, perhaps by Philoxenus of Eretria or Apelles. Kingdoms of the Diadochi (The Successors) in 301 BC: the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), Kingdom of Lysimachus (orange), and Kingdom of Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic (purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red). Roman Sculpture (30 BC - 476 AD) 1. Early Empire (27 BCE - 96 CE): Roman sculpture during the early empire period was characterized by a blend of Greek influences and Roman innovation. Portraiture became increasingly realistic, depicting individuals with remarkable detail, emphasizing their age and character. Augustan art revived classical ideals, promoting images of imperial power and propaganda. 2. High Empire (98 CE - 192 CE): The high empire period saw Roman sculpture reach new heights of artistic expression under emperors like Trajan and Hadrian. Sculptures became more dynamic and idealized, exploring themes of heroism, piety, and philosophical contemplation. Portrait sculptures became more refined, capturing the essence of the individual with greater psychological depth and inner character. 3. Late Antiquity (193 CE - 476 CE): In the later years of the Roman Empire, sculpture underwent significant changes due to political instability and the spread of Christianity. Sculptures became more stylized and symbolic, reflecting Eastern influences and religious themes. Portraiture persisted but became less naturalistic, emphasizing spiritual rather than secular ideals. The decline of the empire led to a shift towards more abstract and symbolic representations in art. Roman Male Busts Early and High Imperial Sculpture (30 BC - 192 AD) Sculpture during the early empire period was characterized by a blend of Greek influences and Roman innovation. Portraiture became increasingly realistic, depicting individuals with remarkable detail, emphasizing their age and character. Augustan art revived classical ideals, promoting images of imperial power and propaganda. Augustus of Primaporta  Ara Pacis (13 BC) Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius (175 AD) The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius is an ancient Roman equestrian statue on the Capitoline Hill, Rome, Italy. It is made of bronze and stands 4.24 m (13.9 ft) tall. Although the emperor is mounted, the sculpture otherwise exhibits many similarities to the standing statues of Augustus. The original is on display in the Capitoline Museums, while the sculpture now standing in the open air at the Piazza del Campidoglio is a replica made in 1981 when the original was taken down for restoration. The statue projects an impression of power and god-like grandeur: the emperor is over life-size and extends his hand in a gesture of adlocutio used by emperors when addressing their troops. Some historians assert that a conquered enemy was originally part of the sculpture (based on medieval accounts, including in the Mirabilia Urbis Romae, which suggest that a small figure of a bound barbarian chieftain once cowered underneath the horse's front right leg). Such an image was meant to portray the emperor as victorious and all-conquering. However, shown without weapons or armour, Marcus Aurelius seems to be a bringer of peace rather than a military hero, for this is how he saw himself and his reign. The reliefs on the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius (113 - 180 AD) Late Antiquity Art (193 - 476 AD) Ludovisi Sarcophagus, 3rd century AD Arch of Constantine, 315: Hadrian lion-hunting (left) and sacrificing (right), above a section of the Constantinian frieze, showing the contrast of styles. The Four Tetrarchs (305 AD) The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti- classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice Colossus of Constantine (315 AD) Important achievements of Constantine 312 - Battle of the Milvian Bridge 313 - Edict of Milan - legalized Christianity 324 - Established Constantinople 325 - Council of Nicea The great head is carved in a typical, abstract, Constantinian style ('hieratic emperor style') of late Roman portrait statues, whereas the other body parts are naturalistic, even down to callused toes and bulging forearm veins. The head was perhaps meant to convey the transcendence of the other-worldly nature of the Emperor over the human sphere, notable in its larger- than-life-size eyes which gaze toward eternity from a rigidly impersonal, frontal face. Early Medieval Ages (476 - 1000 AD) Population decline, counterurbanisation, the collapse of centralised authority, the mass migration of tribes (mainly Germanic peoples), and Christianisation, which had begun in late antiquity, continued into the Early Middle Ages. The movements of peoples led to the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, and the rise of new kingdoms. In the post-Roman world, taxation declined, the army was financed through land grants, and the blending of Later Roman civilisation and the invaders' traditions is well documented. The Eastern Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire) survived but lost the Middle East and North Africa to Muslim conquerors in the 7th century. Although the Carolingian dynasty of the Franks reunited much of the Western Roman lands by the early 9th century, the Carolingian Empire quickly fell apart into competing kingdoms, which later fragmented into autonomous duchies and lordships. The fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire following Charlemagne's death led to increased decentralization and instability in Europe. This period of political upheaval and invasions by Viking raiders and other groups contributed to the decline of urban centers and disrupted cultural and artistic production. The High Middle Ages, spanning roughly from the 11th to the 13th centuries, witnessed a resurgence of political stability, economic growth, and cultural renewal across Europe. This era saw the rise of feudalism, the expansion of trade and commerce, and the growth of urban centers, leading to increased prosperity and urbanization. The Catholic Church played a central role in shaping the spiritual and intellectual life of the period, promoting religious reforms and sponsoring architectural projects. Romanesque architecture emerged as the dominant architectural style of the High Middle Ages, characterized by its massive stone structures, rounded arches, thick walls, and decorative arcading. Influenced by Roman and Byzantine architectural traditions, Romanesque buildings such as churches, cathedrals, and monasteries served as expressions of religious devotion and power. Europe after the demise of the Western Roman Empire and the new "barbarian" kingdoms, 476 AD Romanesque Art (1000 - 1200) Romanesque art is the art of Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the 12th century, or later depending on region. The preceding period is known as the Pre-Romanesque period. The term was invented by 19th-century art historians, especially for Romanesque architecture, which retained many basic features of Roman architectural style – most notably round-headed arches, but also barrel vaults, apses, and acanthus-leaf decoration – but had also developed many very different characteristics. In Southern France, Spain, and Italy there was an architectural continuity with the Late Antique, but the Romanesque style was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe, from Sicily to Scandinavia. Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style. Wiligelmo (1099 - 1120) Wiligelmo (also known as Wiligelmus, Gulielmo da Modena, Cousin of Elmo or Guglielmo da Modena) was an Italian sculptor active between c. 1099 and 1120. He was among the earliest sculptors in Italy to produce large-format architectural sculptures. Wiligelmo carved four relief panels on the west facade of Modena Cathedral (ca. 1110): two flank the central portal and two others sit above the side portals. They collectively depict scenes from the Book of Genesis. These are considered to be revivals of ancient Roman relief sculptural traditions, and are prime examples of Romanesque sculpture. Cain and Lamech, Noah, relief from the west facade, c. 1100. Cathedral of Modena. - left Adam and Eve, Modena Cathedral - top Crucifix - below Antelami (1150 – c. 1230) Benedetto Antelami was an Italian architect and sculptor of the Romanesque school, whose "sculptural style sprang from local north Italian traditions that can be traced back to late antiquity". He is chiefly known for three carved doorways and the allegorical figures and prophets that decorate the Parma Baptistery. Deposition, 1178, Duomo of Parma Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, Parma Cathedral Proto-Renaissance and Florence & Siena Schools of Painting (1300-1425) The Proto-Renaissance period, spanning the late 13th to early 14th centuries, marked a shift towards naturalism and the revival of classical artistic principles. Artists began to explore perspective, anatomy, and composition with greater realism, laying the foundation for the artistic innovations of the Renaissance. Notable figures of this period include Cimabue and Giotto, whose works display a departure from the stylized Byzantine tradition towards a more humanistic and emotive approach to art. In the 14th century, the International Gothic style emerged as a pan-European artistic movement characterized by its ornate decoration, delicate figures, and intricate details. This style, which originated in France and spread across Europe, emphasized elegance, refinement, and courtly sophistication. International Gothic artists employed rich colors, elaborate patterns, and elaborate narratives in their works, often depicting scenes from literature, mythology, and religious texts. This style flourished in Italy as well, influencing artists such as Simone Martini and the Lorenzetti brothers in Siena. The cities of Siena and Florence emerged as leading centers of artistic production during the late medieval period, each with its own distinctive artistic traditions. The Siena school, represented by artists like Duccio di Buoninsegna and Simone Martini, emphasized graceful figures, elegant drapery, and luminous colors. Sienese painters often depicted religious subjects with a sense of poetic lyricism and emotional intensity. In contrast, the Florence school, led by artists such as Giotto and Masaccio, favored a more naturalistic and empirical approach to painting. Florence painters focused on depicting three-dimensional space, realistic human anatomy, and dramatic narrative compositions. These artists drew inspiration from classical antiquity and sought to convey a sense of rational order and human dignity in their works. Cimabue (1240-1302) Although heavily influenced by Byzantine models, Cimabue is generally regarded as one of the first great Italian painters to break from the Italo-Byzantine style. While medieval art then was scenes and forms that appeared relatively flat and highly stylized, Cimabue's figures were depicted with more advanced lifelike proportions and shading than other artists of his time. According to Italian painter and historian Giorgio Vasari, Cimabue was the teacher of Giotto, the first great artist of the Italian Proto-Renaissance. Santa Trinita Maestà, Crucifix, 1287–1288, Basilica di Santa Croce, 1280–1285, Uffizi Gallery, Florence Florence. Giotto (1267-1337) Giotto di Bondone was an Italian painter and architect from Florence during the Late Middle Ages. He worked during the Gothic and Proto-Renaissance period. Giorgio Vasari described Giotto as making a decisive break from the prevalent Byzantine style and as initiating "the great art of painting as we know it today, introducing the technique of drawing accurately from life, which had been neglected for more than two hundred years". Giotto's masterwork is the decoration of the Scrovegni Chapel, in Padua, also known as the Arena Chapel, which was completed around 1305. The fresco cycle depicts the Life of the Virgin and the Life of Christ. It is regarded as one of the supreme masterpieces of the Early Renaissance. He painted the famous frescoes in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. In 1334, he was chosen by the Commune of Florence to design the new campanile (bell tower) of the Florence Cathedral. Below are the locations and the frescoes Giotto painted (important to know both)  St Francis of Assisi Basilica (the Legend of St Francis)  Scrovegni Chapel, Padua (the Life of Jesus Christ)  Santa Croce Basilica, Florence (Frescoes in the Peruzzi and Bardi Chapels)  Santa Maria Novella, Florence (crucifix) St Francis of Assisi Basilica St Francis of Assisi Basilica (the Legend of St Francis) St Francis of Assisi Basilica (the Legend of St Francis) Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata Scrovegni Chapel (1305) Kiss of Judas Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ) Peruzzi and Bardi Chapels, Santa Croce Feast of Herod, Peruzzi Chapel Giotto, Apparition at Arles, c. 1325, fresco, Bardi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence Crucifix, Santa Maria Novella and Ognissanti Madonna (c. 1310) Duccio di Buoninsegna (1260 – c. 1318) Duccio di Buoninsegna commonly known as just Duccio, was an Italian painter active in Siena, Tuscany, in the late 13th and early 14th century. He was hired throughout his life to complete many important works in government and religious buildings around Italy. Duccio is considered one of the greatest Italian painters of the Middle Ages, and is credited with creating the painting styles of Trecento and the Sienese school. He also contributed significantly to the Sienese Gothic style. Maestà Rucellai Madonna Pietro Lorenzetti (1280 - 1348) Pietro Lorenzetti was an Italian painter, active between c. 1306 and 1345. Together with his younger brother Ambrogio, he introduced naturalism into Sienese art. In their artistry and experiments with three-dimensional and spatial arrangements, the brothers foreshadowed the art of the Renaissance. 1 2 1.The Birth of the Virgin 2.Deposition from the Cross, Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi 3.The Capture of Christ 3 Tempera: Painting made with a type of paint made by mixing dyestuffs (pigments) with glue and water, usually egg white. Tempera was used frequently in the Middle Ages and disappeared after the 15th century with the development of oil painting. Ambrogio Lorenzetti (1285 - 1348) Ambrogio Lorenzetti was an Italian painter of the Sienese school. He was active from approximately 1317 to 1348. He painted The Allegory of Good and Bad Government in the Sala dei Nove (Salon of Nine or Council Room) in Siena's Palazzo Pubblico. His elder brother was the painter Pietro Lorenzetti. The Allegory of Good and Bad Government is a series of three fresco panels painted by Ambrogio Lorenzetti between February 1338 and May 1339. The paintings are located in Siena's Palazzo Pubblico—specifically in the Sala dei Nove ("Salon of Nine"), the council hall of the Republic of Siena's nine executive magistrates, elected officials who performed executive functions (and judicial ones in secular matters). The paintings have been construed as being "designed to remind the Nine [magistrates] of just how much was at stake as they made their decisions". Considered Lorenzetti's "undisputed masterpiece", the series consists of six different scenes (the titles are all modern conveniences):  Allegory of Good Government  Allegory of Bad Government  Effects of Bad Government in the City  Effects of Bad Government in the Country  Effects of Good Government in the City  Effects of Good Government in the Country Effects of Good Government in the City  1 2 1.Allegory of the Good Government 2.Effects of Bad Government in the City 3.Allegory of the Bad Government 3 Simone Martini (c. 1284 – 1344) Simone Martini was an Italian painter born in Siena. He was a major figure in the development of early Italian painting and greatly influenced the development of the International Gothic style. It is thought that Martini was a pupil of Duccio di Buoninsegna, the leading Sienese painter of his time. The Annunciation with St. Margaret and St. Ansanus, 1333 Guidoriccio da Fogliano at the siege of Montemassi, 1330 Nicola and Giovanni Pisano (1220 – c. 1284) Nicola Pisano was an Italian sculptor whose work is noted for its classical Roman sculptural style. Pisano is sometimes considered to be the founder of modern sculpture. The pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery, sculpted by Nicola Pisano, stands as a pinnacle of medieval artistry and innovation. Its fusion of classical motifs with Christian themes heralds a transition from Romanesque to Gothic styles. Symbolic reliefs convey profound theological messages, influencing generations and shaping the trajectory of Renaissance art. Pulpit of the Pisa baptistery, 1260, Pisa Baptistery Siena Cathedral Pulpit, 1268 Fontana Maggiore, Perugia, 1278 Renaissance Art Early Renaissance in Italy, 1400–1495 Although both the Pisanos and Giotto had students and followers, the first truly Renaissance artists were not to emerge in Florence until 1401 with the competition to sculpt a set of bronze doors of the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral, which drew entries from seven young sculptors including Brunelleschi, Donatello and the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti. Brunelleschi, most famous as the architect of the dome of Florence Cathedral and the Church of San Lorenzo, created a number of sculptural works, including a life-sized crucifix in Santa Maria Novella, renowned for its naturalism. His studies of perspective are thought to have influenced the painter Masaccio. Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, his masterpieces being his humanist and unusually erotic statue of David, one of the icons of the Florentine republic, and his great monument to Gattamelata, the first large equestrian bronze to be created since Roman times. The contemporary of Donatello, Masaccio, was the painterly descendant of Giotto and began the Early Renaissance in Italian painting in 1425, furthering the trend towards solidity of form and naturalism of face and gesture that Giotto had begun a century earlier. From 1425 to 1428, Masaccio completed several panel paintings but is best known for the fresco cycle that he began in the Brancacci Chapel with the older artist Masolino and which had a profound influence on later painters, including Michelangelo. Masaccio's developments were carried forward in the paintings of Fra Angelico, particularly in his frescos at the Convent of San Marco in Florence. The treatment of the elements of perspective and light in painting was of particular concern to 15th-century Florentine painters. Uccello was so obsessed with trying to achieve an appearance of perspective that, according to Giorgio Vasari, it disturbed his sleep. His solutions can be seen in his masterpiece set of three paintings, the Battle of San Romano, which is believed to have been completed by 1460. Piero della Francesca made systematic and scientific studies of both light and linear perspective, the results of which can be seen in his fresco cycle of The History of the True Cross in San Francesco, Arezzo. One of the most significant painters of Northern Italy was Andrea Mantegna, who decorated the interior of a room, the Camera degli Sposi for his patron Ludovico Gonzaga, setting portraits of the family and court into an illusionistic architectural space. Pope Sixtus IV had rebuilt the Papal Chapel, named the Sistine Chapel in his honour, and commissioned a group of artists, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli to decorate its wall with fresco cycles depicting the Life of Christ and the Life of Moses. In the sixteen large paintings, the artists, although each working in his individual style, agreed on principles of format, and utilised the techniques of lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation that had been carried to a high point in the large Florentine studios of Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio and Perugino. Piero della Francesca, The History of the True Cross, 1466 Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378 – 1455) Lorenzo Ghiberti was an Italian Renaissance sculptor from Florence, a key figure in the Early Renaissance, best known as the creator of two sets of bronze doors of the Florence Baptistery, the later one called by Michelangelo the Gates of Paradise. Trained as a goldsmith and sculptor, he established an important workshop for sculpture in metal. His book of Commentarii contains important writing on art, as well as what may be the earliest surviving autobiography by any artist. Ghiberti's career was dominated by his two successive commissions for pairs of bronze doors to the Florence Baptistery (Battistero di San Giovanni). They are recognized as a major masterpiece of the Early Renaissance, and were famous and influential from their unveiling. Ghiberti's first door from the North side of the Baptistry Gates of Paradise, by Ghiberti. Florence Baptistery now in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo The bronze statues for Orsanmichele St. John the Baptist St. Matthew St. Stephen Masaccio (1401 – 1428) Masaccio born Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone, was a Florentine artist who is regarded as the first great Italian painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. According to Vasari, Masaccio was the best painter of his generation because of his skill at imitating nature, recreating lifelike figures and movements as well as a convincing sense of three-dimensionality. He employed nudes and foreshortenings in his figures. This had seldom been done before him. San Giovenale Triptych (1422) Crucifixion from the Pisa Altarpiece, 1426 Masaccio's fresco of The Expulsion (1426–1427) Brancacci Chapel The Tribute Money, 1425 Raising of the Son of Theophilus of Antioch Santa Maria Novella Holy Trinity, 1427 Donatello (c. 1386 – 1466) Donatello was an Italian sculptor of the Renaissance period. Born in Florence, he studied classical sculpture and used his knowledge to develop an Early Renaissance style of sculpture. He spent time in other cities, where he worked on commissions and taught others; his periods in Rome, Padua, and Siena introduced to other parts of Italy the techniques he had developed in the course of a long and productive career. His David was the first freestanding nude male sculpture since antiquity; like much of his work it was commissioned by the Medici family. The sensuous eroticism of his most famous work, the bronze David, is very rarely seen in other pieces. Although his best-known works are mostly statues executed in the round, he developed a new, very shallow, type of bas-relief for small works. David at the Bargello in Florence, 1440 St. George, for Orsanmichele, now Bargello The "marble David", 1408–09 and 1416, Bargello The Feast of Herod (1423–1427), baptismal font, Siena Top of the Penitent Magdalene, wood, c. Baptistery 1440−1442, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo Equestrian Monument of Gattamelata, 1450 Fra Angelico (c. 1395 – 1455) Fra Angelico was a Dominican friar and Italian painter of the Early Renaissance, described by Giorgio Vasari in his Lives of the Artists as having "a rare and perfect talent". He earned his reputation primarily for the series of frescoes he made for his own friary, San Marco, in Florence, then worked in Rome and other cities. All his known work is of religious subjects. San Marco Altarpiece Coronation of the Virgin Annunciation Annunciation Annunciation Paolo Uccello (1397-1475) Paolo Uccello was an Italian painter and mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual perspective in art. In his book Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, Giorgio Vasari wrote that Uccello was obsessed by his interest in perspective and would stay up all night in his study trying to grasp the exact vanishing point. Uccello used perspective to create a feeling of depth in his paintings. His best known works are the three paintings representing the battle of San Romano. Three paintings representing the Battle of San Romano 1 2 3 1. National Gallery, London, 2.Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, 3.Musee du Louvre, Paris Piero della Francesca (1420-1492) Piero della Francesca was a pivotal figure in the Italian Renaissance, renowned for his innovative contributions to painting. Among his important works are "The Flagellation of Christ," a masterpiece of perspective and composition, and "The Baptism of Christ," which showcases his meticulous attention to detail and serene landscapes. Additionally, Piero's "Legend of the True Cross" series stands as a magnum opus of Renaissance narrative painting, chronicling the history of the True Cross with masterful storytelling and exquisite compositions. The Baptism of Christ, c. 1450, National 1. The Resurrection (c. 1463–65) Gallery, London The Flagellation of Christ (probably 1468) 1. The Montefeltro Altarpiece or the Brera The Legend of the True Cross, 1452–1466, Basilica of San Madonna Francesco, Arezzo The Legend of the True Cross, 1452–1466, Basilica of San Constantine's Dream,The Legend Francesco, Arezzo of the True Cross, 1452–1466 Diptych of the Count and Countess of Urbino, circa 1473–1475, Uffizi Gallery, Florence Sandro Botticelli (1445 – 1510) Sandro Botticelli was a prominent Italian Renaissance painter celebrated for his ethereal beauty, mythological themes, and intricate symbolism. His masterpieces include "The Birth of Venus," embodying grace and elegance, and "Primavera," a captivating allegory of spring. Botticelli's works epitomize the Renaissance spirit, blending classical motifs with spiritual depth and poetic imagination. The Birth of Venus, c. 1485. Uffizi, Florence Primavera (c. 1482) Venus and Mars, c. 1485, National Gallery, London  Adoration of the Magi, 1475 Calumny of Apelles (c. 1494–95). Uffizi, Florence. 1. Magnificat Madonna, c. 1483 2. Madonna of the Pomegranate (Madonna della Melagrana), c. 1487 1 2 Venus and Mars, c. 1485, National Gallery, London Andrea Mantegna (1431 – 1506) Andrea Mantegna was an Italian painter. Like other artists of the time, Mantegna experimented with perspective, e.g. by lowering the horizon in order to create a sense of greater monumentality. His flinty, metallic landscapes and somewhat stony figures give evidence of a fundamentally sculptural approach to painting. He also led a workshop that was the leading producer of prints in Venice before 1500. The Agony in the Garden (left panel of the predella of the San Zeno Altarpiece, 1455) National Gallery, London St. Sebastian, 1480 San Zeno Altarpiece, 1455 The Lamentation over the Dead Christ, 1490; Ceiling of Camera degli Sposi Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan Andrea del Verrocchio (1435 – 1488) Andrea del Verrocchio was an Italian sculptor, painter and goldsmith who was a master of an important workshop in Florence. He apparently became known as Verrocchio after the surname of his master, a goldsmith. Few paintings are attributed to him with certainty, but important painters were trained at his workshop. His pupils included Leonardo da Vinci, Pietro Perugino and Lorenzo di Credi. His greatest importance was as a sculptor and his last work, the Equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, is generally accepted as his masterpiece. The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio and Leonardo), 1475 David, 1460 Statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni, Verrocchio, 1475 Pietro Perugino (1446-1523) Pietro Perugino was an Italian Renaissance painter of the Umbrian school, developed some of the qualities that found classic expression in the High Renaissance. Raphael became his most famous pupil. The Delivery of the Keys fresco, 1481–1482, Sistine Chapel, Rome The Virgin appearing to St. Bernard (c. 1490–1494) Portrait of Francesco delle Opere Domenico Ghirlandaio (1448 – 1494) Domenico Ghirlandaio was an Italian Renaissance painter born in Florence. Ghirlandaio was part of the so-called "third generation" of the Florentine Renaissance, along with Verrocchio, the Pollaiolo brothers and Sandro Botticelli. Many apprentices passed through Ghirlandaio's workshop, including the famous Michelangelo. His particular talent lay in his ability to posit depictions of contemporary life and portraits of contemporary people within the context of religious narratives, bringing him great popularity and many large commissions. The Sassetti Altarpiece The Birth of Mary, Tornabuoni Chapel (1485–90), appears to represent a domestic scene from the life of contemporary Florentine nobility The Last Supper, (1486) San Marco, Florence St Jerome, (1480), Ognissanti, Florence High Renaissance (1495 - 1527) In art history, the High Renaissance was a short period of the most exceptional artistic production in the Italian states, particularly Rome, capital of the Papal States, and in Florence, during the Italian Renaissance. Most art historians state that the High Renaissance started between 1490 and 1500, and ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael, although some say the High Renaissance ended about 1525, or in 1527 with the Sack of Rome by the mutinous army of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, or about 1530. The best-known exponents of painting, sculpture and architecture of the High Renaissance include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Bramante. In the 21st century, the use of the term has been frequently criticized by some academic art historians for oversimplifying artistic developments, ignoring historical context, and focusing only on a few iconic works. The Creation of Adam, a scene from Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling (c. 1508–1512), commissioned by Pope Julius II The High Renaissance of painting was the culmination of the varied means of expression and various advances in painting technique, such as linear perspective, the realistic depiction of both physical and psychological features, and the manipulation of light and darkness, including tone contrast, sfumato (softening the transition between colours) and chiaroscuro (contrast between light and dark), in a single unifying style, which expressed total compositional order, balance and harmony. In particular, the individual parts of the painting had a complex but balanced and well-knit relationship to the whole. The paintings in the Vatican by Michelangelo and Raphael are said by some scholars such as Stephen Freedberg to represent the culmination of High Renaissance style in painting, because of the ambitious scale of these works, coupled with the complexity of their composition, closely observed human figures, and pointed iconographic and decorative references to classical antiquity, can be viewed as emblematic of the High Renaissance. The elongated proportions and exaggerated poses in the late works of Michelangelo, Andrea del Sarto and Correggio prefigure so-called Mannerism, as the style of the later Renaissance is referred to in art history. The serene mood and luminous colours of paintings by Giorgione and early Titian exemplify High Renaissance style as practiced in Venice. Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) Leonardo da Vinci was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on his achievements as a painter, he has also become known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on a variety of subjects, including anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and paleontology. Leonardo is widely regarded to have been a genius who epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo is identified as one of the greatest painters in the history of art and is often credited as the founder of the High Renaissance. Despite having many lost works and fewer than 25 attributed major works – including numerous unfinished works – he created some of the most influential paintings in Western art. His magnum opus, the Mona Lisa, is his best known work and often regarded as the world's most famous painting. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon. Annunciation c. 1472–1476, Uffizi, is thought to be Leonardo's earliest extant and complete major work. Adoration of the Magi c. 1478–1482, Uffizi, Florence The Vitruvian Man (c. 1485) Accademia, Venice Lady with an Ermine, c. 1489–1491 Virgin of the Rocks, c. 1483–1493, Louvre version The Last Supper, Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan (c. 1492–1498) The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, c. 1501–1519, the Baptist, c. 1499–1508, National Gallery, London Louvre, Paris Mona Lisa or La Gioconda c. 1503–1516, Louvre, Paris Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (1483 – 1520) Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, now generally known in English as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition, and visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. together with Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. His father was court painter to the ruler of the small but highly cultured city of Urbino. He died when Raphael was eleven, and Raphael seems to have played a role in managing the family workshop from this point. He trained in the workshop of Perugino, and was described as a fully trained "master" by 1500. He worked in or for several cities in north Italy until in 1508 he moved to Rome at the invitation of Pope Julius II, to work on the Apostolic Palace at the Vatican. He was given a series of important commissions there and elsewhere in the city, and began to work as an architect. He was still at the height of his powers at his death in 1520. Chigi Chapel is the only religious building of Raphael which has been preserved in its near original form. Portrait of Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Duke The Wedding of the Virgin, Raphael's most of Urbino from 1482 to 1508, c. 1507. (Uffizi sophisticated altarpiece of this period Gallery) (Pinacoteca di Brera) The Madonna of the Meadow, c. 1506, using Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione, c. 1515. Leonardo's pyramidal composition for subjects of the Holy Family  The Parnassus, 1511, Stanza della Segnatura Stanza della Segnatura Raphael, The School of Athens, 1511, Stanza della Segnatura The Fire in the Borgo, 1514, Stanza dell'incendio del Borgo, painted by the workshop to Raphael's design  Triumph of Galatea, 1512, his only major classical Transfiguration, 1520, unfinished at his death mythological subject, for Chigi's villa (Villa Farnesina) (Pinacoteca Vaticana) Portrait of Pope Julius II, c. 1512 Pope Leo X with two cardinals, 1519 Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was inspired by models from classical an quity and had a las ng influence on Western art. Michelangelo's crea ve abili es and mastery in a range of ar s c arenas define him as an archetypal Renaissance man, along with his rival and elder contemporary, Leonardo da Vinci. Given the sheer volume of surviving correspondence, sketches, and reminiscences, Michelangelo is one of the best-documented ar sts of the 16th century. He was lauded by contemporary biographers as the most accomplished ar st of his era. Pietà, St Peter's Basilica (1498–1499) David, Galleria dell’Accademia (1504) The Doni Tondo (1504–1506) Ceiling of the Sis ne Chapel (1508–1512)  Dying Slave, Louvre (1513-1516) Moses, Saint Peter’s Basilica (1513– 1515) Atlas Slave (1534) The statues of dusk and dawn, day, and night, New Sacristy, (1525) The Last Judgement, Sis ne Chapel (1534-1541) St Peter's Basilica, Rome (1546–1564) (plan and dome) The Lauren an Library, Florence (1550s) - pioneering mannerist Rondanini Pietà, Castello Sforzesco in Milan (1552) 16th century Vene an School Giorgione and Titian were both apprentices at Bellini's workshop. They collaborated on numerous paintings, and their styles could be so similar that it is difficult to conclusively assign authorship. A speciality of Giorgione's were idyllic Arcadian scenes, with an example being his Three Philosophers, and this element was adopted by his master Bellini, who increased the landscape in his many Madonnas, and by Titian in work like Pastoral Concert (1508) and Sacred and Profane Love (1515). This emphasis on nature as a setting was a major contribution of the Venetian School. Titian, through his long and productive life, with a wide variety of themes and subjects was the most influential and greatest of all the Venetian painters. His early Pesaro Madonna (1519–1528) shows a bold new composition for such a traditional religious subject, putting the focal point of the Madonna off from the centre and on a steep diagonal. Colours are used to enliven the painting, but also to unify the composition, such as by the large red flag on the left counterbalancing the red in the Madonna and such skilful and sumptuous use of colour became a hallmark of the Venetian style. Giorgione (ca. 1477/8 – 1510) Giorgione was an Italian painter of the Vene an school during the High Renaissance, who died in his thir es. He is known for the elusive poe c quality of his work, though only about six surviving pain ngs are firmly atributed to him. The uncertainty surrounding the iden ty and meaning of his work has made Giorgione one of the most mysterious figures in European art. Contemporary documents record that his talent was recognized early. In 1500, when he was in his twen es, he was chosen to paint portraits of the Doge Agos no Barbarigo and the condo ere Consalvo Ferrante. In 1504, he was commissioned to paint an altarpiece in memory of another condo ere, Mateo Costanzo, in the cathedral of his na ve town, Castelfranco. In 1507, he received, at the order of the Council of Ten, par al payment for a picture (subject unknown) in which he was engaged for the Hall of the Audience in the Doge's Palace. From 1507 to 1508 he was employed, with other ar sts of his genera on, to decorate with frescoes the exterior of the newly rebuilt Fondaco dei Tedeschi (or German Merchants' Hall) at Venice, having already done similar work on the exterior of the Casa Soranzo, the Casa Grimani alli Servi and other Vene an palaces. Very litle of this work now survives. The Three Philosophers, Venezia, Gallerie dell'Accademia (1502-1503)  Sleeping Venus, Dresden (1508-1510) Double Portrait, Museum of the Palace of Venice (1502) Storm, Galleria dell’Accademia (1507-1508) Pala di Castelfranco, Castelfranco’s cathedral (1503) Titian (1490-1576) Tiziano was an Italian painter of Lombard origin, considered the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school. Recognized by his contemporaries as "The Sun Amidst Small Stars" (recalling the final line of Dante's Paradiso), Titian was one of the most versatile of Italian painters, equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of color, exerted a profound influence not only on painters of the late Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western artists. His career was successful from the start, and he became sought after by patrons, initially from Venice and its possessions, then joined by the north Italian princes, and finally the Habsburgs and papacy. Bacchus and Ariadne, National Gallery, London (c. 1520–1523) Assumption of the Virgin, Frari church, Venice (1516–1518) The Crowning with Thorns, Louvre (1542-1543) Pesaro altarpiece, Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice (1521–26) Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, Chiesa dei gesui , Venice, (1548-49) Danaë, The original version in Naples, Na onal Museum of Capodimonte (1544–1546) Sacred and Profane Love, Galleria Borghese (1514) Paolo Veronese (1528-1588) Veronese was an Italian Renaissance painter based in Venice, known for extremely large history paintings of religion and mythology, such as The Wedding at Cana (1563) and The Feast in the House of Levi (1573). Included with Titian, a generation older, and Tintoretto, a decade senior, Veronese is one of the "great trio that dominated Venetian painting of the cinquecento" and the Late Renaissance in the 16th century. Known as a supreme colorist, and after an early period with Mannerism, P Vaolo eronese developed a naturalist style of painting, influenced by Titian. The Wedding at Cana, Louvre (1562–1563) The Feast in the House of Levi, Galleria dell’Accademia Venice (1573) Hall of Olympus, Villa Barbaro Sala del Collegio, Ceiling Pain ngs, Palazzo Ducale, Venice (1578-82) Hall of Olympus, Villa Barbaro Northern European Renaissance The Northern Renaissance was the Renaissance that occurred in Europe north of the Alps. From the last years of the 15th century, its Renaissance spread around Europe. Called the Northern Renaissance because it occurred north of the Italian Renaissance, this period became the German, French, English, Low Countries, Polish Renaissances and in turn other national and localized movements, each with different attributes. In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Italian artists (including Leonardo da Vinci), and built grand palaces at great expense, starting the French Renaissance. This included not only the then Kingdom of France but also the adjacent Duchy of Burgundy. Trade and commerce in then Burgundian cities like Bruges in the 15th century and Antwerp in the 16th increased cultural exchange between Italy and the Low Countries; however in art, and especially architecture, late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival of Baroque even as painters increasingly drew on Italian models. Jan van Eyck (1390 – 1441) Jan van Eyck was a Flemish painter active in Bruges who was one of the early innovators of what became known as Early Netherlandish painting, and one of the most significant representatives of Early Northern Renaissance art. Van Eyck's work comes from the International Gothic style, but he soon eclipsed it, in part through a greater emphasis on naturalism and realism. He achieved a new level of virtuosity through his developments in the use of oil paint. He was highly influential, and his techniques and style were adopted and refined by the Early Netherlandish painters. Ghent Altarpiece, 1432 Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele, c. 1434–1436. The Arnolfini Portrait, oil on oak, 1434. National Gallery, London Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450 – 1516) Hieronymus Bosch was a Dutch painter from Brabant. He is one of the most notable representatives of the Early Netherlandish painting school. His work, generally oil on oak wood, mainly contains fantastic illustrations of religious concepts and narratives. Within his lifetime his work was collected in the Netherlands, Austria, and Spain, and widely copied, especially his macabre and nightmarish depictions of hell. The Garden of Earthly Delights in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, c. 1495–1505 Triptych of the Temptation of St Anthony (1501) Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525 - 1569) Pieter Bruegel (also Brueghel or Breughel) the Elder (1525 - 1569) was among the most significant artists of Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting, a painter and printmaker, known for his landscapes and peasant scenes (so-called genre painting); he was a pioneer in presenting both types of subject as large paintings. He was a formative influence on Dutch Golden Age painting and later painting in general in his innovative choices of subject matter, as one of the first generation of artists to grow up when religious subjects had ceased to be the natural subject matter of painting. He also painted no portraits, the other mainstay of Netherlandish art. Netherlandish Proverbs, 1559, oil on oak wood The Peasant Wedding, 1566–69, oil on panel. A late peasant subject, with a more monumental treatment The Peasant Dance (1568), Kunsthistorisches Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, 1563 Museum The Hunters in the Snow, 1565 Winter Landscape with (Skaters and) a Bird Trap (1565) The Fall of the Rebel Angels (1562), Royal Museums Dulle Griet (1563), Museum Mayer van den Bergh, of Fine Arts of Belgium Antwerp The Wedding Dance (1566), oil on oak panel, The Census at Bethlehem (1566), oil on wood The Detroit Institute of Arts panel, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium The Tower of Babel (1563, large version), Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, c. 1558. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528) Albrecht Dürer was a German painter, printmaker, and theorist of the German Renaissance. Born in Nuremberg, Dürer established his reputation and influence across Europe in his twenties due to his high-quality woodcut prints. He was in contact with the major Italian artists of his time, including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, and Leonardo da Vinci, and from 1512 was patronized by Emperor Maximilian I. Dürer's vast body of work includes engravings, his preferred technique in his later prints, altarpieces, portraits and self- portraits, watercolours and books. The woodcuts series are more Gothic than the rest of his work. His well-known engravings include the three Meisterstiche (master prints) Knight, Death and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514), and Melencolia I (1514). His watercolours mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his woodcuts revolutionised the potential of that medium. Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. Praying Hands, pen-and-ink drawing (c. 1508) Melencolia I (1514), engraving Young Hare, (1502), Watercolour and bodycolour (Albertina, Vienna) Hans Holbein the Younger (1497 – 1543) Hans Holbein the Younger was a German-Swiss painter and printmaker who worked in a Northern Renaissance style, and is considered one of the greatest portraitists of the 16th century. He also produced religious art, satire, and Reformation propaganda, and he made a significant contribution to the history of book design. He is called "the Younger" to distinguish him from his father Hans Holbein the Elder, an accomplished painter of the Late Gothic school. Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam, 1523. Oil and Darmstadt Madonna, 1525–26 tempera on wood Portrait of the Merchant Georg Giese, 1532. Portrait of Sir Thomas More, 1527. Oil and Oil and tempera on oak, Berlin State tempera on oak, Frick Collection, New York Museums. City Double Portrait of Jean de Dinteville and Georges de Selve ("The Ambassadors"), 1533; oil and tempera on oak, National Gallery, London Mannerism (1525-1600) Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century. Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Vasari, and early Michelangelo. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. Notable for its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities, this artistic style privileges compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting. Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication. In Parmigianino's Madonna with the Long Neck (1534–1540), Mannerism makes itself known by elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and lack of clear perspective. Tintoretto (1518 – 1594) Tintoretto was an Italian painter identified with the Venetian school. His contemporaries both admired and criticized the speed with which he painted, and the unprecedented boldness of his brushwork. For his phenomenal energy in painting he was termed il Furioso (Italian for 'the Furious'). His work is characterised by his muscular figures, dramatic gestures and bold use of perspective, in the Mannerist style. Miracle of the Slave (1548) - Tintoretto's conception of the narrative is distinguished by a marked theatricality, unusual colour choices, and vigorous execution. Finding of the body of St Mark, 1562, and the St Mark's Body Brought to Venice, 1564 Christ at the Sea of Galilee (c. 1575–1580) Il Paradiso, Paradise, Doge's Palace The Last Supper (1594) Other Mannerist Painters and Sculptors Rosso Fiorentino (1495-1540) Pontormo (1494-1557) Descent from the Cross. 1521. The Deposition from the Cross, 1525– 1528 Giambologna (1529 – 1608) 1.Abduction of a Sabine Woman (1574–82), Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence 2.Samson Slaying a Philistine, 1562 1. 2. Bronzino (1503 – 1572) Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time, c. 1544–45, London, National Gallery Benvenuto Cellini (1500 – 1571) Perseus with the Head of Medusa, Cellini's Saliera, made in Paris, 1540–1543; Gold, partly 1545–1554 covered in enamel, with an ebony base. El Greco (1541 – 1614) El Greco attempted to express religious emotion with exaggerated traits. After the realistic depiction of the human form and the mastery of perspective achieved in High Renaissance, some artists started to deliberately distort proportions in disjointed, irrational space for emotional and artistic effect. He has been characterized by modern scholars as an artist so individual that he belongs to no conventional school. Key aspects of Mannerism in El Greco include the jarring "acid" palette, elongated and tortured anatomy, irrational perspective and light, and obscure and troubling iconography. El Greco's style was a culmination of unique developments based on his Greek heritage and travels to Spain and Italy. The Disrobing of Christ (1577– Assumption of the Virgin View of Toledo (1596–1600) 1579) (1577–1579) The Burial of the Count of Opening of the Fifth Seal Orgaz (1586–1588) (1608–1614), MET, New York Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1526 – 1593) Giuseppe Arcimboldo, also spelled Arcimboldi was an Italian painter best known for creating imaginative portrait heads made entirely of objects such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, fish and books. The Librarian, 1566 Vertumnus, 1590–1591 Baroque Art (1600 - 1750) Baroque painting is the painting associated with the Baroque cultural movement. The movement is often identified with Absolutism, the Counter Reformation and Catholic Revival, but the existence of important Baroque art and architecture in non-absolutist and Protestant states throughout Western Europe underscores its widespread popularity. Baroque painting encompasses a great range of styles, as most important and major painting during the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, and into the early 18th century is identified today as Baroque painting. In its most typical manifestations, Baroque art is characterized by great drama, rich, deep colour, and intense light and dark shadows, but the classicism of French Baroque painters like Poussin and Dutch genre painters such as Vermeer are also covered by the term, at least in English. As opposed to Renaissance art, which usually showed the moment before an event took place, Baroque artists chose the most dramatic point, the moment when the action was occurring: Michelangelo, working in the High Renaissance, shows his David composed and still before he battles Goliath; Bernini's Baroque David is caught in the act of hurling the stone at the giant. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance. Among the greatest painters of the Baroque period are Velázquez, Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Rubens, Poussin, and Vermeer. Caravaggio is an heir of the humanist painting of the High Renaissance. His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using chiaroscuro light effects; this can be seen most prominently in works of Caravaggio. The Flemish painter Anthony van Dyck developed a graceful but imposing portrait style that was very influential, especially in England. The prosperity of 17th century Holland led to an enormous production of art by large numbers of painters who were mostly highly specialized and painted only genre scenes, landscapes, still lifes, portraits or history paintings. Technical standards were very high, and Dutch Golden Age painting established a new repertoire of subjects that was very influential until the arrival of Modernism. Blessed Ludovica Albertoni, 1671-1675, Gian Lorenzo Bernini Annibale Carracci (1560 – 1609) Annibale Carracci was an Italian painter and instructor, active in Bologna and later in Rome. Along with his brother and cousin, Annibale was one of the progenitors, if not founders of a leading strand of the Baroque style, borrowing from styles from both north and south of their native city. Pietà, 1600 Carracci's Domine quo vadis? (Jesus and Saint Peter) The Butcher's Shop, 1580, Kimbell Art Museum The Beaneater, 1580–1590, Galleria Colonna, Rome Caravaggio (1571 - 1610) Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, known mononymously as Caravaggio, was an Italian painter active in Rome for most of his artistic life. His paintings have been characterized by art critics as combining a realistic observation of the human state, both physical and emotional, with a dramatic use of lighting, which had a formative influence on Baroque painting. Caravaggio employed close physical observation with a dramatic use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism. He made the technique a dominant stylistic element, transfixing subjects in bright shafts of light and darkening shadows. Caravaggio vividly expressed crucial moments and scenes, often featuring violent struggles, torture, and death. He worked rapidly with live models, preferring to forego drawings and work directly onto the canvas. His inspiring effect on the new Baroque style that emerged from Mannerism was profound. His influence can be seen directly or indirectly in the work of Peter Paul Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, and Rembrandt. Artists heavily under his influence were called the "Caravaggisti" (or "Caravagesques"), as well as tenebrists or tenebrosi ("shadowists"). 1 2 3 5 4 6 7 1.Basket of Fruit, 1595 2.Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy (c. 1595), Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford 3.The Musicians, 1595–1596, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 4.The Lute Player (Hermitage version), c. 1600, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg 5.Narcissus at the Source, 1597–1599, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome 6.Medusa, c. 1597, Uffizi, Florence 7.Boy with a Basket of Fruit, 1593–1594, Galleria Borghese, Rome The Calling of Saint Matthew (1599–1600), Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1599–1602, Galleria Nazionale Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. d'Arte Antica, Rome The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (Ecclesiastical Amor Vincit Omnia, 1601– Sacred Love Versus Version, 1601), private collection, Florence, 1602, Gemäldegalerie, Profane Love (1602–03) Italy Berlin. Saint Jerome Writing, c. 1605–1606, Galleria The Taking of Christ, 1602, National Gallery of Borghese, Rome Ireland, Dublin Supper at Emmaus, 1601, National Gallery, London. The Beheading of Saint John, 1608, Valletta, Malta Salome with the Head of John the Baptist, Madrid David with the Head of Goliath, 1609–1610, Galleria Borghese, Rome The Raising of Lazarus, 1609 The Crucifixion of Saint Peter, 1601, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome  Conversion on the Way to Damascus, 1601, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, The Entombment of Christ, (1602–1603), Rome Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome Pietro da Cortona (1596 – 1669) Pietro da Cortona was an Italian Baroque painter and architect. Along with his contemporaries and rivals Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini, he was one of the key figures in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture. Rape of the Sabines, 1630-31 Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power, 1638 Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 – 1680) Gian Lorenzo was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was more prominently the leading sculptor of his age, credited with creating the Baroque style of sculpture. As one scholar has commented, "What Shakespeare is to drama, Bernini may be to sculpture: the first pan-European sculptor whose name is instantaneously identifiable with a particular manner and vision. Rape of Proserpina (1621–22) Apollo and Daphne (1622–25) David (1623–24) Blessed Ludovica Albertoni, 1671-1675, Gian Lorenzo Bernini Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, 1651 Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, 1651 Baldacchino in St. Peter's Basilica, which marks the location of St Peter's Tomb, 1634 Nicolas Poussin (1594 – 1665) Nicolas Poussin was a French painter who was a leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. Most of his works were on religious and mythological subjects painted for a small group of Italian and French collectors. The Abduction of the Sabine Women, c. 1633–1634, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Et in Arcadia ego, 1637–1638 Dutch Golden Age painting Dutch Golden Age painting is the painting of the Dutch Golden Age, a period in Dutch history roughly spanning the 17th century, during and after the later part of the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) for Dutch independence. The new Dutch Republic was the most prosperous nation in Europe and led European trade, science, and art. The northern Netherlandish provinces that made up the new state had traditionally been less important artistic centres than cities in Flanders in the south. The upheavals and large-scale transfers of population of the war, and the sharp break with the old monarchist and Catholic cultural traditions, meant that Dutch art had to reinvent itself almost entirely, a task in which it was very largely successful. The painting of religious subjects declined very sharply, but a large new market for all kinds of secular subjects grew up. Rembrandt (1606 – 1669) Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker, and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art. The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp Belshazzar's Feast, 1637–1638 The Hundred Guilder Print, c.1647-1649 Syndics of the Drapers' Guild, 1662 The Night Watch or The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (1642), an oil on canvas portrait now housed in Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam A Polish Nobleman (1637) Slaughtered Ox (1655), Musée du Louvre Sacrifice of Isaac (1634) at Hermitage Museum in The Return of the Prodigal Son (c. 1669) at Saint Petersburg, Russia Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia The Blinding of Samson (1636) The Rape of Ganymede (1635) at Staatliche Kunstsammlungen in Dresden Johannes Vermeer (1632 – 1675) Johannes Vermeer was a Dutch Baroque Period painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of middle-class life. He is considered one of the greatest painters of the Dutch Golden Age. During his lifetime, he was a moderately successful provincial genre painter, recognized in Delft and The Hague. He produced relatively few paintings, primarily earning his living as an art dealer. He was not wealthy; at his death, his wife was left in debt. Vermeer worked slowly and with great care, and frequently used very expensive pigments. He is particularly renowned for making masterful use of light in his work. "Almost all his paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house in Delft; they show the same furniture and decorations in various arrangements and they often portray the same people, mostly women." The Little Street (1657–58) The Milkmaid (c. 1658), Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam The Music Lesson (c. 1662–1665), Royal Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665), considered a Vermeer Collection in London masterpiece, Mauritshuis, Den Haag (The Hague) The Art of Painting or The Allegory of Painting (c. The Astronomer (c. 1668), Louvre Abu Dhabi 1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum in Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665), considered a Vermeer Frankfurt am Main masterpiece, Mauritshuis, Den Haag Frans Hals the Elder (1582 – 1666) Frans Hals the Elderwas a Dutch Golden Age painter, chiefly of individual and group portraits and of genre works, who lived and worked in Haarlem. Hals played an important role in the evolution of 17th-century group portraiture. He is known for his loose painterly brushwork. Jester with a Lute, 1620–1625, canvas, Musée du Louvre, Paris. The Banquet of the Officers of the St George Militia Company in 1616 Frans Hals. Gypsy Girl. 1628–30. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Sir Peter Paul Rubens (1577 – 1640) Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish artist and diplomat. He is considered the most influential artist of the Flemish Baroque tradition. Rubens's highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of classical and Christian history. His unique and immensely popular Baroque style emphasized movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in the Counter-Reformation. Rubens was a painter producing altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. The Rape of the Daughters of The Three Graces, 1635, Prado Leucippus, c. 1617, Alte Pinakothek Venus at the Mirror, 1613–14 Minerva Protecting Peace from Mars, 1629–1630, Hercules as Heroic Virtue The National Gallery, London Overcoming Discord, 1632–33 The Judgement of Paris, c. 1606, Museo del Prado Artemisia Gentileschi (1593 – c. 1656) Artemisia Gentileschi (1593 – c. 1656) was an Italian Baroque painter. Gentileschi is considered among the most accomplished seventeenth-century artists, initially working in the style of Caravaggio. She was producing professional work by the age of 15. In an era when women had few opportunities to pursue artistic training or work as professional artists, Gentileschi was the first woman to become a member of the Accademia di Arte del Disegno in Florence.Her paintings usually covered subjects with female heroines. Judith Slaying Holofernes, 1614–1620, 199×162 cm, Uffizi, Florence Diego Velázquez (1599 – 1660) Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez was a Spanish painter, the leading artist in the court of King Philip IV of Spain and Portugal, and of the Spanish Golden Age. He was an individualistic artist of the Baroque period (c. 1600–1750). He began to paint in a precise tenebrist style, later developing a freer manner characterized by bold brushwork. In addition to numerous renditions of scenes of historical and cultural significance, he painted scores of portraits of the Spanish royal family and commoners, culminating in his masterpiece Las Meninas (1656). Old Woman Frying Eggs). National Gallery of La rendición de Breda, The Surrender of Breda, Scotland, Edinburgh (1634–35) Above: El Triunfo de Baco or Los Borrachos 1629 (English: The Triumph of Bacchus/The Drunks) Left: Philip IV in Brown and Silver, 1632 Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 1650 Las Meninas (1656) Rococo painting Rococo was born in Paris around the 1700s, as a reaction of the French aristocracy against the sumptuous, palatial, and solemn Baroque practiced in the period of Louis XIV. It was characterized above all by its hedonistic and aristocratic character, manifested in delicacy, elegance, sensuality, and grace, and in the preference for light and sentimental themes, where curved line, light colors, and asymmetry played a fundamental role in the composition of the work. Rococo culminated in the French Revolution and the emergence of Neoclassicism, with a return of artistic ideals based on values of austerity, piety, civility, and ethics, in a reaffirmation of masculine principles and the rehabilitation of moralizing historical painting at the expense of the graceful, intimate, and sensual femininity of the Rococo. Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684 – 1721) Jean-Antoine Watteau was a French painter and draughtsman whose brief career spurred the revival of interest in colour and movement, as seen in the tradition of Correggio and Rubens. He revitalized the waning Baroque style, shifting it to the less severe, more naturalistic, less formally classical, Rococo. Watteau is credited with inventing the genre of fêtes galantes, scenes of bucolic and idyllic charm, suffused with a theatrical air. The Embarkation for Cythera, 1717, Louvre Pilgrimage to Cythera, c. 1718– 1719, Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732 - 1806) Jean-Honoré Fragonard was a French painter and printmaker whose late Rococo manner was distinguished by remarkable facility, exuberance, and hedonism. Among his most popular works are genre paintings conveying an atmosphere of intimacy and veiled eroticism. The Swing (French: L'escarpolette), 1767, Wallace Collection, London The See-Saw, 1750–1752, Thyssen-Bornemisza The Secret Meeting, 1771, Frick Collection, New Museum, Madrid York William Hogarth (1697 – 1764) William Hogarth was an English painter, engraver, pictorial satirist, social critic, editorial cartoonist and occasional writer on art. His work ranges from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects", and he is perhaps best known for his series A Harlot's Progress, A Rake's Progress and Marriage A-la-Mode. The Toilette, called The countess's morning levee on the frame, is the fourth canvas in the series of six satirical paintings known as Marriage A-la-Mode painted by William Hogarth. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696 – 1770) Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, also known as Giambattista (or Gianbattista) Tiepolo, was an Italian painter and printmaker from the Republic of Venice who painted in the Rococo style, considered an important member of the 18th-century Venetian school. He was prolific, and worked not only in Italy, but also in Germany and Spain. Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, together with Giambattista Pittoni, Canaletto, Giovan Battista Piazzetta, Giuseppe Maria Crespi, and Francesco Guardi are considered the traditional Old Masters of that period. Tiepolo Galleries, Archbishop's Palace, Udine, 1726 Scipio Africanus Freeing Massiva, 1721 Tiepolo Galleries, Archbishop's Palace, Udine, 1726 Canaletto (1697 – 1768) Canaletto was an Italian painter from the Republic of Venice, considered an important member of the 18th- century Venetian school. Painter of cityscapes or vedute, of Venice, Rome, and London, he also painted imaginary views (referred to as capricci), although the demarcation in his works between the real and the imaginary is never quite clearcut. He was further an important printmaker using the etching technique. The Entrance to the Grand Canal, Venice, 1730 The Reception Of The French Ambassador In Venice (c. 1740) Francesco Guardi (1712 – 1793) Francesco Lazzaro Guardi was an Italian painter, nobleman, and a member of the Venetian School. He is considered to be among the last practitioners, along with his brothers, of the classic Venetian school of painting. After 1760, Francesco concentrated on vedute. The earliest of these show the influence of Canaletto, but he gradually adopted a looser style characterized by spirited brush-strokes and freely imagined architecture. San Giorgio Maggiore, Francesco Guardi View on the Grand Canal at San Geremia, Venice (1760–1765), Frick Collection Neoclassicism Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism) was a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born in Rome largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, at the time of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, but its popularity spread across Europe as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, latterly competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, and early 20th century. European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Rococo style. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace, ornamentation and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts of Rome and Ancient Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism. The Empire style, a second phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts, had its cultural centre in Paris in the Napoleonic era. Especially in architecture, but also in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th. Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss; by Antonio Canova; 1787; Louvre Jacques-Louis David (1748 – 1825) Jacques-Louis David (1748 – 1825) was a French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s, his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward classical austerity, severity, and heightened feeling, which harmonized with the moral climate of the final years of the Ancien Régime. David later became an active supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre (1758– 1794), and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the French Republic. Imprisoned after Robespierre's fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release: that of Napoleon, the First Consul of France. At this time he developed his Empire style, notable for its use of warm Venetian colours. Hector's body (1778) Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife (1788), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Oath of the Horatii (1784) The Death of Socrates (1787) The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Drawing by Jacques-Louis David of the Tennis Court Sons (1789) Oath. David later became a deputy in the National Convention in 1792 The Death of Marat (1793) Napoleon at the Saint-Bernard Pass (1801) The Intervention of the Sabine Women The Coronation of Napoleon (1806) (1799) Cupid and Psyche (1817), Cleveland Museum of Art Francisco Goya (1746 – 1828) Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker. He is considered the most important Spanish artist of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. His paintings, drawings, and engravings reflected contemporary historical upheavals and influenced important 19th- and 20th-century painters. Goya is often referred to as the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns. In 1799, Goya became Primer Pintor de Cámara (Prime Court Painter), the highest rank for a Spanish court painter. In the late 1790s, he completed his La maja desnuda, a remarkably daring nude for the time and clearly indebted to Diego Velázquez. In 1800–01, he painted Charles IV of Spain and His Family, also influenced by Velázquez. Other works from his mid-period include the Caprichos, prints depicting what he described as "the innumerable foibles and follies to be found in any civilized society, and from the common prejudices and deceitful practices which custom, ignorance, or self-interest have made usual". The visions in these prints are partly explained by the caption "The sleep of reason produces monsters". In 1807, Napoleon led the French army into the Peninsular War against Spain. Goya remained in Madrid during the war, which seems to have affected him deeply. Although he did not speak his thoughts in public, they can be inferred from his Disasters of War series of prints (although published 35 years after his death) and his 1814 paintings The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808. His late period culminates with the Black Paintings of 1819–1823, applied on oil on the plaster walls of his house the Quinta del Sordo (House of the Deaf Man) where, disillusioned by political and social developments in Spain, he lived in near isolation. The Parasol, 1777 Charles IV of Spain and His Family, 1800–01 La maja desnuda and La maja vestida, 1790–1805 The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, c. 1797 The Peninsular War (1808-1814) The Third of May 1808, 1814, Museo del Prado, The Second of May 1808, 1814 Madrid Disasters of War series of prints Plate 4: Las mujeres dan valor (The women are Plate 46: Esto es malo (This is bad). A monk is killed courageous). This plate depicts a struggle between a by French soldiers looting church treasures. A rare group of civilians fighting soldiers. sympathetic image of clergy generally shown on the side of oppression and injustice. Black Paintings series Witches' Sabbath or Aquelarre is one of 14 from the Black Paintings series. A Pilgrimage to San Isidro, 1819–1823 The Dog, 1819–1823 Saturn Devouring His Son, 1819–1823 Antonio Canova (1757-1822) Antonio Canova was an Italian neoclassical sculptor renowned for his graceful, meticulously detailed marble sculptures. His works, such as "Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss" and "The Three Graces," epitomize the neoclassical aesthetic and remain celebrated for their beauty, elegance, and emotional depth. Canova's legacy endures as a pinnacle of sculptural excellence. He is regarded as the greatest Neo-classical sculptor. Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss, 1787 Venus Victrix, 1808, Galleria Borghese, Rome The Three Graces, 1814 Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker, Apsley House, London, 1806 Cenotaph to Maria Christina of Austria in the Augustinerkirche Perseus Triumphant, Vatican Museums Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780 – 1867) Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingre was a French Neoclassical painter. Ingres was profoundly influenced by past artistic traditions and aspired to become the guardian of academic orthodoxy against the ascendant Romantic style. Although he considered himself a painter of history in the tradition of Nicolas Poussin and Jacques-Louis David, it is his portraits, both painted and drawn, that are recognized as his greatest legacy. His expressive distortions of form and space made him an important precursor of modern art, influencing Picasso, Matisse and other modernists. Oedipus and the Sphinx (1808), Louvre The Valpinçon Bather, 1808 La Grande Odalisque (1814), the Louvre Odalisque with Slave (1842), oil on canvas, 76 x 105 cm, Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore The Turkish Bath (1862–63), The Louvre Portrait of Monsieur Bertin (1832), the Louvre Romanticism (1800 - 1850) Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. For most of the Western world, it was at its peak from approximately 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of the past and nature, preferring the medieval over the classical. Romanticism was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, and the prevailing ideology of the Age of Enlightenment, especially the scientific rationalization of Nature. It had a significant and complex effect on politics: Romantic thinking influenced conservatism, liberalism, radicalism, and nationalism. The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience. It granted a new importance to experiences of sympathy, awe, wonder, and terror, in part by naturalizing such emotions as responses to the "beautiful" and the "sublime". Romantics stressed the nobility of folk art and ancient cultural practices, but also championed radical politics, unconventional behavior, and authentic spontaneity. In contrast to the rationalism and classicism of the Enlightenment, Romanticism revived medievalism and juxtaposed a pastoral conception of a more "authentic" European past with a highly critical view of recent social changes, including urbanization, brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 1818 Henry Fuseli (1741 – 1825) Henry Fuseli was a Swiss painter, draughtsman, and writer on art who spent much of his life in Britain. Many of his works depict supernatural experiences, such as The Nightmare. The Nightmare (1781), Detroit Institute of Arts The artist's despair before the grandeur of ancient ruins, 1778–79 Théodore Géricault (1791 – 1824) Jean-Louis André Théodore Géricault was a French painter and lithographer, whose best-known painting is The Raft of the Medusa. Despite his short life, he was one of the pioneers of the Romantic movement. The Raft of the Medusa, 1819 The Derby of Epsom, 1821 Eugène Delacroix (1798 – 1863) Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school. Liberty Leading the People (1830), Louvre, Paris The Death of Sardanapalus (1827), Philadelphia Museum of Art The Barque of Dante (1822), Louvre The Massacre at Chios (1824) Algerian Women in Their Apartments (1834) J. M. W. Turner (1775 - 1851) Joseph Mallord William Turner known in his time as William Turner,[a] was an English Romantic painter, printmaker and watercolourist. He is known for his expressive colouring, imaginative landscapes and turbulent, often violent marine paintings. He left behind more than 550 oil paintings, 2,000 watercolours, and 30,000 works on paper. He was championed by the leading English art critic John Ruskin from 1840, and is today regarded as having elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting. The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last berth to be 16th October, 1834, c.1835, Philadelphia Museum broken up, 1838, National Gallery, London of Art The Slave Ship, 1840, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Rain, Steam and Speed – The Great Western Railway, 1844, National Gallery, London Modern Rome – Campo Vaccino, 1839 Caspar David Friedrich (1774 – 1840) Caspar David Friedrich was a German Romantic landscape paint