UNIT 2 — Period 2: 1607–1754 PDF

UNIT 2 — Period 2: 1607–1754 Topic 2.1 Contextualizing Period 2 Learning Objective: Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754. T he period in the Americas from 1491 to 1607 was a time of European exploration, dominated by the Spanish. In the period from 1607 to 1754, exploration began giving way to expanding colonization. In North America, the Spanish, French, Dutch, and British established colonies, with the British dominating the region from Canada to the Caribbean islands. In particular, the British established 13 colonies along the Atlantic coast. Most of these provided a profitable trade and a home to a diverse group of Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans. From the establishment of the first permanent English settlement in North America in 1607 to the start of a decisive war for European control of the continent in 1756, the colonies evolved. At first, they struggled for survival. Over time, they became a society of permanent farms, plantations, towns, and cities. European settlers brought various cultures, economic plans, and ideas for governing to the Americas. In particular, with varying approaches, they all sought to dominate the native inhabitants. Early Settlements The earliest Europeans in the Americas, the Spanish and Portuguese, settled in Central and South America. The Spanish slowly migrated into North America. Subsequently, the French, Dutch, and British settled along the Atlantic coast of North America and gradually migrated westward and developed various types of colonial systems and relationships with Native Americans. The first two successful British colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America were Jamestown and Plymouth. They served as the starting points that would lead to 13 colonies as far south as Georgia. Depending on the environmental conditions and settlement patterns, each colony developed its own economic and cultural system. For many, transatlantic trade was important, with tobacco, timber, and rice being important products. Trade, along with ties of religion and language, created strong bonds between the colonies and Great Britain. However, in the mid-1700s, trade also became a point of conflict. Colonies increasingly resisted British control over their trade. 32 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Trade was also the mainstay of early contact between the Europeans and Native Americans. The colonists wanted a dependable food supply and the Native Americans were drawn to the iron tools and guns of the newcomers. But the Europeans generally treated the Native Americans as inferiors to be used or pushed aside. Trade also led to competition for resources among colonists and natives. In particular, the British and the French fought a series of wars for control of land. Native Americans such as the Iroquois and the Huron allied with Europeans or each other to advance their own interests. Sources of Labor As Europeans seized land from Native Americans, they looked for a source of labor to make the lands profitable. They first tried to enslave Native Americans. This failed because the Native Americans could escape too easily. Europeans then tried to employ indentured servants, individuals who agreed to work for a master for a set number of years (often seven) in exchange for transportation from Europe to the Americas. Indentured servants became common in the colonies, but they did not provide sufficient labor for people who owned land. The British, following the example of the Spanish and others, soon began importing enslaved laborers from Africa. Given the steady flow of support and families from Britain, the various 13 colonies gradually developed societies that both mirrored and varied from British society. From 1607 to the 1750s, the growth of these 13 British colonies would lead them to use trade and war to dominate both the Native Americans and the other European colonists. ANALYZE THE CONTEXT 1. Explain a historical context for understanding the interaction between the Native Americans and the Europeans as colonies were established in North America in the period from 1607 to 1754. 2. Explain a historical context for the development of slavery in the European colonies in North America in the period from 1607 to 1754. 3. Explain a historical context for the development of society and culture in the 13 British colonies in the period from 1607 to 1754. LANDMARK EVENTS: 1600–1800 Jamestown settlers Pilgrims land in The British capture establish the first Plymouth, founding Dutch New Georgia, the final elected legislature in the first New Amsterdam, which British colony, the English colonies. England colony. becomes New York. is established. 1619 1620 1664 1733 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1608 1619 1676 1754 French settlers Dutch traders King Philip’s War The Seven Years’ War establish their first sell the first marks Native (also called the French colony, Quebec. Africans in Americans' resistance and Indian War) begins. Jamestown. to colonization. Topic 2.1 Contextualizing period 2 33 Topic 2.2 European Colonization in North America If they desire that Piety and godliness should prosper; accompanied with sobriety, justice and love, let them choose a Country such as this is... which may yield sufﬁciency with hard labour and industry. Reverend John White, The Planter's Plea, 1630 Learning Objective: Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. Migration to the Americas during the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century was both influenced by the environment and had a lasting impact on it. The many different peoples that settled in North America from Europe, together with the Native Americans already living on the continent and the enslaved Africans brought there, would ultimately form a society unlike any previously seen. Exploration in the new world by Europeans was quickly followed by colonization. The primary motivations for settling in the Americas in the 17th century were the desires for wealth, to spread Christianity, and to escape persecution. Spanish Colonies Spanish settlements developed slowly in North America as a result of limited mineral resources and strong opposition from American Indians. Missionary zeal was an important motivator as Roman Catholic Spain worked to counter the expanding influence of the Reformation and Protestantism. These colonies were largely populated by men, and they would gradually include Native Americans and Africans in their society. Florida Juan Ponce de Leon claimed these lands for Spain in 1513. After a number of failures and the strong resistance of American Indians in the region, the Spanish established a permanent settlement at St. Augustine in 1565, more than 50 years before the English founded Jamestown. St. Augustine became the oldest city founded by Europeans in what became the mainland of the United States. Only a few small settlements developed as the Spanish found little silver and gold, a declining native population due to wars and disease, and periodic hurricanes. 34 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION New Mexico and Arizona In a region that had been settled by American Indians for about 700 years, Spanish colonists began arriving in 1598. They established Santa Fe as the capital of New Mexico in 1610. Texas Between Florida and New Mexico, the Spanish established settlements in Texas. These communities grew in the early 1700s as Spain resisted French efforts to explore the lower Mississippi River. California With Russians exploring from Alaska, the Spanish started a settlement at San Diego in 1769. By 1784, the Franciscan order and Father Junípero Serra had established missions along the California coast. French Colonies Similar to the Spanish, the French colonizers were mainly men. However, there were few French. Some came as Christian missionaries. Those who came for economic reasons mostly worked in the lucrative fur trade, traveling throughout the interior of North America purchasing furs gathered by American Indians. Many traders married American Indian women, who then provided valuable services as guides, translators, and negotiators with other American Indians. The reliance of the French on trade made rivers particularly important in their colonies. Quebec, the first French settlement in America was located on the St. Lawrence River. It was founded by Samuel de Champlain, the “Father of New France,” in 1608. In 1673, Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette explored the upper Mississippi River. Nine years later, Robert de La Salle explored the Mississippi basin, which he named Louisiana (after the French king, Louis XIV). By 1718, the French had moved southward down the Mississippi River and established a permanent settlement, New Orleans, where the river entered the Gulf of Mexico. New Orleans became a prosperous trade center. Dutch Colonies During the 1600s, the Netherlands sponsored voyages of exploration. The government hired Henry Hudson, an English sailor, to seek westward passage to Asia. In 1609, while searching for a northwest passage, Hudson sailed up a broad river that was later named for him, the Hudson River. This expedition established Dutch claims to the surrounding area, New Amsterdam (and later New York). The Dutch government granted a private company, the Dutch West India Company, the right to control the region for economic gain. Like the French colonies, the Dutch colonies consisted of small numbers of traders who built strong trade networks among American Indians. However, the Dutch were more likely to settle in trading posts near the coast or along major rivers and less likely to intermarry with American Indians. Topic 2.2 European colonization in north america 35 British Colonies In the early 1600s, England was in a position to colonize the lands explored a century earlier by John Cabot. England’s population was growing more rapidly than its economy, so its number of poor and landless families was increasing. They were attracted to opportunities in the Americas. Using joint-stock companies to finance the risky enterprise of colonization, the English began settling colonies in the Americas. Compared to other European colonists, those from England included a higher percentage of families and single females, and they were more interested in farming. As a result, English settlers were more likely to claim American Indian land and less likely to intermarry with Indians. In addition, the English colonies attracted a more diverse group of European settlers than did other colonies. Most of these settlers migrated in search of better lives or religious freedom. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain what the motivations and methods were that supported European colonial growth during the period from 1607 to 1754. KEY TERMS BY THEME Settlements (ARC) Authority (WOR) John Cabot joint-stock company MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–2 refer to the following excerpt. “As touching the quality of this country, three thinges there bee, which in fewe yeares may bring this Colony to perfection; the English plough, Vineyards, & Cattle.... All our riches for the present doe consiste in Tobacco, wherein one man by his owne labour hath in one yeare, raised to himself to the value of 200 sterling; and another by the means of sixe servants hath cleared at one crop a thousand pound english. These be true, yet indeed rare examples, yet possible to be done by others. Our principall wealth (I should haue said) consisteth in servants: but they are chargeable to be furnished with armes, apparel, & bedding, and for their transportation, and casuall both at sea, & for their first yeare commonly at lande also: but if they escape, they proove very hardy, and sound able men.” John Pory, Secretary of Virginia, Letter to Sir Dudley Carlton, 1619 36 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION 1. The excerpt illustrates which of the following visions for Virginia? (A) A land that would provide agricultural products that would enrich England (B) A settlement designed to reproduce England’s social structure and economy (C) A haven where servants could escape bondage and live as free individuals (D) A colony that would help expand England’s empire and diplomatic power 2. Which of the following developments in the 17th century could best be used as evidence to support or modify the references to servants in the second paragraph? (A) Colonists became more dependent on raids of Native American settlements to obtain workers. (B) Europeans from outside of England became the majority of colonists who settled in Virginia. (C) Large numbers of English citizens emigrated to the colonies as indentured laborers. (D) The king started wars against other European powers to capture their citizens and send them to Virginia. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or a bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. “[This colony] was for the most part at first peopled by persons of low circumstances.... Nor was it hardly possible it should be otherwise; for ’tis not likely that any man of a plentiful estate should voluntarily abandon a happy certainty to roam after imaginary advantages in a New World. Besides which uncertainty, must have proposed to himself to encounter the infinite difficulties and dangers that attend a new settlement. These discouragements were sufficient to terrify any man that could live easy in England from going to... a strange land.” Robert Beverly, historian, The History and Present State of Virginia, 1705 Using the excerpt above, answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain Robert Beverly’s perspective in the excerpt. (b) Briefly explain ONE example of historical evidence that supports Beverly’s position. (c) Briefly explain ONE example of historical evidence that challenges Beverly’s position. Topic 2.2 European colonization in north america 37 Topic 2.3 The Regions of British Colonies Liberty of conscience... we ask as our undoubted right by the law of God, of nature, and of our own country. William Penn, “The Great Case of Liberty of Conscience,” 1670 Learning Objective: Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. The English colonies developed regional or sectional differences based on many influences including topography, natural resources, climate, and the background of their settlers. Starting with Jamestown (Virginia) in 1607 and ending in 1733 in Georgia, 13 distinct colonies developed along the Atlantic coast of North America. Every colony received its authority to operate by a charter granting special privileges from the monarch. Each charter described the relationship between the colony and the crown. Over time, three types of charters—and three types of colonies—developed: Corporate colonies, such as Jamestown, were operated by joint-stock companies, at least during these colonies’ early years. Royal colonies, such as Virginia after 1624, were to be under the direct authority and rule of the king’s government. Proprietary colonies, such as Maryland and Pennsylvania, were under the authority of individuals granted charters of ownership by the king. The British took pride in free farmers working the land. Unlike the French and Spanish colonists, the English had a tradition of representative government. They were accustomed to elections for representatives speaking for property owners and deciding important measures, such as taxes, proposed by the king’s government. While political and religious conﬂicts dominated England, feelings for independence grew in the colonies. Eventually, tensions emerged between the king and his colonial subjects. Early English Settlements The earliest English colonies were founded for very different reasons and hundreds of miles apart in Virginia and Massachusetts. 38 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Jamestown England’s King James I chartered the Virginia Company, a joint-stock company that founded the ﬁrst permanent English colony in America at Jamestown in 1607. Early Problems The ﬁrst settlers of Jamestown suffered greatly, mostly from their own mistakes. The settlement’s location in a swampy area along the James River resulted in fatal outbreaks of dysentery and malaria. Many of the settlers were gentlemen unaccustomed to physical work or gold hunters who refused to hunt or farm. A source of goods came from trade with American Indians, but conflicts between settlers and the natives stopped trade and settlers starved. Through the leadership of Captain John Smith, Jamestown survived its first five years. Through the efforts of John Rolfe and his Indian wife, Pocahontas, the colony developed a variety of tobacco that became popular in Europe and a profitable crop. To recruit White settlers, Virginia provided 50 acres of land, called a headright, to any settler or to anyone who paid for passage for a settler to the colony. While the headright system helped many Europeans move to Virginia, it mostly aided landowners who added to their holdings by sponsoring indentured servants. During the first several decades of colonization, planters mostly used White laborers. However, by the end of the 17th century, landowners relied more on enslaved Africans. Transition to a Royal Colony Despite tobacco, by 1624 the Virginia colony remained near collapse. More than 5,000 people had settled in it, but death from disease and conflicts with Indians was so high that the population was only 1,300. Further, the Virginia Company was nearly bankrupt. King James I finally revoked the company charter and took direct control. Now known as Virginia, the colony became England’s ﬁrst royal colony. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay About 500 miles to the north of Jamestown, English settlers founded two other colonies, Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, in the region that became known as New England. While many of the settlers in these colonies came as indentured servants in search of economic opportunity, the distinctive force that set the tone for these colonies was religious motivation, the search for wealth. Both were settled by English Protestants who dissented from the government-supported Church of England, known as the Anglican Church. The Church of England, lead by the English king, had broken away from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534. However, it had kept most of the Catholic rituals and governing structure. The dissenters, influenced by the teachings of Swiss theologian John Calvin, charged that the Church of England should break completely with Rome. England’s King James I, who reigned from 1603 to 1625, viewed the religious dissenters as a threat to his religious and political authority and ordered them arrested and jailed. Topic 2.3 The regions of british colonies 39 The Plymouth Colony The radical dissenters, the Separatists, wanted to organize a completely separate church that was independent of royal control. Several hundred Separatists left England for Holland in search of religious freedom. Because of their travels, they became known as Pilgrims. Economic hardship and cultural differences with the Dutch led many of the Pilgrims to seek another haven for their religion. They chose the new colony in America, then operated by the Virginia Company of London. In 1620, a small group of Pilgrims set sail for Virginia aboard the Mayﬂower. Fewer than half of the 100 passengers on this ship were Separatists; the rest were people who had economic motives for making the voyage. After a hard voyage that lasted 65 days, the Mayﬂower dropped anchor off the Massachusetts coast, 600 miles north of Virginia. Rather than sail to Jamestown as planned, the Pilgrims established a new colony at Plymouth. After a ﬁrst winter that saw half the settlers perish, the survivors were helped by local American Indians to adapt to the land. They celebrated a good harvest at a thanksgiving feast (the ﬁrst Thanksgiving) in 1621. Strong leaders, including Captain Miles Standish and Governor William Bradford, grew Plymouth slowly. Fish, furs, and lumber became the mainstays of the economy. Massachusetts Bay Colony A group of more moderate dissenters, called Puritans, believed that the Church of England could be reformed, or purified. The persecution of Puritans increased when a new king, Charles I, took the throne in 1625. Seeking religious freedom, a group of Puritans gained a royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Company (1629). In 1630, a thousand Puritans led by John Winthrop sailed for Massachusetts and founded Boston. Religious and political conflict in England in the 1630s drove some 15,000 settlers to the Massachusetts Bay Colony—a movement known as the Great Migration (The same term is used for the movement of African Americans from southern to northern states in the 20th century.) Puritans from Massachusetts Bay founded several settlements in New England. In contrast to the plantations in Virginia, these New England settlements were mixtures of small towns and family farms that relied on a blend of commerce and agriculture. Religious Issues in Maryland In 1632, King Charles I split off part of Virginia to create a new colony, Maryland. He granted control of it to George Calvert (Lord Baltimore), a Catholic noble, for his service to the king. Maryland was the ﬁrst proprietary colony. The king expected proprietors to carry out his wishes faithfully, thus giving him control. The ﬁrst Lord Baltimore died and Maryland passed to his son, Cecil Calvert—the second Lord Baltimore. The son set about implementing his father’s plan in 1634 to provide a haven for his fellow Catholics, who faced persecution from Protestants in Britain. Act of Toleration To avoid persecution in England, several wealthy Catholics emigrated to Maryland and established plantations. However, they 40 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION were quickly outnumbered by Protestant farmers who held a majority in Maryland’s assembly. In 1649, Calvert persuaded the assembly to adopt the Act of Toleration, the ﬁrst colonial statute granting religious freedom to all Christians. However, the statute also called for the death of anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus. Protestant Revolt In the late 1600s, Protestants angered by a Catholic proprietor ignited a civil war. The Protestants triumphed, and they repealed the Act of Toleration. Catholics lost the right to vote in elections for the assembly. In the 18th century, Maryland’s economy and society was like that of Virginia, except that Maryland tolerated more diversity among Protestant sects. Development of New England Strong religious convictions sustained settlers in their struggle to establish the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies. However, Puritan leaders showed intolerance of anyone who questioned their religious teachings, often banishing dissidents from the Bay colony. These dissidents formed settlements that became Rhode Island and Connecticut. NEW ENGLAND AND ATLANTIC COLONIES 1600s MAINE NEW HAMPSHIRE ATLANTIC OCEAN MASSACHUSETTS BAY NEW NETHERLAND Cape Cod PLYMOUTH CONNECTICUT RHODE ISLAND land 0 40 miles Long Is New 0 40 kilometers Amsterdam Topic 2.3 The regions of british colonies 41 Rhode Island One well-respected Puritan minister who moved from England to Boston was Roger Williams, who arrived in 1631. He believed that the individual’s conscience was beyond the control of any civil or church authority. His teachings placed him in conﬂict with other Puritan leaders, who ordered his banishment. Leaving Boston, Williams ﬂed southward to Narragansett Bay, where he and a few followers founded the community of Providence in 1636, and Williams started one of the ﬁrst Baptist churches in America. The government allowed Catholics, Quakers, and Jews to worship freely. Further, the new colony was unique in that it recognized the rights of American Indians and paid them for the use of their land. Another dissident who questioned the doctrines of the Puritan authorities was Anne Hutchinson. She believed in antinomianism—the idea that since individuals receive salvation through their faith alone, they were not required to follow traditional moral laws. Banished from the Bay colony, Hutchinson and her followers founded Portsmouth in 1638. A few years later, Hutchinson migrated to Long Island and was killed in an American Indian uprising. In 1644, Roger Williams was granted a charter from the Parliament that joined Providence and Portsmouth into a single colony, Rhode Island. Because this colony tolerated diverse beliefs, it served as a refuge for many. Connecticut To the west of Rhode Island, the Connecticut River Valley attracted others who were unhappy with the Massachusetts authorities. The Reverend Thomas Hooker led a large group of Boston Puritans into the valley and founded Hartford in 1636. The Hartford settlers then drew up the ﬁrst written constitution in American history, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639). It established a representative government with a legislature elected by popular vote and a governor chosen by that legislature. South of Hartford, a second settlement in the Connecticut Valley was started by John Davenport in 1637 and given the name New Haven. In 1665, New Haven joined with Hartford to form Connecticut. The royal charter for Connecticut granted it a limited degree of self-government, including election of the governor. New Hampshire The last colony to be founded in New England was New Hampshire. Hoping to increase royal control over the colonies, King Charles II separated New Hampshire from the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1679 and made it a royal colony, subject to the authority of an appointed governor. Halfway Covenant To be a full member of a Puritan congregation, individuals needed to have a confirmed religious experience, a conversion. However, fewer members of the new native-born generation were having such experiences. To maintain the church’s inﬂuence and membership, a halfway covenant was offered by some clergy so that people could become partial members even if they had not felt a conversion. Nevertheless, as the years passed, strict Puritan practices weakened in most New England communities in order to maintain church membership. 42 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Restoration Colonies New American colonies were founded in the late 17th century during a period known as the Restoration. The name refers to the restoration of the monarchy under King Charles II in 1660 following a brief period of republican rule under a Puritan leader, Oliver Cromwell. The Carolinas As a reward for helping him gain the throne, Charles II granted a huge tract of land between Virginia and Spanish Florida to eight nobles. In 1663, these nobles became the lord proprietors of the Carolinas. In 1729, two royal colonies, South Carolina and North Carolina, were formed from the original grant. THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES AROUND 1750 HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY NOVA SCOTIA E C Q U E B MAINE La k NEW eH HAMPSHIRE o uron ntari L. O MASSACHUSETTS NEW YORK ie RHODE ISLAND Er L. CONECTICUT PENNSYLVANIA NEW JERSEY DELAWARE ATLANTIC VIRGINIA MARYLAND OCEAN NORTH Corporate Colonies CAROLINA Proprietary Colonies SOUTH CAROLINA Royal Colonies GEORGIA 0 300 miles 0 300 kilometers Gulf of SPANISH FLORIDA Mexico South Carolina In 1670, a few colonists from England and some planters from the island of Barbados founded Charleston, named for their king, Charles Topic 2.3 The regions of british colonies 43 II. Initially, the southern economy was based on trading furs and providing food for the West Indies. By the middle of the 18th century, South Carolina’s large rice-growing plantations, worked by enslaved Africans, resembled the economy and culture of the West Indies. North Carolina Unlike South Carolina, the region that became North Carolina had few good harbors and poor transportation. As a result, it developed few large plantations and little reliance on slavery. It attracted farmers from Virginia and New England who established small, self-sufﬁcient tobacco farms. Some made use of indentured servants and enslaved Africans. North Carolina in the 18th century earned a reputation for democratic views and autonomy from British control. The Middle Colonies The four colonies between New England and Virginia—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware—are often called the Middle Colonies. They had fertile land that attracted a relatively diverse group of European immigrants, good harbors where cities developed, and tolerant attitudes toward religion. New York Charles II wished to consolidate holdings along the Atlantic coast and close the gap between the New England and the Chesapeake colonies. This required compelling the Dutch to give up New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island and the Hudson River Valley. In 1664, the king granted his brother, the Duke of York (the future James II), the lands lying between Connecticut and Delaware Bay. James dispatched a force that easily took control of the Dutch colony from its governor, Peter Stuyvesant. He ordered his agents to rename the colony New York, but to treat the Dutch settlers well by allowing them the freedom to worship as they pleased and to speak their own language. James also ordered new taxes, duties, and rents without the consent of a representative assembly. He insisted that no assembly should be allowed in his colony. Taxation without representation met strong opposition from the English-speaking settlers. In 1683, James did yield by allowing New York’s governor to grant broad civil and political rights, including a representative assembly. New Jersey Believing that the territory of New York was too large, James split it in 1664. He gave the section located between the Hudson River and Delaware Bay to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. In 1674, one received West New Jersey and the other East New Jersey. To attract settlers, both made generous land offers and allowed religious freedom and an assembly. Eventually, they sold their interests to groups of Quakers. Land titles in the Jerseys changed hands often, and inaccurate property lines added to the general confusion. To settle matters, the crown decided in 1702 to combine the two Jerseys into a single royal colony: New Jersey. 44 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Pennsylvania, “The Holy Experiment” To the west of New Jersey lay a broad expanse of forested land that the royal family gave to a military and political leader, William Penn, in payment for a debt. The land became known as Penn’s woods, or Pennsylvania. When Penn died, he left the land to his son, also named William Penn. The son had joined a group of Christians who called themselves the Religious Society of Friends. Commonly known as Quakers, they were considered radical by most people in Britain and the colonies. They believed that religious authority was found within each person and not in the Bible nor in any outside source. This led them to support equality among all men and women and to reject violence and resist military service. Because their beliefs challenged authority, the Quakers of England were persecuted and jailed for their beliefs. Penn hoped his colony would provide a religious refuge for Quakers and other persecuted people as well as generate income and profits for himself. He put his Quaker beliefs to the test by enacting liberal ideas in government. He provided a Frame of Government (1682–1683), which guaranteed a representative assembly elected by landowners, and a written constitution, the Charter of Liberties (1701), which guaranteed freedom of worship for all and unrestricted immigration. Unlike other colonial proprietors, who governed from England, Penn crossed the ocean to supervise the founding of Philadelphia on the Delaware River. He brought a plan for a grid pattern of streets, which was later imitated by other cities. He also attempted to treat the American Indians fairly and to not cheat them when purchasing their land. To attract settlers, Penn hired agents and published notices throughout Europe promising political and religious freedom and generous land terms. Penn’s lands along the Delaware River had previously been settled by several thousand Dutch and Swedish colonists, who eased the arrival of the newcomers. Delaware In 1702, Penn granted the lower three counties of Pennsylvania their own assembly. In effect, Delaware became a separate colony, even though its governor was the same as Pennsylvania’s until the American Revolution. Georgia, The Last Mainland Colony In 1732, Georgia, the thirteenth and final British colony between Canada and the Caribbean, was chartered. It was the only colony to receive direct ﬁnancial support from the government. The British had two reasons to start a new southern colony: They wanted to create a defensive buffer to protect South Carolina plantations from the Spanish Florida. They wanted a place to send the thousands of people in England imprisoned for debt. Sending debtors to a colony would both relieve the overcrowded jails and provide a chance for people to start life over. Given a royal charter for a proprietary colony, a group of philanthropists led by James Oglethorpe founded Savannah in 1733. Oglethorpe, the colony’s ﬁrst governor, put into effect a plan for making the colony thrive. There were Topic 2.3 The regions of british colonies 45 strict regulations, including bans on drinking rum and slavery. Nevertheless, partly because of the constant threat of Spanish attack, the colony did not prosper. By 1752, Oglethorpe’s group gave up. Georgia was taken over by the British government and became a royal colony. Restrictions on rum and slavery were dropped. The colony grew slowly, adopting the plantation system of South Carolina. In 1776, Georgia was the smallest of the 13 colonies that rebelled against the British. Early Political Institutions Britain had difficulty exerting tight control over the colonies. The distance across the Atlantic was great enough that communication was slow. Further, Britain was often consumed by domestic upheavals and wars with France, so it paid little attention to the colonies. Because of these factors, self-rule began early in the colonies. A Representative Assembly in Virginia The Virginia Company encouraged settlement by guaranteeing to settlers the same rights as residents of England had, including representation in lawmaking. In 1619, Virginia’s colonists organized the ﬁrst representative assembly in America, the House of Burgesses. It was dominated by elite planters. Representative Government in New England Aboard the Mayﬂower in 1620, the Pilgrims drew up and signed a document in which they pledged to make decisions by the will of the majority. Known as the Mayﬂower Compact, this was an early form of self-government and a rudimentary written constitution. Throughout New England, then, communities held town meetings to debate local decisions and to elect members to colonial legislatures. Voting rights were relatively broad for the time. In Massachusetts Bay Colony, all freemen—male members of the Puritan Church—had the right to elect the colony’s governor and a representative assembly. Limits to Colonial Democracy Despite these steps, most colonists other than male property owners were excluded from the political process. Females and landless males had few rights, indentured servants had practically no rights, and enslaved people had none. Many colonial governors ruled with autocratic or unlimited powers, answering only to the king or to those who provided the colonies’ ﬁnancial support. Thus, the gradual development of democratic ideas in the colonies coexisted with antidemocratic practices such as slavery and the widespread mistreatment of American Indians. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the forces, including the environment, that played a role in the growth of the British colonies during the period from 1607 to 1754. 46 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION KEY TERMS BY THEME Religion (SOC) Captain John Smith Pennsylvania Cecil Calvert, Lord John Rolfe Delaware Baltimore Pocahontas Georgia Act of Toleration Virginia James Oglethorpe Roger Williams Plymouth Colony Self-Rule (PCE) Providence Separatists Fundamental Orders of Anne Hutchinson Pilgrims Connecticut (1639) antinomianism Mayflower Frame of Government Rhode Island Massachusetts Bay Colony (1682–1683) halfway covenant Puritans Virginia House of Quakers John Winthrop Burgesses William Penn Great Migration Mayflower Compact Holy Experiment Thomas Hooker Authority (WOR) Charter of Liberties (1701) John Davenport corporate colonies Crops (GEO) Connecticut royal colonies rice-growing plantations New Hampshire proprietary colonies tobacco farms the Carolinas Virginia Company Settlements (ARC) New York Chesapeake colonies Jamestown New Jersey joint-stock company MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt. “Be it therefore ordered and enacted.... That whatsoever person or persons within this Province... shall henceforth blaspheme God, that is, curse Him or shall deny our Savior Jesus Christ to be the Son of God, or shall deny the Holy Trinity... or the Godhead of any of the said Three persons of the Trinity or the Unity of the Godhead... shall be punished with death and confiscation or forfeiture of all his or her lands.... And whereas... that no person or persons whatsoever within this province, or the islands, ports, harbors, creeks, or havens thereunto belonging, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any way troubled, molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in free exercise thereof within this province or the islands thereunto belonging nor any way compelled to the belief or exercise of any other Religion against his or her consent.” The Maryland Act of Toleration, 1649 Topic 2.3 The regions of british colonies 47 1. The authors of the Maryland Act of Toleration were primarily trying to protect which of the following religious groups? (A) Jews who faced antisemitism in Europe and in other colonies (B) Quakers who were being attacked for their support of nonviolence and other beliefs (C) Anglicans who had been persecuted in New England (D) Roman Catholics who felt threatened by the growing number of Protestant settlers 2. Which of the following best summarizes the attitude toward religious beliefs expressed in this document? (A) Individuals should be free to believe or not believe in God as they wish. (B) Religion should be a personal matter that the government should not try to influence. (C) Christians should be able to practice their faith without fear of persecution. (D) The colony should be reserved for the one specific type of Christianity approved by the local government officials. 3. Which of the following colonies practiced greater religious toleration than the excerpt about Maryland calls for? (A) Roger William’s Rhode Island (B) Thomas Hooker’s Connecticut (C) Anne Hutchinson’s Portsmouth (D) John Winthrop’s Massachusetts SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. Answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE way in which Puritanism influenced the development of New England from 1630 to 1685. (b) Briefly explain another way in which Puritanism influenced the development of New England from 1630 to 1685. (c) Briefly explain how ONE specific new colony in New England developed differently as a result of Puritanism during the period from 1630 to 1685. 48 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Topic 2.4 Transatlantic Trade The sad truth is that without complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders... the slave trade to the New World would have been impossible. Henry Louis Gates Jr., “Ending the Slavery Blame-Game,” New York Times, 2010 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time. While the colonists had various reasons for settling in the Americas, such as an opportunity to practice their religious faith or an opportunity to search for wealth, the European nations that controlled the colonies looked at them to increase their power. A principal way to become stronger was through transatlantic trade. Triangular Trade Merchant ships regularly followed a triangular, or three-part, route, that connected North America, Africa, and Europe in various ways. A typical voyage might begin in New England: A ship would leave a port in New England carrying rum across the Atlantic to West Africa. There the rum would be traded for hundreds of captive Africans. Next, the ship would set out on the horrendous Middle Passage. Those Africans who survived the voyage would be traded in the West Indies for sugarcane. Third, completing the last side of the triangle, the ship returned to a New England port where the sugar would be sold to be made into rum. Variations on the route included stops in England or Spain. Every trade provided the slave-trading entrepreneur a substantial proﬁt. In the 17th century, English trade in enslaved Africans was first monopolized by the Royal African Company. However, by the late 17th century, the RAC could not supply as many enslaved Africans as demanded by colonial planters. Parliament ended the company’s monopoly on the slave trade, and New England merchants entered the lucrative business. Topic 2.4 Transatlantic trade 49 COLONIAL TRIANGULAR TRADE ROUTES ENGLAND NORTH goods AMERICA ctured Manufa aval store s EUROPE New Boston , in digo, n York cco , furs Philadelphia Toba PORTUGAL Norfolk Fish, rice, meat SPAIN Charlestown ATLANTIC Flo s, mea molasses fur Sugar, Gulf OCEAN ur, of Ru fish t Mexico WE m Cuba S T I N D AFRICA , IES Jamaica Hispaniola Gold , ens lave “Mid d pe dle P ople assa ge” SOUTH AMERICA 0 1,000 Miles 0 1,000 Kilometers Mercantilism and the Empire Most European kingdoms in the 17th century believed in mercantilism, the economic theory that a country’s wealth was determined by how much more it exported than it imported. Hence, governments tried to promote the sales of goods to other countries and to discourage purchases through tariffs. In a mercantilist system, colonies existed for one purpose only: to enrich the parent country. They were to provide raw materials to the parent country to promote that country’s industries. Spanish and French rulers had followed mercantilist policies from the start of colonization. England began applying them after the end of the English Civil War in 1651. Acts of Trade and Navigation England’s government implemented a mercantilist policy with a series of Navigation Acts between 1650 and 1673, which established three rules for colonial trade: Trade to and from the colonies could be carried only by English or colonial-built ships, operated only by English or colonial crews. All goods imported into the colonies, except for some perishables, had to pass through ports in England. 50 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Speciﬁed or “enumerated” goods from the colonies could be exported to England only. Tobacco was the original “enumerated” good, but over the years, the list was greatly expanded. Impact on the Colonies The Navigation Acts had mixed effects on the colonies. The acts aided New England shipbuilding, provided Chesapeake tobacco a monopoly in England, and provided English military forces to protect the colonies from any attacks by the French and Spanish. The triangular slave trade that connected the colonies and Africa was largely unaffected by increased regulations. However, the acts also severely limited the development of the colonial economy. Since colonists could not manufacture their own goods, they had to pay high prices for manufactured goods from England. Since Chesapeake farmers could sell their crops only to England, they had to accept low prices for their crops. For example, in the 1660s, low tobacco prices that resulted from high production brought hard times to the Chesapeake colonies, Maryland and Virginia. When Virginia’s House of Burgesses tried to raise tobacco prices, the merchants of London retaliated by raising their prices on goods exported to Virginia. Besides trading with Great Britain, colonists also continued to trade with American Indians for furs, food, and other goods. This created ongoing contact between settlers and the indigenous population, leading to cultural exchanges, particularly along the western frontier of the colonies. For example, some Indians adopted Christianity and some colonial men married Indian women. While intermarriage was uncommon, the resulting couple almost always lived in the Indian rather than the settler community. The famous marriage between Pocahontas and John Rolfe in Virginia was a rare exception of an Indian-settler couple who lived in Jamestown. Enforcement of the Acts While the theory of mercantilism called for strict enforcement of trade regulations, the practice was quite different. England was normally very lax in enforcing regulations, a policy known as salutary neglect. Several factors made enforcement difficult: The Atlantic Ocean separated the British government from the colonies, so exerting any authority from London over its distant possessions was challenging. England faced larger problems than regulating trade. Between 1642 and 1763, it was in constant turmoil. It went through the English Civil War, a revolution that replaced the monarch, and four wars with France. Britain’s colonial agents were often corrupt. As a result, colonial merchants could evade regulations easily with well-placed bribes to those in charge of enforcing regulations. In retrospect, regulation might not have been necessary. Because of their close economic and cultural ties, England and its colonies were natural trading partners. The colonies had abundant natural resources that they probably would have sold mostly to the English with or without regulation. Topic 2.4 Transatlantic trade 51 The Dominion of New England Occasionally, though, the crown would attempt to overcome resistance to its trade laws. In 1684, it revoked the charter of Massachusetts Bay because it had been the center of smuggling activity. Whatever economic advantages this and other efforts brought England were offset by their harm to English-colonial relations. Colonists resented the regulatory laws imposed by the government in London. Especially in New England, colonists defied the acts by smuggling goods from other countries. A New King A new king, James II, succeeded to the throne in 1685. He was determined to increase royal control over the colonies by combining them into larger administrative units and doing away with representative assemblies. In 1686, he combined New York, New Jersey, and the various New England colonies into the Dominion of New England. Sir Edmund Andros was sent from England to serve as governor of the dominion. The new governor made himself instantly unpopular by levying taxes, limiting town meetings, and revoking land titles. Overthrow of the King James II did not remain in power for long as his attempts at asserting his powers led to an uprising. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 succeeded in deposing James and replacing him with William and Mary. James’s fall from power brought the Dominion of New England to an end, and the colonies again operated under separate charters. Ongoing Trade Tensions After the Glorious Revolution, mercantilist policies remained in force, but the efforts to enforce them were never sustained enough to be effective. Until 1763, salutary neglect and colonial resistance to regulation continued. Regulation of trade, while not the only source of friction, would remain the fundamental problem between the colonists and England. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain what brought about transatlantic trade and what its long-term impact was. KEY TERMS BY THEME Royal Authority (WOR) Dominion of New England triangular trade Sir Edmund Andros mercantilism Glorious Revolution Navigation Acts 52 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–2 refer to the following excerpt. “Whereas the welfare and prosperity of Your Majesty’s sugar colonies in America are of the greatest consequence and importance to trade, navigation, and strength of this Kingdom.... There shall be raised, levied, collected, and paid into and for the use of His Majesty, His Heirs, and Successors upon all rum or spirits of produce or manufacture of any colonies or plantations in America, not in the possession or under the dominion of His Majesty... which at any time or times within or during the continuance of this act shall be imported or brought into any of the colonies or plantations in America... the sum of 9d [9 pennies].” Molasses Act of 1733 1. The intentions of the English government in passing the Molasses Act were most similar to the intentions motivating which of the following? (A) Theocratic laws passed by the Puritan leaders of New England (B) Ordinances passed by Virginia’s governors during the 17th century (C) Regulations imposed by the Dominion of New England (D) Actions by colonial customs officials during the period of salutary neglect 2. The immediate response to the action described in the excerpt was most likely an increase in (A) sugar production in France’s colonies in the West Indies (B) rum production in Spain’s colonies in the West Indies (C) smuggling by New England merchants (D) trade between England and its colonies SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION 1. Answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly describe ONE specific historical benefit the colonies received under British mercantilism in the period from 1607 to 1754. (b) Briefly describe ONE specific historical disadvantage the colonies had under British mercantilism in the period from 1607 to 1754. (c) Briefly describe ONE specific historical action the colonies took in response to British mercantilism in the period from 1607 to 1754. Topic 2.4 Transatlantic trade 53 Topic 2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans Fifty-six years after the sailing of the Mayflower, the Pilgrims’ children had not only defeated the Pokanokets... they had taken conscious, methodical measures to purge the land of its people. Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War, 2006 Learning Objective: Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time. F rom the very beginning Europeans saw each other as rivals for power in the Americas. In general, they viewed American Indians as inferior people who could be used as forced labors or pushed off their land, but also as potential allies in conflicts with other Europeans or other American Indians. In response, Native Americans who survived the devastation of European diseases defended themselves and their cultures. Sometimes various tribes joined together to resist Europeans. Other times, a particular tribe allied with one group of Europeans to fight another or to fight against a traditional tribal rival. For example, in 1626 in southern New York, the Mahican Indians persuaded Dutch settlers to join in an attack on the Mohawk Indians. Conflict in New England In the 1640s, the New England colonies faced the constant threat of attack from American Indians, the Dutch, and the French. With England in the midst of a civil war, the colonists expected little assistance. New England Confederation In 1643, four New England colonies (Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven) organized for their mutual protection. They formed a military alliance known as the New England Confederation. The confederation was directed by a board composed of two representatives from each colony. It had limited powers to act on boundary disputes, the return of runaway servants, and dealings with American Indians. The confederation lasted until 1684, when colonial rivalries and renewed control by the English monarch brought this ﬁrst experiment in colonial cooperation to an end. Though it lasted only four decades, it established an important precedent for colonies taking uniﬁed action for a common purpose. 54 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War) Only a few years before the confederation’s demise, it helped the New England colonists win a vicious war. In response to English settlers encroaching on the American Indians’ lands, a chief of the Wampanoag, Metacom, known to the colonists as King Philip, united many tribes in southern New England. Some tribes, such as the Mohegans and the Pequots, supported the colonists because of their long-standing rivalry with the Wampanoag. The resulting conflict was called Metacom’s War (1675– 1676). In it, several villages were burned to the ground, hundreds of people were killed, and thousands of people were injured. Eventually, the colonial forces and their Indian allies prevailed, killing Metacom and ending most American Indian resistance in New England. Conflict in Virginia Sir William Berkeley, the royal governor of Virginia (1641–1652; 1660– 1677), used dictatorial powers to govern on behalf of the large planters. He antagonized small farmers on Virginia’s western frontier because he failed to protect them from Indian attacks. Bacon’s Rebellion Nathaniel Bacon, an impoverished gentleman farmer, seized upon the grievances of the western farmers to lead a rebellion against Berkeley’s government. Bacon and others resented the control exercised by a few large planters in the Chesapeake area. He raised an army of volunteers and, in 1676, conducted a series of raids and massacres against American Indian villages on the frontier, including some who had friendly relationships with the colonial government. Berkeley’s government in Jamestown accused Bacon of rebelling against royal authority. Bacon’s army defeated the governor’s forces and burned the Jamestown settlement. Soon afterward, Bacon died of dysentery, and the rebel army collapsed. Governor Berkeley suppressed the remnants of the insurrection, executing 23 rebels. This drawing of Bacon (center, left) confronting Berkeley (center, right) was created for a history textbook written in 1895. Source: Susan Pendleton Lee, A School History of the United States (1895). Wikimedia.org. Topic 2.5 Interactions between american indians and europeans 55 Lasting Problems Though it was short-lived, Bacon’s Rebellion, or the Chesapeake Revolution, highlighted long-lasting disputes in Virginia and most of the colonies: sharp class differences between the wealthy and landless or poor farmers conflict on the frontiers between settlers and American Indians colonial resistance to royal control These problems would continue into the next century, even after conditions in the Chesapeake and other colonies became more stable and prosperous. Spanish Rule and the Pueblo Revolt Spain’s economic policy for its colonies was based on forcing Native Americans to labor for them through the encomienda system (see Topic 1.5). In religion, Spain’s Roman Catholic missionaries followed an aggressive, sometimes harsh, program to convert Native Americans to Christianity. The pressure of these efforts led to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Various tribes of Pueblo Indians, including the Hopi and Zuni, united against the Spanish. Hundreds of people died in the fighting, and the Spanish were driven from the area until 1692. However, after the Spanish regained control in 1692, they made some accommodations to the American Indians in the region. By ruling less harshly, the Spanish found greater stability. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the nature of the relationship between the Europeans and Native Americans and the reasons it evolved over time. KEY TERMS BY THEME Conflict (MIG) Authority (PCE) Wampanoag Sir William Berkeley Metacom Bacon’s Rebellion King Philip’s War New England Confederation 56 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt. “These at the heads of James and York rivers... grew impatient at the many slaughters of their neighbors and rose for own defense, who choosing Mr. Bacon for their leader, sent oftentimes to the Governor,... beseeching a commission to go against the Indians at their own charge; which His Honor as often promised, but did not send.... During these protractions and people often slain, most or all the officers, civil and military,... met and concerted together, the danger of going without a commission on the one part and the continual murders of their neighbors on the other part.... This day lapsing and no commission come, they marched into the wilderness in quest of these Indians, after whom the Governor sent his proclamation, denouncing all rebels who should not return within a limited day; whereupon those of estates obeyed. But Mr. Bacon, with fifty-seven men, proceeded.... They fired and... slew 150 Indians.” Samuel Kercheval, Virginia lawyer, “On Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia,” 1833 1. Based on this excerpt, what is Samuel Kercheval’s perspective toward Bacon and his followers? (A) They were dangerous men who threatened colonial stability and prosperity. (B) They were frustrated men who were taking action because the government did not. (C) They were allies of the governor who carried out actions that he supported. (D) They were a primarily political movement that wanted Bacon to become governor. 2. Bacon’s Rebellion was initiated by a group of farmers who felt most directly threatened by (A) an increase in royal taxes (B) the power of large planters (C) conflicts with American Indians (D) the growth of the slave trade Topic 2.5 Interactions between american indians and europeans 57 3. Which of the following groups led the opposition to Bacon’s Rebellion? (A) The British Army (B) The House of Burgesses (C) The governor of Virginia (D) The leaders of the Church of England SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. “As to the natives of this country, I find them entirely savage and wild, strangers to all decency, yea, uncivil and stupid as garden stakes, proficient in all wickedness and ungodliness, devilish men who serve nobody but the devil.... They have so much witchcraft, divination, sorcery, and wicked arts that they can hardly be held in by any bands or locks. They are as thievish and treacherous as they are tall, and in cruelty they are altogether inhuman.” Jonas Michaelius, pastor, Dutch Reformed Church, Letter to Reverend Andrianus Smoutius, 1628 “I confess I think no great good will be done till they [Indians] be more civilized. But why may not God begin with some few to awaken others by degrees? Nor do I expect any great good will be wrought by the English... because God is wont ordinarily to convert nations and peoples by some of their own countrymen who are nearest to them and can best speak, and, most of all, pity their brethren.” John Eliot, Puritan, “The Day-Breaking of the Gospel with the Indians,” 1646 Using the excerpts above, answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly describe ONE major difference between Michaelius’s and Eliot’s views of the Native Americans. (b) Briefly describe how ONE historical event or development in the period from 1607 to 1754 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Michaelius’s interpretation. (c) Briefly explain how ONE historical event or development in the period from 1607 to 1754 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Eliot’s interpretation. 58 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Topic 2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies In every human Breast, God has implanted a Principle, which we call Love of Freedom. Phillis Wheatley, “A Principle Which We Call Love of Freedom,” 1774 Learning Objective 1: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions. Learning Objective 2: Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery. W ith the colonial emphasis on agriculture came a demand for labor. Since the Native Americans could escape too easily and the supply of indentured servants was too small, landowners looked for another source of workers. They turned to the labor of enslaved Africans, especially in the southern colonies. The transatlantic slave trade (see Topic 2.4) was important to the economy, and much of the trade was financed or conducted by people in the northern colonies. Demand for Labor In Maryland and Virginia, landowners saw great opportunities for profit because of the European demand for tobacco. They could get land by taking it or trading for it from the American Indians. But they could not find enough laborers willing to work for low wages. The high death rate from disease, food shortages, and battles with American Indians meant that the population of colonists grew slowly. Landowners tried several ways to find the workers they wanted. Indentured Servants The early colonists of the Virginia Company were struggling to survive and too poor to purchase enslaved Africans as the owners of sugar plantations in the West Indies did. Instead, the Virginia Company hoped to meet the desire for labor using indentured servants. Under contract with a master or landowner who paid for their passage, those from the British Isles agreed to work for a speciﬁed period—usually four to seven years—in return for room and board. Indentured servants were under the absolute rule of their masters until the end of their work period. At the end of that period, they gained their freedom and could work for wages or obtain land of their own. For landowners, the system provided laborers, but only temporarily. Topic 2.6 Slavery in the british colonies 59 Headright System Virginia attempted to attract immigrants through offers of land. It offered 50 acres of land to each immigrant who paid for his own passage and to any plantation owner who paid for an immigrant’s passage. The Institution of Slavery In 1619, an English ship serving the Dutch government sold an unusual group of about 25 indentured servants to Virginia: the servants were Black Africans. These first Africans in Virginia were not in life bondage, and children born to them were free. However, this soon changed. By the end of the 1660s, the Virginia House of Burgesses enacted laws that kept Africans and their offspring in permanent bondage. They were enslaved. By the early 18th century, the number of enslaved people and laws to control them had greatly expanded. All British colonies included at least some enslaved laborers. The fewest were in New England, where small farmers had little demand for additional workers. More were in the Middle Colonies, particularly in the port cities, where African Americans often worked loading and unloading ships and as sailors. Most were in the southern colonies, working on plantations. By 1750, half of Virginia’s population and two-thirds of South Carolina’s population were enslaved. The British colonies with the highest number of enslaved people were the West Indian sugar islands. During the course of American slavery, about 95 percent of enslaved Africans were delivered to the West Indies or Brazil. Less than 5 percent went to the British colonies in North America. Increased Demand for Enslaved Africans Several factors explain why slavery became increasingly important, especially in the southern colonies: Reduced migration: Increases in wages in England reduced the supply of immigrants to the colonies. Dependable workforce: Large plantation owners were disturbed by the political demands of small farmers and indentured servants and by the disorders of Bacon’s Rebellion (see Topic 2.5). They thought that slavery would provide a stable labor force totally under their control. Low-cost labor: As tobacco prices fell (see Topic 2.4), rice and indigo became the most proﬁtable crops. To grow such crops required a large land area and many inexpensive, relatively unskilled ﬁeld hands. This increased demand also supported the active, profitable, and ruthless triangular trade (see Topic 2.4). Slave Laws As the number of enslaved workers increased, White colonists adopted laws to ensure that they would be held in bondage for life and that slave status would be inherited. In 1641, Massachusetts became the ﬁrst colony to recognize the enslavement of “lawful” captives. Virginia in 1661 enacted legislation that children automatically inherited their mother’s enslaved status for life. By 1664, the English law that people baptized as Christians could not be enslaved was being overturned. Maryland declared that baptism did not affect 60 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION the enslaved person’s status and that White women could not marry African American men. As slavery became common, Whites began to regard all Blacks as inferior. Racism and slavery evolved into integral parts of colonial society. Resistance to Slavery Although very difficult, many Africans challenged enslavement. They struggled to maintain family ties, even though slaveowners could break up a family by selling off a husband or a wife or a child at any time. Even as many adopted Christianity, they kept elements of the African religious practices they had brought with them. They used songs and storytelling to maintain traditions and customs. They resisted slavery through direct action such as going on hunger strikes, breaking tools, refusing to work, or fleeing— even if they knew they would likely be caught and punished harshly. The owners’ concern over slave resistance was reflected over the years in the enactment of new laws to control them. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the reasons for slavery in the various British colonies and its impact on them. KEY TERMS BY THEME Labor (WXT) headright system Middle Passage indentured servants slavery MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–2 refer to the following excerpt. “These are the reasons we are against the traffic of mens-body.... Now, though they are black, we cannot conceive there is more liberty to have them slaves as it is to have other white ones [slaves]. There is a saying that we shall do to all men like as we will be done ourselves, making no difference of what generation, descent, or color they are. And those who steal or rob men, and those who buy or purchase them, are they not alike.... In Europe there are many oppressed for conscience sake; and here there are those oppressed which are of a black color... This makes an ill report in all those countries of Europe, where they hear of that the Quakers do here handle men like they handle there the cattle. And for that reason some have no mind or Inclination to come hither.” Mennonite Community, Germantown, Pennsylvania, 1688 Topic 2.6 Slavery in the british colonies 61 1. The most direct cause of the practice objected to in the source was that (A) landowners wanted more workers than were arriving from Europe (B) investors thought English settlers were unwilling to work hard (C) settlers wanted Africans to come to Virginia to learn Christianity (D) colonists from European spoke too many different languages 2. Which of the following reasons does the excerpt suggest best explains why the group took the stance it did? (A) They were defending their economic interests. (B) They were opposed to increasing the colony’s population. (C) They felt that the colony should accept only settlers from England. (D) They were motivated by their religion beliefs. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. Total Population 3 Number of People (in millions) 2.5 2 1.5 African American 1 Population.5 0 1660 1680 1700 1720 1740 1760 1780 Year Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 Using the graph above, answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE specific historical development or circumstance between 1660 and 1780 that led to the changes in the African American population as depicted in the graph. (b) Briefly explain ONE specific effort made by the British authorities during the 17th and early 18th centuries to increase the population levels as depicted in the graph. (c) Briefly explain ONE specific cause for the periodic shortages of labor in the colonies during the period between 1660 and 1780. 62 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Topic 2.7 Colonial Society and Culture I assert that nothing ever comes to pass without a cause. Jonathan Edwards, The Freedom of Will, 1754 Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time. Learning Objective 2: Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain. T he struggling English colonial villages at the start of the 17th century evolved by the middle of the 18th century to develop a culture distinct from any in Europe. If Americans in the 18th century constituted a new kind of society, what were its characteristics and what forces shaped its “new people”? Population Growth In 1701, the English colonies on the Atlantic coast consisted of barely 250,000 Europeans and Africans. By 1775, the population was 2,500,000 people. Among African Americans, the increase was more dramatic: from about 28,000 in 1701 to 500,000 in 1775. The spectacular gains in population resulted from two factors: immigration of almost 1 million people and a sharp natural increase, caused by a high birthrate among colonial families. An abundance of fertile land and a dependable food supply attracted thousands of Europeans and supported the raising of large families. European Immigrants Newcomers to the British colonies came not only from England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, but also from western and central Europe. Many immigrants, most of whom were Protestants, came from the kingdom of France and various German-speaking states. Many were fleeing religious persecution and wars, while others were searching for economic opportunity as farmers, artisans, or merchants. Most immigrants settled in the middle colonies (Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware) and on the western frontier Topic 2.7 Colonial society and culture 63 of the southern colonies (Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia). Few headed for New England where land was limited and Puritans dominated. English Settlers from England continued to come to the American colonies. However, with fewer problems at home, their numbers were relatively small. Germans This group settled chiefly on the farmlands west of Philadelphia, an area that became known as Pennsylvania Dutch country. They maintained their German language, customs, and religious beliefs as Lutherans, Amish, Brethren, or Mennonites. They obeyed colonial laws but took little interest in English politics. By 1775, people of German stock comprised 6 percent of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish These English-speaking people were Protestants who came from northern Ireland. Their ancestors had moved to Ireland from Scotland, and they were known as the Scotch-Irish or Scots-Irish. They had little respect for the British, who had pressured them to leave Ireland. Most settled along the frontier in western Pennsylvania, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. By 1775, they comprised 7 percent of the population. Other Europeans Other groups included French Protestants (known as Huguenots), the Dutch, and the Swedes. These groups made up 5 percent of the population. Enslaved Africans The largest single group of people entering the English colonies did not come to America by choice. They were Africans who had been taken captive, forced onto European ships, and sold as enslaved laborers. They worked a range of occupations, such as laborer, bricklayer, or blacksmith, but the most common work was as field laborers on plantations. By 1775, African Americans (enslaved and free) made up 20 percent of the colonial population. Most lived in the southern colonies, and enslaved people formed a majority of the population in South Carolina and Georgia. A few Africans obtained their freedom. They were either emancipated by their owner or allowed to work for money and to purchase their freedom. However, every colony passed laws that discriminated against African Americans. American Indians Colonial population growth created conflicts between settlers and American Indians already living in a region. Some American Indians formed alliances to protect their land, such as the Powhaten Confederation in Virginia and the Iroquois Confederation in the Great Lakes region. Others used European settlers as allies in their conflicts with rival tribes. Among the most peaceful relations between American Indians and settlers were those in Pennsylvania. William Penn often obtained land through treaties rather than violence. 64 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION This frieze showing William Penn signing a treaty with the Delaware Indians in 1683 appears on a wall in the U.S. Capitol. Source: Architect of the Capitol. Wikimedia.org. The Structure of Colonial Society Each of the 13 British colonies developed distinct patterns of life. However, they all also shared a number of characteristics. For example, most of the population was English in origin, language, and tradition. In all colonies, both Africans and non-English immigrants brought diverse influences that modified the culture of the majority in significant ways. Liberty and Opportunity The colonies also offered people more self-determination than they found in Europe. This was evident in both religion and the economy. Religious Toleration All of the colonies permitted the practice of different religions, but with varying degrees of freedom. Massachusetts, the most restrictive, accepted several types of Protestants, but it excluded Roman Catholics and all non-Christians. Rhode Island and Pennsylvania were the most open. Pennsylvania accepted all who believed in God, including Jews. However, only Christians could participate in government. No Hereditary Aristocracy The extremes of Europe, with very wealthy nobility and masses of hungry poor, were missing in the colonies. A narrower class system, based on economics, was developing. Wealthy landowners were at the top; craft workers and small farmers made up the majority of people. Social Mobility In all colonies, White residents had an opportunity to improve their standard of living and status by hard work. Acquiring land was much easier than in Europe. The Family The family was the center of colonial life. With an expanding economy and ample food supply, people married younger and reared more children than in Europe. More than 90 percent of the people lived on farms. While life was hard, most colonists had a higher standard of living than did most Europeans. Men Besides working as farmers or artisans, men could own property and participate in politics. The law gave the husband almost unlimited power in the home, including the right to beat his wife. Topic 2.7 Colonial society and culture 65 Women A colonial woman bore an average of eight children, many of whom would die at birth or in infancy. She performed multiple tasks including cooking, cleaning, making clothes, providing medical care, and educating children. She often worked next to her husband in the shop, on the plantation, or on the farm. Divorce was legal but rare, and women had limited legal and political rights. Yet the shared labors and mutual dependence with their husbands gave most women protection from abuse and an active role in decision making. The Economy By the 1750s, half of Britain’s world trade was with its American colonies. The government limited colonial manufacturing, such as making textiles. The rich American land and British mercantilist policy produced colonies almost entirely engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. As communities grew, more people became ministers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers. The quickest route to wealth was land, although regional geography often provided distinct opportunities for hardworking colonists. New England Rocky soil and long winters limited most people to subsistence farming, producing just enough for the family. Most farms were small—less than 100 acres—and work was done by family and an occasional hired laborer. The descendants of the Puritans profited from logging, shipbuilding, fishing, trading, and rum-distilling. Middle Colonies Rich soil produced an abundance of wheat and corn for export to Europe and the West Indies. Farms of up to 200 acres were common. Often indentured servants and hired laborers worked with the farm families. A variety of small manufacturing efforts developed, including iron-making. Trading led to the growth of cities such as Philadelphia and New York. In 1750, Philadelphia was the largest city in the colonies, with a population of about 25,000 people. Southern Colonies Because of the diverse geography and climate in these colonies, agriculture varied greatly. Most people lived on small subsistence family farms without slaves. A few lived on large plantations of more than 2,000 acres relying on slave labor. Colonial plantations were self-sufficient, growing their own food and using enslaved craftworkers. Products were tobacco in the Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies, timber and naval stores (tar and pitch) in the Carolinas, and rice and indigo in South Carolina and Georgia. Most plantations were located on rivers so they could ship exports to Europe. Monetary System One way the British controlled the colonial economy was to limit the use of money. These limits forced colonies to use their limited gold and silver to pay for British imports that exceeded the value of colonial exports. To provide currency for domestic trade, many colonies issued paper money. However, they often issued too much money, causing it to decline in value, a process called inflation. The British government also claimed the right to veto any colonial laws that might harm British merchants. 66 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Transportation Transporting goods by water was easier than over land on poor roads. Trading centers such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston were located on the sites of good harbors and navigable rivers. Gradually overland travel by horse and stagecoach became more common in the 18th century. Taverns provided food and lodging for travelers and served as social centers where people exchanged news and discussed politics. By the mid- 18th century, the colonies ran a postal system using horses and small ships. Religion Most colonists were Protestants, but each region had some religious diversity: In New England, most people were Congregationalists (Puritans) or Presbyterians. In New York, people of Dutch descent often attended the Reformed Church. Most others belonged to the Church of England and were known as Anglicans (and later, Episcopalians). In Pennsylvania, Lutherans, Mennonites, and Quakers were common. In Virginia and other southern colonies, Anglicans were dominant. Maryland included many Catholics and some Jews. Challenges Each religious group, even the Protestants who dominated, faced problems. Jews, Catholics, and Quakers suffered from intense discrimination. Congregationalist ministers were criticized as domineering. Many people resented the Church of England and saw it as a symbol of English control because it was headed by the king. Established Churches In the 17th century, most colonial governments taxed the people to support a particular Protestant denomination, an established church. As various immigrants increased the religious diversity, governments gradually reduced their support of churches. However, some direct tax support of some New England churches remained until the 1830s. The Great Awakening By the early 18th century, sermons in Protestant churches tended to portray God as the creator of a perfect universe. Ministers gave less emphasis than their ancestors to human sinfulness and damnation. In the 1730s and 1740s, however, a dramatic change swept the colonies. This was the Great Awakening, a movement of fervent expressions of religious feeling among the masses. Jonathan Edwards Among the best-known leaders of the Great Awakening was a Congregational minister from Massachusetts, Reverend Jonathan Edwards. When he first gave his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” to his own congregation, it excited little emotion. However, as he traveled and delivered it elsewhere it generated a fervent response. Invoking the vivid language of the Old Testament, Edwards presented a God that was angry with human sinfulness. Individuals who deeply repented would be saved, but those who ignored God’s commandments would suffer eternal damnation. Topic 2.7 Colonial society and culture 67 George Whitefield Beginning in 1739, George Whitefield spread the Great Awakening throughout the colonies, attracting audiences of 10,000 people. In barns, tents, and fields, he stressed that God was all-powerful and would save only those who openly professed belief in Jesus Christ. Those who did not would be damned to hell. Whitefield taught that ordinary people with faith and sincerity could understand the gospels without ministers to lead them. Religious Impact The Great Awakening had a profound effect on religious practice. As sinners confessed their guilt and then joyously exulted in accepting salvation, emotionalism became more common in Protestant services. This caused splits in some denominations, such as the Congregationalists and Presbyterians, between supporters (“New Lights”) and opponents (“Old Lights”) of the new expressiveness of feeling. As people studied the Bible in their homes, ministers lost some authority over them. As a consequence, evangelical sects such as the Baptists and Methodists that often relied on traveling ministers attracted large numbers of new members. As the Great Awakening spread, new denominations challenged the Congregationalists and Anglicans. One result was that people called for stricter separation of church and state. Political Influence The Great Awakening was one of the first common experiences shared by colonists as Americans. It had a democratizing effect by changing the way people viewed authority. If people made their own religious decisions without the “higher” authority of ministers, then could they also make their own political decisions without deferring to others? This revolutionary idea was not expressed in the 1740s, but 30 years later it would challenge the authority of a king and his royal governors. Cultural Life In the early 1600s, the chief concern of most colonists was survival. However, 100 years later, the colonial population had grown enough that the arts could flourish, at least among the well-to-do southern planters and northern merchants. Achievements in the Arts and Sciences In the coastal areas, as fear of American Indians faded, people displayed their prosperity by adopting architectural and decorative styles from England. Architecture The Georgian style of London was widely imitated in houses, churches, and public buildings. Brick and stucco homes were built in this style along the eastern seaboard. On the frontier, a one-room log cabin was the common shelter. Painting Many colonial painters were itinerant artists who traveled the country in search of families who wanted their portraits painted. Shortly before the Revolution, two American artists, Benjamin West and John Copley, went to England where they established themselves as prominent artists. 68 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Literature With only a few printing facilities available, most authors wrote on serious subjects, chiefly religion and politics in the 18th century. These authors included Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards on religion. Political writings highlighting the conflict between American rights and English authority came from John Adams, James Otis, John Dickinson, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson, among others. The most popular writer was Benjamin Franklin. His witty aphorisms and advice were collected in Poor Richard’s Almanack, a best-selling book that was annually revised from 1732 to 1757. The lack of support for fiction and poetry did not stop everyone. Phillis Wheatley was born in West Africa, enslaved, and living in Boston when she published a collection of her poems in 1773. She was freed soon after this. Her work is noteworthy both for her triumph over slavery and the quality of her verse. Charles Brockden Brown, a Quaker who was born in Philadelphia in 1771, was one of the first novelists to set his stories in North America. Science Most scientists, such as the botanist John Bartram of Philadelphia, were self-taught. Benjamin Franklin won fame for his work with electricity and his developments of bifocal eyeglasses and the Franklin stove. Education Basic education was limited and varied among the colonies. Formal efforts were directed to males, since females were trained only for household work. Elementary Education In New England, the Puritans’ emphasis on reading the Bible led them to create the first tax-supported schools. A Massachusetts law in 1647 required towns to establish primary schools for boys. In the middle colonies, schools were either church-sponsored or private. In the southern colonies, parents gave their children whatever education they could. On plantations, tutors provided instruction for the owners’ children. Higher Education The first colonial colleges were sectarian, promoting the doctrines of a particular religious group. The Puritans founded Harvard in 1636 to prepare ministers. The Anglicans opened William and Mary in Virginia in 1694, and the Congregationalists started Yale in Connecticut in 1701. During this period the only nonsectarian college founded was the College of Philadelphia. Founded in 1765, it later became the University of Pennsylvania. Benjamin Franklin was among its founders. Ministry During the 17th century, the Christian ministry was the only profession to enjoy widespread respect among the common people. Ministers were often the only well-educated people in a small community. Physicians Colonists who fell prey to epidemics of smallpox and diphtheria were often treated by “cures” that only made them worse. A doctor’s training was as an apprentice to an experienced physician. The first medical college was begun in 1765 as part of Franklin’s idea for the College of Philadelphia. Lawyers During the 1700s, as trade expanded and legal problems became more complex, people felt a need for expert assistance in court. The most able Topic 2.7 Colonial society and culture 69 lawyers formed a bar (committee or board), which set rules and standards for young lawyers. Lawyers gained respect in the 1760s and 1770s when they argued for colonial rights. John Adams, James Otis, and Patrick Henry were lawyers whose legal arguments would ultimately provide the intellectual underpinnings of the American Revolution. The Press News spread mainly through a postal system and local printing firms. Newspapers By 1776, there were more than 40 newspapers issued weekly in the colonies. They provided month-old news from Europe, various ads for goods and services and for the return of runaway indentured servants and enslaved people, and pious essays giving advice for better living. The Zenger Case Newspaper printers in colonial days ran the risk of being jailed for libel if any article offended the authorities. English common law at the time stated that it was a crime to criticize the governor, no matter whether the criticism was true or false. In 1735, John Peter Zenger, a New York publisher, was tried on a charge of libelously criticizing New York’s royal governor. Zenger’s lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, argued that his client had printed the truth. Ignoring the law, the jury acquitted Zenger. While this case did not guarantee freedom of the press, it encouraged newspapers to criticize the government. The Enlightenment In the 18th century, some educated Americans felt attracted to a European movement in literature and philosophy known as the Enlightenment. The leaders of this moveme

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