AP United States History Period 2 Digital Notes PDF

Advanced Placement United States History < Topic 2.1 - Contextualizing Period 2 > Learning Objective: Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754. ​ 1491-1607: European exploration dominated by the Spanish ​ 1607-1754: Exploration gave way to expand colonization...

Advanced Placement United States History < Topic 2.1 - Contextualizing Period 2 > Learning Objective: Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754. ​ 1491-1607: European exploration dominated by the Spanish ​ 1607-1754: Exploration gave way to expand colonization ​ North America: Spanish, French, Dutch, and Britain established colonies ○​ British dominating region from Canada to Caribbean islands ○​ British established 13 colonies along Atlantic coast ​ Provided profitable trade & home to diverse group of Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans ​ From establishment of first permanent English settlement in North America (1607) - The start of decisive war for European control of continent (1756): Colonies evolved ○​ Initially struggled for survival ○​ Over time, became society of permanent farms, plantations, towns, and cities ​ European settlers brought various cultures, economic plans, and ideas for governing to Americas ○​ With varying approaches, they all sought to dominate the native inhabitants Early Settlements ​ Earliest Europeans in the Americas (Spanish & Portuguese) settled in Central & South America ​ Spanish slowly migrated into North America ○​ Subsequently, French, Dutch, and British settled along Atlantic coast of North America & gradually migrated westward ​ Developed various types of colonial systems and relationships with Native Americans ​ First two successful British colonies along Atlantic coast of North America: Jamestown & Plymouth ○​ Served as starting points that would lead to 13 colonies as far south as Georgia ​ Each colony developed its own economic & cultural system based on environmental conditions & settlement patterns  ​ Transatlantic trade was significant (tobacco, timber, rice, etc) ​ Trade, religion, and language created strong bonds between colonies & Great Britain ○​ Mid-1700s: Trade also became a point of conflict ​ Colonies increasingly resisted British control over trade ​ Trade: Mainstay of early contact between Europeans and Native Americans ​ Colonists wanted sustainable food supply, Native Americans wanted iron tools & guns ​ Europeans generally treated Native Americans as inferiors ​ Trade: Led to competition for resources among colonists and natives ○​ British & French fought a series of wars for control of Land ​ Native Americans (Iroquois, Huron, etc) allied with Europeans or each other to advance their own interests Sources of Labor ​ Europeans looked for source of labor to make the seized lands profitable ○​ Initially tried to enslave Native Americans, failed because the natives escaped too easily ○​ Then tried to employ indentured servants (people who agreed to work in exchange for transportation from Europe to Americas) ​ Became common, but did not provide sufficient labor for land owners ​ British began importing enslaved laborers from Africa ​ 13 British colonies gradually developed societies that both mirrored and varied from British society ​ 1607-1750s: Growth of 13 colonies would lead them to use trade & war to dominate both Native Americans and other European colonists < Topic 2.2 - European Colonization in North America > Learning Objective: Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. ​ Period 1 (1491-1607): Time of European exploration in the Americas, dominated by Spanish ​ 1607-1754: Exploration began giving a way to expanding colonization ​ First permanent North America settlement of each respective European power developed in quick succession  ○​ 1607: Jamestown (Britain), 1608: Quebec (France), 1609: New Amsterdam (Netherlands), 1610: Santa Fe (Spain) ​ 17th century & 18th century migration to Americas both influenced by environment & had lasting impact on it ​ Comparable & contrasting goals of European powers affected key developments ​ Primary motivations for settling in Americas by 17th century: Wealth, spreading Christianity, escaping persecution Spanish Colonies ​ Aggressive colonization in Central & South America, colonized North slowly ○​ Resources were not as abundant, no "drive" to go North ​ North America: Roman Catholic missionaries countered expanding influence of Reformation & Protestantism ○​ Protestantism: Branch of Christianity that emphasizes justification of sinners through faith alone ○​ Many protestants broke away from Catholic Church because they challenged clergy's and the Pope's authority ​ Colonies largely populated by men & would gradually include Native Americans and Africans in society ​ First North American Spanish settlement: Florida (St. Augustine) in 1565 ○​ Did not rapidly expand (Declining native population due to wars, disease, & periodic hurricanes), scarce gold & silver supply ○​ Juan Ponce de Leon claimed lands for Spain in 1513 ​ Spanish colonists began arriving to New Mexico & Arizona in 1598 ○​ Established Santa Fe as capital of New Mexico in 1510 ​ First permanent European settlement in modern-day southwest U.S. ​ Early 1700s: Established settlements in Texas ○​ Grew as Spain resisted French efforts to explore lower Mississippi River ​ Spanish started settlement in California (San Diego) in 1769 with Russians exploring from Alaska ○​ By 1784: Fraciscan order & Father Junipero Serra established missions along California coast  ​ Intermarriage and caste system were carried on ​ Goals of Spanish: Wealth & spreading Catholicism ​ Key pillars of Spanish settlements: Encomienda system & missionary efforts French Colonies ​ 1608: Samuel de Champlain "Father of New France" founded Quebec as trading post ​ Population: French colonists < Spanish colonists ○​ 20 years after Quebec's establishment, only 200 French colonists in New World ​ Some came to convert natives to Christianity, others came for economic reasons (Lucratic fur trade) ○​ Forged close ties & developed critical fur trade relationships ​ Alliances through intermarriage ○​ Intermarriage: Mutually beneficial (trade) ○​ Valuable services: Guides, translators, and negotiators with other natives ○​ Reliance of the French on trade made rivers important in colonies ​ 1673: Louis Jolliet & Father Jacques Marquette explorered upper Mississippi River ○​ 1682: French explorer Robert de La Salle reached Mississippi basin, claiming region & naming after King Louis XIV (Louisiana) ​ 1718: Moved southward down Mississippi River & established New Orleans (important trade center) Dutch Colonies ​ 1600s: Netherlands sponsored voyages of exploration in search of a northwest passage to Asia (water will freeze, inaccessible during part of the year) ○​ Government hired Henry Hudson (English sailor) to seek passage ​ 1609: While searching for northwest passage, Hudson sailed up broad river (later named for him, "Hudson River") ​ Expedition established Dutch claims to surrounding area, New Amsterdam (later renamed New York) ​ Dutch government granted private company (Dutch West India Company) the right to control region for economic gain ​ Like French colonies, few Dutch colonists who built strong trade networks among natives  ○​ Dutch more likely to settle in trading posts near coast or along major rivers, & less likely to intermarry ​ Tolerance of religious practices rendered colony most religiously & ethnically diverse in North America ○​ Failed to attract settlers to compete with rapidly growing numbers of English settlers British Colonies ​ Early 1600s: English was in position to colonize lands explored a century earlier by John Cabot (eastern seaboard) ○​ Lesser European power due to internal turmoil stemming from Protestant Reformation under King Henry VIII ​ Protestant Reformation: Roman Catholic Church, under leadership of Pope, possessed immense power over Europe. Catholic Church "selling" heaven to people, and people began protesting & created new branch of Christianity "Protestantism" ​ Birth of Anglican Church ​ Religious turmoil creates "push" factors for people in England ​ Three groups in England: Supporters of Anglican Church, people who wish to "purify" Anglican Church (Puritans), people who want to separate from protestant church (Separatists/Pilgrams) ​ England's population growing more rapidly than economy, poverty rate increasing ​ Attracted to opportunities in Americas ​ 1558: Elizabeth I assumed the throne, leading to England's participation in exploration ​ Failed attempt to establish colony in 1587 in Roanoke, followed by establishment of Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, then followed by establishment of Plymouth Colony in 1620 ○​ Plymouth Colony established by accident. Pilgrims had a charter to go to Virginia, storm led them to Plymouth (Charter became invalid) ​ Wrote Mayflower Compact: Agreement about how they would self-govern themselves, signed by men  ​ Goal of Protestant English government: Minimizing Spain's Catholic influences in New World ​ Financed risky enterprise of colonization with joint-stock companies & began settling colonies ​ Colonists ventured to Americas to gain personal profit, religious freedom, and social mobility ○​ England: Status at birth stayed until death ○​ Wanted to shake off shackles of social class & rise by working ​ Social mobility only available to some, many roadblocks (especially towards white protestants) ​ 1650: Population of English colonies in North America reached 50,000, surpassing French, Dutch, and Spanish ​ Included higher percentage of families/single females & more interested in farming ○​ More likely to claim native land & less likely to intermarry ○​ Higher stability in colonies, more potential for growth ​ Attracted diverse group of European settlers ○​ Most of the settlers migrated for better lives or religious freedom ​ Population growth led to competition over land with natives, leading to conflicting evolving relationship 2.2 Key Takeaways: (1) Spanish desired to extract wealth, developing institutions based on subjugating natives and enslaving Africans (2) French & Dutch desired trade, developing trade alliances through intermarriage & build economic & diplomatic relationships to acquire fur & other products for export (3) English desired economic prosperity & religious freedom, focused on agriculture. Settled on land taken from natives, developing contentious relationship < Topic 2.3 - The Regions of British Colonies > Learning Objective: Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. ​ English colonies: Developed regional or sectional differences based on many influences (topography, natural resources, climate, background of settlers) ​ Starting with Jamestown (VA) in 1607 - Ending in 1733 in Georgia  ​ 13 distinct colonies developed along Atlantic coast of North America ○​ Each colony received its authority to operate by a charter granting special privileges from monarch ○​ Each charter described relationship between colony and the crown ​ Corporate colonies (such as Jamestown): Operated by joint-stock companies (at least during colonies' early years) ​ Royal colonies (such as Virginia after 1624): Under direct authority and rule of the king's government, method for king to keep colonies under control ​ Proprietary colonies (such as Maryland and Pennsylvania): Under authority of individuals granted charters of ownership by king ​ British took pride in free farmers working the land ​ Unlike French and Spanish, English had tradition of representative government ○​ Accustomed to elections for representatives speaking for property owners and deciding important measures (such as taxes, proposed by king's government) ​ While political & religious conflicts dominated England, preference for independence grew in colonies ○​ Tensions eventually emerged between king and colonial subjects Early English Settlements ​ Founded for very different reasons & hundreds of miles apart in VA & MA ​ Jamestown: King James I chartered Virginia Company, joint-stock company ○​ Single English men settled to find gold ○​ Early problems: Swampy area along James River resulting in fatal outbreaks of dysentery & malaria, gentlemen unaccustomed to physical work & gold hunters refused to hunt or farm, natives stopped trade due to conflicts → starvation ○​ Survived first five years through leader Captain John Smith ○​ Developed variety of tobacco through efforts of John Rolfe & native wife Pocahontas ​ Became popular in EU, profitable crop in Americas ​ VA became agrarian colony  ○​ VA provided headright (50 acres of land) to white settlers/anyone who paid for passage for settle ​ Mostly aided landowners by sponsoring indentured servants ○​ First several decades of colonization: planters used White laborers ○​ By the end of 17th century: relied more on enslaved Africans ○​ By 1624: VA remained near collapse ​ 5,000+ settlers → 1,300 due to disease & conflicts with natives ​ VA Company nearly bankrupt ​ King James I revoked company charter & took direct control ​ England's first royal colony ​ Plymouth & Massachusetts Bay: Chartered colony settled by English Protestants who dissented from Anglican Church ○​ Led by English king (method of pushing dissenters out to reduce turmoil), broke away from Roman Catholic Church in 1534 ○​ Kept most Catholic rituals & governing structure ○​ Influenced by teachings of Swiss theologian John Calvin, dissenters charged that Church of England should break completely with Rome ○​ King James I (Reigned 1603-1625) viewed separatists as a threat to religious & political authority, arresting them ○​ Separatists wanted to organize completely separate church independent of royal control ​ Several hundred left England for Holland for religious freedom ​ Became known as Pilgrims (pilgrimage) ​ Economic hardship & cultural differences with Dutch → Chose new colony in America (previously operated by VA Company of London) ​ 1620: Small group of Pilgrims sailed for VA aboard Mayflower ​ Less than 50/100 passengers were Separatists, rest had economic motives ​ After difficult 65-day voyage, Mayflower landed MA coast (600 miles north of VA) ​ Established new colony at Plymouth  ​ First winter: Half of settlers died, survivors assisted by natives to adapt to land ​ 1621: Celebrated good harvest at thanksgiving feast (the First Thanksgiving) ​ Plymouth grew slowly by strong leaders (Captain Miles Standish, Governor William Bradford, etc) ​ Fish, furs, and lumber became mainstays of economy ​ Massachusetts Bay Colony: Moderate dissenters (Puritans) believed Church of England could be reformed/purified ○​ King Charles I took throne in 1625: Persecuted Puritans ○​ 1629: Group of Puritans gained royal charter for MA Bay Company for religious freedom ○​ 1630: Led by John Winthrop, founded Boston ○​ Religious & political conflict in 1630s drove 15,000 settlers to MA Bay Colony (Movement known as the Great Migration, same term used for movement of African Americans from southern to northern states in 20th century) ○​ MA Puritans: Founded several settlements in New England ​ Mixtures of small towns & family farms relying on blend of commerce and agriculture Religious Issues in Maryland ​ 1632: King Charles I split off part of VA to create MD ○​ Granted control of MD to Lord Baltimore George Calvert, a Catholic noble, for his service to the king ○​ MD was the first proprietary colony ​ King expected proprietors to carry out his wishes faithfully ○​ Catholic families & single women (who eventually go to VA when situation improves) ○​ Primary crop: Tobacco ​ First Lord Baltimore died and MD passed onto his son, Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore  ○​ 1634: Implemented his father's plan to provide safe haven for Catholics, who faced persecution from Protestants in Britain ​ Act of Toleration: Several wealthy Catholics emigrated to MD + established plantations to avoid persecution in England ○​ Quickly outnumbers by Protestant farmers (majority in MD population) ○​ 1649: Calvert persuaded assembly to adopt the Act of Toleration: first colonial statue granting religious freedom to all Christians ​ Statute also called for the death of anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus ​ Protestant Revolt: Late 1600s: Protestants angered by Catholic proprietor ignited civil war ○​ Protestants triumphed & repeated Act of Toleration ○​ Catholics lost the right to vote in elections for the assembly ○​ 18th century: MD's economy & society similar to VA, except MD tolerated more diversity among Protestant sects Development of New England ​ Strong religious convictions sustained settlers in their struggle to establish Plymouth & MA Bay colonies ​ Self-sufficient ○​ Could not farm enough to trade because of short growing seasons, but could farm enough to feed families ○​ Industrialization ​ Puritan leaders showed intolerance of anyone who questioned religous teachings ○​ Often banished dissidents from Bay colony ​ Dissidents formed settlements that became RI & CT ​ Rhode Island: Roger Williams, well-respected Puritan minister who moved from England to Boston, arrived to RI in 1631 ○​ Believed that the individual's conscious was beyond control of any civil or church authority ○​ Teachings placed him in conflict with other Puritan leaders, who ordered his banishment ○​ Fled Boston southward to Narragansett Bay  ​ He and a few followers founded community of Providence in 1636 ​ Williams started one of the first American Baptist churches ​ Government allowed Catholics, Quakers, & Jews to worship freely ​ New colony was unique: Recognized the rights of Native Americans & paid them for the use of their land ○​ Ann Hutchinson: Dissident who questioned doctrines of Puritan authorities ​ Believed in antinomianism: Idea that since individuals receive salvation through their faith alone, they were not required to follow traditional moral laws ​ Banished from Bay colony → Founded Portsmouth in 1638 with followers ​ Few years later: Migrated to Long Island & was killed in Native American uprising ○​ 1644: Roger Williams was granted charter from Parliament ​ Joined Providence & Portsmouth into single colony: Rhode Island ​ Colony tolerated diverse beliefs & served as a refuge for many ○​ Newport become major hub for slave trade & smuggling ​ Connecticut: CT River Valley attracted people unhappy with MA authorities ○​ Reverend Thomas Hooker led large group of Boston Puritans into valley & founded Hartford in 1636 ○​ Hartford settlers drew up first written constitution in American history: Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1636) ​ Established representative government with a legislature elected by popular vote and a governor chosen by that legislature ○​ South of Hartford in 1637: John Davenport started second settlement in CT Valley, New Haven ○​ 1665: New Haven joined with Hartford to form Connecticut ○​ Royal charter for CT granted it a limited degree of self-government, including election of the governor ​ New Hampshire: Last New England colony founded ○​ 1679: King Charles II separated NH from MA Bay colony & made it a royal colony, subject to authority of an appointed governor  ○​ Method of regaining control over region ​ People needed confirmed religious experience (conversion) to be full member of a Puritan congregation ​ Fewer members of new native-born generation had those experiences ○​ Halfway covenant offered by some clergy so people could become partial members to maintain church's influence and membership ​ Strict Puritan practices weakened in most New England communities to maintain church membership over the years Restoration Colonies ​ New American colonies founded in late 17th century during a period known as the Restoration ○​ Refers to restoration of the monarchy under King Charles II in 1660 following brief period of republican rule under Puritan leader, Olivia Cromwell The Carolinas ​ Charles II granted huge tract of land between VA & Spanish FL to eight nobles as a reward for helping him gain the throne ​ 1663: Nobles become lord proprietors of the Carolinas ​ 1729: Two royal colonies, South & North Carolina, formed from original grant ​ South Carolina: 1670: Few colonists from England & some planters from Barbados island founded Charleston (named after King Charles II) ○​ Initially: Southern economy based on trading furs & providing food for West Indies ○​ By middle of 18th century: SC's large rice-growing plantations, worked by enslaved Africans, resembled economy & culture of West Indies ​ North Carolina: Unlike SC, NC had few good harbors & poor transportation ○​ Consequently: Attracted farmers from VA & New England who established small & self-sufficient tobacco farms ○​ Some made use of indentured servants & enslaved Africans ○​ NC in 18th century: Earned reputation for democratic views & autonomy from British control The Middle Colonies ​ Four colonies between New England & VA (NY, NJ, PA, DE) often called Middle Colonies ​ Fertile land attracted relatively diverse group of European immigrants, good harbors in developed cities, & tolerant religious attitudes ​ Quakers came to PA & maintained relatively peaceful relations with natives ​ Dutch in NY & PA: Absorbed into english colonies but maintained Dutch culture ​ Major crop: wheat ​ New York: Charles II wished to consolidate holdings along Atlantic coast & close gap between New England & Chesapeake colonies ○​ Chesapeake colonies: Jamestown (VA) & MD ○​ Required compelling the Dutch to give up New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island & Hudson River Valley ○​ 1664: King granted his brother, the Duke of York (future James II), lands lying between CT & DE Bay ○​ James dispatched force that easily took control of Dutch colony from governor Peter Stuyvesant ○​ Ordered agents to rename the colony New York, but to treat Dutch settlers well ​ Allowed them religious freedom & to speak their own language ○​ James ordered new taxes, duties, & rents without consent of representative assembly ​ Insisted that no assembly should be allowed ​ Taxation without representation met strong opposition from English-speaking settlers ​ 1683: James did yield by allowing NY governor to grant broad civil & political rights, including representative assembly ​ New Jersey: James split NY in 1664, believing territory was too large ○​ Gave section between Hudson River & DE Bay to Lord John Berkeley & Sir George Carteret ○​ 1674: One received West NJ, other East NJ ○​ To attract settlers: Generous land offers, religious freedom, an assembly ○​ Eventually sold interests to groups of Quakers  ○​ Land titles changed hands often & inaccurate property lines contributed to general confusion ​ 1702: Crown decided to combine two Jerseys into single royal colony, New Jersey, to settle matters ​ Pennsylvania, "The Holy Experiment": Broad expanse of forested land that royal family gave to military & political leader, William Penn, in payment for debt west of NT became known as Penn's woods, or Pennsylvania ○​ Inherited land to son also named William Penn, who joined group of Christians self-proclaimed Religious Society of Friends (known as Quakers) ​ Considered radical by most people in Britain & in colonies ○​ Believed religious authority was found within each person & not in the Bible nor in any outside source ​ Led them to support equality among all men & women, reject violence, & resist military service ​ Beliefs challenged authority: Quakers of England were persecuted & jailed ○​ Penn hoped PA would provide religious refuge for Quakers & other persecuted people, & generate profit ○​ Put Quaker beliefs to the test by enacting liberal ideas in government ○​ 1682-1683: Provided Frame of Government, guaranteeing representative assembly elected by landowners ○​ Written constitution: The Charter of Liberties (1701) ​ Guaranteeing freedom of worship for all & unrestricted immigration ○​ Unlike other colonial proprietors who governed from England: Penn crossed ocean to supervise founding of Philadelpha on DE River ​ Brought plan for grid pattern of streets, later imitated by other cities ​ Attempted to treat Native Americans fairly & to not cheat them when purchasing their land ○​ To attract settlers: Hired agents & published notices throughout EU promising political & religious freedom and generous land terms  ○​ Land along DE River previously settled by several thousand Dutch & Swedish colonists, who eased arrival of newcomers ​ Delaware: 1702: Penn granted lower three countries of PA their own assembly ○​ DE became separate colony, even though governor was same as PA until American Revolution Georgia, The Last Mainland Colony ​ 1732: Georgia, 13th & final British colony between Canada & Caribbean, was chartered ​ Only colony to receive direct financial support from the government ​ British had 2 reasons to start new southern colony: ○​ 1. Wanted to create a defensive buffer to protect SC plantations from Spanish FL ○​ 2. Wanted a place to send debt prisoners in England ​ Sending debtors to a colony would both relieve overcrowded jails & provide a chance for people to start life over ○​ Primary crops: rice & indigo ​ Given royal charter for proprietary colony, group of philanthropists led by James Oglethorpe founded Savannah in 1733 ​ Oglethorpe (colony's first governor) put into effect a plan for making colony thrive ○​ Strict regulations: Bans on drinking rum & slavery ○​ Colony did not prosper partly because of constant threat of Spanish attack ○​ 1752: Oglethorpe's group gave up ​ Georgia was taken over by British government & became a royal colony ​ Rum & slavery restrictions dropped ​ Colony slowly grew & adopted plantation system of SC ○​ 1776: GA smallest of 13 colonies that rebelled against the British Early Political Institutions ​ Britain had difficulty exerting tight control over colonies ○​ Distance across the Atlantic was great enough that communication was slow ○​ Britain was often consumed by domestic upheavals & wars with France ​ Paid little attention to the colonies ​ Self-rule began early in the colonies  ​ A Representative Assembly in Virginia: VA Company encouraged settlement by guaranteeing to settlers the same rights as residents as England had, including represerntation in lawmaking ○​ 1619: VA colonists organized first American representative assembly: House of Burgesses ​ Dominated by elite planters ○​ Throughout New England: Communities held town meetings to debate local decisions & to elect members to colonial legislatures, self-sufficient ○​ Voting rights were relatively broad for the time ○​ MA Bay Colony: All freemen (male members of Puritan Church) had the right to elect the colony's governor and a representative assembly ​ Limit to Colonial Democracy: Despite these steps, most colonists other than male property owners were excluded from the political process ○​ Females & landless males had few rights, indentured servants had practically no rights, enslaved people had none ○​ Many colonial governors ruled with autocratic/unlimited power ​ Answered only to king or people who provided the colonies' financial support ○​ Gradual development of democratic ideas in colonies coexisted with antidemocratic practices (slavery & widespread mistreatment of Native Americans) < Topic 2.4: Transatlantic Trade > Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time ​ European nations that controlled the colonies look at them to increase their power ○​ Principal way to become stronger: Transatlantic trade Atlantic Economy ​ 1607-1754: Atlantic economy developed ​ Goods, enslaved Africans, and enslaved natives exchanged between EU, AF, and NA through extensive trade networks ○​ Africans came to West Indies to farm sugar cane, used for rum,  ○​ Natives went to EU for eurocentric performances capitalized on their "barbaric" behavior ○​ Gave ride to 17th century system of Transatlantic Trade (or Triangular Trade) ​ Enslaved Africans > NA, raw materials > EU, manufactured goods > colonies & African countries ○​ In exchange for manufactured goods, enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas ​ 3-part route connected NA, AF, and EU ○​ A ship would leave New England carrying rum to West AF, trading for captive Africans ○​ Enslaved Africans endured treacherous Middle Passage to West Indies crammed in ships, where they were traded for sugarcane ○​ Sugarcane made the way back up to New England to make more rum ​ EU nations that controlled colonies looked at them through single lens ○​ A path to money, which leads to power ​ Controlling colonies was a challenge because of slow communication ​ Variations on the route included stops in England or Spain ​ 17th century: English trade in enslaved Africans was first monopolized by the Royal African Company ​ Late 17th century: RAC could not maintain supply & demand ○​ Parliament ended the company's monopoly on slave trade & New England merchants entered the lucrative business Mercantilism and the Empire ​ Economic theory of mercantilism: a country's wealth - and thus, power - was determined by how much more it exported than imported ○​ Selling more than having to buy → increasing national wealth → increasing national power ​ European governments aimed to promote sale of goods with colonies serving one purpose: enriching "Mother Country" ○​ Role of colonies: Import any raw materials to Mother Country to promote that country's industries  ​ Manufactured goods sold back to colones & other parts of the world ​ Spanish & French rulers followed mercantilist policies from the start of colonization ​ English began applying them after the end of the English Civil War in 1651 ​ British government increasing attempted to pursue mercantilist economic aims ○​ Between 1650-1673: British passed Navigation Acts, placing regulations on colonial trade to increase profit for Britain ​ 1. Trade between colonies could only occur on English ships with English crews (ensuring the goods are going to England → English ships can charge harvesters as much as they want, created discontent) ​ 2. All goods imported to the colonies needed to pass through ports in England (Merchant has to pay taxes for the goods to pass through ports, increases price of goods) ​ 3. Certain goods, such as tobacco, could only be exported from the colonies to England (e.g., Merchants can only accept amount England offers, even if another country offered more) ​ Enforcing Navigation Acts proved difficult (separated by Atlantic Ocean, 4,000+ miles) ​ Regulation of the acts was low on list of priorities as England faced constant internal turmoil in 17th and 18th centuries ​ As a result, England adopted unofficial policy of salutary neglect (loose enforcement of these regulations as long as colonies were loyal) ​ Impact of the acts varied: Certain industries expanded (shipbuilding in New England & growth of tobacco in the Chesapeake, provided English military forces to protect colonies from French/Spanish attacks, but colonial exported had to accept prices for exports to England, many farmers suffered: low tobacco prices in 1660s → economic downturn in Chesapeake colonies) ​ Under cover of salutary neglect, many colonists undercut Navigation Acts with bribery & smuggling ○​ Largely carried on without incident in 17th century ○​ English crown attempted to crack down  ​ 1684: British revoked charter of Massachusetts bay colony, as it was the center of smuggling activity ○​ Also traded with natives to avoid trading with England The Dominion of New England ​ Crown would attempt to overcome resistance to its trade laws ​ 1684: Revoked chart of MA Bay because of smuggling activity ​ Colonists defied the acts by smuggling goods from other countries ​ 1686: New king, James II, increased royal control over region by combining New England colonies, New York, & New Jersey into the Dominion of New England ○​ Appointed Sir Edmund Andros as governor of newly created dominion ​ He levied taxes, limited town meetings, & revoked land titles ​ Tensions developed & King James II was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ​ William & Mary, the new monarchs, brought the Dominion to an end ​ While grip of imperial control loosened, friction over regulation of trade continued to simmer 2.4 Key Takeaways: (1) Mercantilism was used by England to obtain raw materials from the colonies for manufacturing. (2) The economic theory of mercantilism sparked the transatlantic trade. < Topic 2.5: American Indian & European Interactions > Learning Objective: Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time. ​ Relations between colonists & natives centered around trade/exchange, alliances, & warfare ​ Trade: Key part of colonist-native relations ○​ Especially on western borderlands ○​ Fur & crops: traded for manufactured European goods ​ Trade relationships were always in flux ​ European disease exposed to natives (smallpox, etc) ○​ Decimated native population on eastern seaboard & facilitated sustained push westward for colonists ○​ Tribes who survived joined together to resist Europeans  ​ Some colonists attempted to assimilate natives in fear of Catholic church's influence ○​ Puritan praying towns in New England aimed to convert local natives to Christianity (attempt to civilize natives) ​ Most colonists viewed natives as inferior people who could be pushed off their land Conflict in New England ​ 1640s: New England colonies faced constant threat of attack from natives, Dutch, & French ○​ Natives using alliances with Dutch & French to get English colonists out ○​ Plymouth, MA Bay, CT, and New Haven organized military alliance for mutual protection, New England Confederation ​ Before Plymouth joined MA Bay & New Haven joined CT ​ Dissolved in 1684 when King James II exerted control over region (established Dominion) ​ Established important precedent for unified colonial action ​ Decade before confederation's dissolution: Helped New England colonists win a key victory in King Philip's War (Metacom's War) (1675-1676) ​ Root of the conflict: Westward encroachment onto Native American lands by New England colonists ○​ Puritans had big families ○​ Running out of farm land because of land inheritance to future generations ​ Metacom (Chief of Wampanoag Native Americans, known to colonists as King Philip) united tribes against New England colonists ○​ Brutal war (incredible losses on both sides) culminated in victory for the colonists ​ Colonists captured Metacom & publicly beheaded him Conflict in Virginia ​ Bacon's Rebellion: 1676: Conflict broke out in VA colony ○​ Farmers gradually pushed into western frontier of the colony & encountered attacks by natives ○​ Corrupt royal governor, Sir William Berkeley, did little to address farmers' grievances (focus was on wealthy plantation owners)  ○​ Led by farmer Nathaniel Bacon, western farmers led rebellion against Berkeley's government ○​ Launched raids & massacres against American Indian villages on frontier & burned Jamestown ​ Two birds with one stone: Counterattacked natives & rebelled against government ​ Sir William Berkeley declared that no Virginian would attack natives (did not want to put effort in responding) ○​ Bacon died of dysentery & rebel army collapsed ○​ Governor Berkeley & his men regrouped, crushed rebellion & executed 23 rebels ​ Won't spread ideas & sends message that behavior will not be tolerated ○​ Failed Bacon's Rebellion highlighted conflict between natives & settlers on frontier, also demonstrated class tensions & resistance to royal control Spanish Rule and the Pueblo Revolt ​ New Spain - Pueblo Revolt: 1680: Santa Fe grown to 3,000, consisting mostly of mestizos (mixed people) ○​ Spanish continued encomienda & caste system ○​ Roman Catholic missionaries aggressively converted natives to Catholicism to eradicate Pueblo religious traditions ○​ Pressures on Pueblo people led to Pueblo Revolt in 1680 ​ Effort by various Pueblo tribes to drive Spanish from region ​ Successful until 1692 when Spanish regained control of region ​ Spanish continued assimilation efforts ○​ Made some accommodations (permitting Pueblo land ownership) ​ Accommodations led to great stability in the region Key Takeaways 2.5: (1) Interactions between European rivals & American Indian populations fostered both accommodations & conflicts (2) Conflict arose between Europeans & American Indians and was rooted in competition for resources & intensified as British colonists gradually profited westward (3) Examples of American Indian resistance to colonizes were the Pueblo Revolt & King Philip's War < Topic 2.6: Slavery in the British Colonies > Learning Objective 1: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions. Learning Objective 2: Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery. ​ Native Americans could escape too easily & supply of indentured servants was too small ○​ Landowners turned to labor of enslaved Africans Demand for Labor ​ 1440: Portuguese forcibly transported Africans to the Americas for labor via the Middle Passage to South America ○​ Spanish get involved with slavery shortly after ​ Over the course of Middle Passage's existence, ~12 million Africans were transported ○​ 15% dying at sea ○​ High percentage went to West Indies sugarcane plantations ​ British colonies: emphasis on agriculture sparked a demand for labor ○​ Indentured servants initially satiated the labor demand ○​ Number of enslaved Africans steadily increased over the course of 17th & 18th centuries ​ Eventually supplanted indentured servants as the primary labor source ​ Slavery was most heavily concentrated in the southern colonies, but it was used across every colony (north & south) ○​ Chesapeake & Southern colonies highest reliance on slavery ​ Much of transatlantic slave trade was financed or conducted by people in the northern colonies ​ Most north slaves are house servants ​ As colonies in MD & VA slowly developed in early 1600s, plantation owners look to indentured servants to meet labor demand ○​ Indentured servants: Servants under contract with a landowner, working for 4-7 years in exchange for passage to the Americas, room, and board ○​ Indentured servants: Desperate to leave England, willing to do unpaid labor ​ Many indentured servants died before the end of their contract ○​ After contract ends: Now what?  ○​ Many indentured servants did side jobs so they had money after the end of their contracts ​ Same time: VA Company attempted to attract immigrants through land offers via headright system ○​ Offered 50 acres of land to each immigrant who paid for their own passage and to any plantation owner who paid for an immigrant's passage The Institution of Slavery ​ 1619: English ship serving the Dutch government sold ~25 indentured servants to VA (Black Africans) ○​ Were not in life bondage & children were free ​ All British colonies participated to varying degrees in Atlantic slave trade due to abundance of land & growing European demand for colonial goods ​ End of 1660s: VA House of Burgesses enacted laws that kept Africans & their children in permanent bondage ​ Small New England farms used relatively few enslaved laborers ​ Middle Colonies: All port cities in New England & Middle Colonies held significant minorities of enslaved people who worked to load ships ​ Chesapeake & Southern: Most were concentrated where emerging plantation systems had greatest demand for labor ​ 1750: Half of VA's population & ⅔ of SC's population were enslaved ​ British colonies with the highest number of enslaved people were the West Indian sugar islands ○​ During course of American slavery: 95% of enslaved Africans were delivered to the West Indies or Brazil ○​ Less than 5% went to British colonies in NA Increased Demand for Enslaved Africans ​ Reduced migration: Increases in wages in England reduced the supply of immigrants to the colonies ​ Slave codes: Colonial legislatures intentionally created race-based definition of slavery through slave codes ○​ Believed slavery wold provide stable labor force under their control  ​ Low-cost labor: As tobacco prices fell, rice & indigo became most profitable crops. Growing these crops required large land area and field hands Slave Laws ​ Colonists adopted laws to ensure slaves would be held in bondage forever & would be inherited ​ 1641: MA became first colony to recognize enslavement of "lawful" captives ​ VA in 1661: Enacted legislation that children automatically inherited their mother's enslaved status for life ​ By 1664: English law that people baptized as Christians could not be enslaved was overturned ○​ MD declared that baptism did not affect enslave person's status & White women could not marry African American men Resistance to Slavery ​ Struggled to maintain family ties ​ Maintained elements of African religious practices ○​ Songs & storytelling ​ Direct action: Hunger strikes, breaking tools, refusing to work, or fleeing ​ Rebellion ○​ 1739: Stono Rebellion in SC where 25 colonists were killed Key Takeaways: (1) All colonies participated in the system of chattel slavery, soon becoming the dominant form of labor in the 18th century. (2) Black Americans developed both overt and covert means to resist the nature of slavery and maintain culture and religion. < Topic 2.7: Colonial Society and Culture > Learning Objective 1: Explain how & why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time Learning Objective 2: Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders & colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain ​ Struggling English colonial villages evolved to develop a culture distinct from Europe Population Growth ​ 1701-1775: Drastic population growth (especially among African Americans)  ​ Increase in birthrate and immigration European Immigrants ​ Many immigrants (mostly Protestant) came from France & other Germanic states fleeing religious persecution or seeking economic opportunities ○​ Most settled in middle colonies & western frontier of southern colonies ​ English settlers came in relatively small numbers because issues in England decreased ​ Germans settled on farmlands west of Philadelphia ○​ Maintained language, customs, religion ○​ Obeyed colonial laws but weren't interested in English politics ​ Scotch-Irish were Protestants from northern Ireland ○​ Had little respect for British, who pressured them to leave Ireland ○​ Most settled among frontier in western PA, VA, NC&SC, and GA ​ Other Europeans (French Protestants, Dutch, Swedes) made up small percent of population Enslaved Africans ​ Africans were taken captive, forced onto EU ships, and sold as laborers ​ Worked as laborers, bricklayers, or blacksmiths ○​ Most common work was field laborers on platnations ​ A few obtained freedom: Either emancipated by their owner or allowed to work for money & to purchase their freedom ​ Every colony passed discriminatory laws American Indians ​ Colonial population growth →Conflicts between settlers & natives ​ Some natives formed alliances to protect their land or use EU settlers as allies against rival tribes ​ Most peaceful relations in PA ○​ William Penn often obtained land through treaties than violence The Structure of Colonial Society ​ Most of colonial population was English in origin, language, and tradition ​ Both Africans & non-English immigrants brought diverse influences Liberty and Opportunity  ​ All colonies permitted religious toleration to a degree ○​ MA: Most restrictive, accepted several types of Protestants but excluded Roman Catholics & all non-Christians ○​ RI & PA: Most open ​ PA accepted believers in God, but only Christians could participate in government ​ No hereditary aristocracy ○​ Hierarchy based on economics ​ Wealthy landowners →craft workers and small farmers ​ All residents had opportunities for social mobility ○​ Improving standard of living & status by hard work ○​ Acquiring land was easier than in EU The Family ​ Marriage became common among younger people ​ Men worked as farmers/artisans & owned property and participated in politics ​ Average colonial woman had eight kids and many would die at birth/infancy ○​ Housework & worked next to husband in shop/plantation/farm ○​ Limited elgal & political rights The Economy ​ 1750s: Half of Britain's world trade was with colonies ​ Government limited colonial manufacturing ​ Colonies were almost entirely engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing ​ More people became ministers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers ​ Quickest route to wealth → land ownership ​ New England had rocky soil & long winters ○​ Limited people to subsistence farming on small family farms ○​ Descendants of Puritans profited from logging, shipbuilding, fishing, trading, and rum-distilling ​ Middle colonies had rich soil & moderate climate ○​ Produced wheat & corn for export ○​ Large farms were common worked by indentured servants & hired laborers  ○​ Small manufacturing efforts developed, including iron-making ○​ Trading → growth of cities (Philadelphia, New York, etc) ​ Southern colonies had variety in agriculture because of diverse climate ○​ Most people lived on small subsistence family farms w/o slaves ○​ Some lived on large plantations relying on slave labor ○​ Most plantations were located on rivers ​ Monetary system allowed British to control colonial economy by limiting use of moeny ○​ Forced colonies to use limited gold & silver to pay for British imports that exceeded value of colonial exports ○​ Many colonies issued lots of paper money → inflation ○​ British government claimed the right to veto any colonial laws that might harm British merchants ​ Transportation by water was easier than by land ○​ Trading centers (Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston) were located on good harbors & navigable rivers ○​ Overland travel by horse & stagecoach became more common later ○​ Taverns: Food & lodging for travelers and social centers for news/politics ○​ Mid-18th century: Colonies ran postal system using horses and small ships Religious ​ Most colonists were Protestant but had religious diversity ○​ New England: More people were congregationalists (Puritans) or Presbyterians ○​ NY: Dutch attended Reformed Church, others belongest to Church of England and were Angelicans (later Episcopalians) ○​ PA: Lutherans, Mennonites, and Quakers ○​ VA & other southern colonies: Anglicans were dominant, MD included Catholics & Jews ​ Every religious group faced challenges ○​ Jews, Catholics, and Quakers were discriminated against ○​ Congregationalist ministers were criticized as domineering ○​ Many resented the Church of England and saw it as a symbol of English control because it was headed by the king  ○​ 17th century: Most colonial government taxed the people to support a particular Protestant denomination, an established church ​ Various immigrants increased the religious diversity & governments gradually reduced their support of churches ​ Some direct tax support of some New England churches remained until 1830s The Great Awakening ​ Early 18th century: Protestant sermons portrayed God as the creator of a perfect universe ○​ Less emphasis than ancestors to human sinfulness & damnation ​ 1730s-1740s: Movement of fervant expressions of religious feeling among colonies ○​ Johnathan Edwards: Congregational minister from MA ​ Sermon excited little emotion to his own congregation ​ Generated a fervent response elsewhere ​ Invoked language of the Old Testament & presented an angry God ​ Individuals who repented would be saved but those who ignored commandments would suffer ○​ George Whitefield: Spread Great Awakening throughout colonies in 1739 ​ Stressed that God was omnipotent & would only save those who openly professed belief in Christ ​ Ordinary people with faith & sincerity could understand gospels without ministers ​ Emotionalism became more common in Protestant services ○​ Caused splits, Congregationalists and Presbyterians, between supporters (New Lights) and opponents (Old Lights) ○​ Ministers lost authority ○​ People called for a stricter separation of church and state ​ One of the first common experiences shared by colonists as Americans ○​ Democratizing effect by changing people's view of authority Cultural Life ​ Early 1600s: Chief concern was survival ​ Century later: Arts flourished among well-to-do southern planters & northern merchants Achievements in the Arts and Sciences ​ People displayed prosperity by adopting architectural and decorative styles from England ​ Georgian style of London was widely imitated ○​ Brick & stucco homes were built along eastern seaboard ○​ Frontier: One-room log cabin was common shelter ​ Many colonial painters were itinerant artists who traveled country in search of families who wanted portraits ​ Before Revolution: Benjamin West & John Copley went to England to establish themselves as prominent artists ​ Most authors wrote on serious subjects ○​ Religion & politics ○​ Cotton mather & Jonathan Edwards on religoon ○​ Political writings: Conflict between American rights and English authority from John Adams, James Otis, John Dickinson, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson ○​ Phillis Wheatley: Born in West Africa, enslaved, and living in Boston when she published collection of her poems in 1773 (freed afterwards) ​ Scientists, such as botanist John Bartram were self-taught Education ​ New England: Purtians' emphasis on reading the Bible → first tax-supported schools ○​ MA law in 1647 required towns to establish primary schools ○​ Middle colonies: Parents provided education ○​ Plantations: Tutors provided instruction for owners' children ​ First colonial colleges were sectarian: Promoted doctrines of religious groups ○​ 1636: Puritans founded Harvard to prepare ministers ○​ 1694: Anglicans opened William and Mary in VA ○​ 1701: Congregationalists started Yale in 1701 ○​ Only nonsectarian college: College of Philadelphia → UPenn ​ 17th century: Christian ministry was the only profession to enjoy widespread respect among common people ○​ Ministers were often only well-educated people in a small community ​ Doctor's training was as an apprentice to an experienced physician  ○​ First medical college began in 1765 as part of Franklin's idea for the College of Philadelphia ​ 1700s: Trade expanded and legal problems became more complex → People felt a need for expert assistance in court ○​ Capable lawyers formed a bar (committee or board) & set rules/standards for young lawyers ​ Gained respect in 1760s-1770s when they argued for colonial rights The Press ​ News spread mainly through a postal system & local printing firms ​ 1776: >40 newspapers issues weekly ○​ Month-old news from EU, advertisements for goods/services and return of runaway indentured servants/slaves, and pious essays giving advice ​ Newspaper printers in colonial days risked being jailed for libel if any article offended authorities ○​ English common law: Crime to criticize the governor regardless if it was true or false ○​ 1735: John Peter Zenger was tried on a charge of libelously criticizing NY's royal governor ○​ Lawyer Andrew Hamilton argued that it was truthful statements & jury ignored the law ○​ Encouraged newspapers to criticize the government The Enlightenment ​ People relied too much on tradition & God's intervention in human life ​ John Locke, English philosopher, argued that government is bound to follow "natural laws" based on human rights ​ Sovereignty ultimately resides with people instead of the state & citizens had the right to revolt The Colonial Relationship with Britain ​ Built on English political traditions to develop self-governing local communities ​ Most spoke English & read books and newspapers ​ Commercial ties with England: Exporting tobacco or importing manufactured goods  ​ Connected by religion ​ Distinctly American viewpoint & lifestyle ○​ Motivations for leaving EU ○​ English political heritage ○​ Diversity ○​ Emergence of writers & painters ○​ Influence of American natural environment ○​ Exercised rights of free speech & free press ○​ Accustomed to electing representatives to colonial assemblies ○​ Religious toleration ​ Colonists were eager to push westward & British desired peace on frontier with natives ○​ Colonists were comfortable with salutary neglect ○​ Took pride in self-government ○​ Many colonists did not identify with Britain Politics and Government ​ 1750: Similar systems of government with governor as chief executive & legislature voting to adopt/reject governor's proposed laws ​ Legislature consisted of two houses: ○​ Members of lower house/assembly were elected by White male property owners ​ Voted for/against new taxes ​ Became accustomed to apying taxes only if their chosen representatives approved ○​ Members of upper house in the two self-governing colonies also elected ​ Other colonies: Members were appointed by the king/proprietor (known as council) ○​ Governors were either appointed by the crown, elected by the people (RI & CT), or appointed by proprietor (PA & MD) ​ New England colonists established towns and villages with local governments ○​ Town meetings: People came together to vote directly on public issues ○​ Southern colonises: Towns were less common  ​ Local government was enforced by sheriff & officials who served a county ​ Colonial democracy was limited ○​ Laws barred most people from voting ○​ 18th century: Government began to remove some barriers ○​ Religious restrictions were declining ○​ Properity qualifications often remained ○​ Another variable in development of democracy: Who could serve in assemblies/councils ○​ VA: House of Burgesses was restricted to wealthy landowners ○​ MA: Legislature was open to small farmers ​ Colonies were experiencing Anglicization (becoming more like England) ○​ Religiously: Church of England maintained influence especially in southern colonies ○​ Economically: Tied to British products, ideas, and fashions via mercantilism ○​ Politically: Self-government developed based on English models ​ Unique American identity while also creating mistrust of the British Key Takeaways: (1) The colonies contained a diverse population of 1.5 million by the close of this era, contributing to a significant degree of pluralism. (2) The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time as they became more closely tied to Great Britain. (3) Colonists' resistance to imperial control drew on local experiences of self-government, evolving ideas of liberty, and the political thought of Enlightment