Filipino Personality and Social Work: Lecture Notes PDF

AL V. DELA CRUZ, RSW Planning Officer DSWD Field Office II Policy and Plans Division SPUP SASTE Social Work Faculty  Module 1: Introduction to Personality Development  Module 2: Human Development Developmental Framework( bio-psycho-social framework) and Ecological Framework  Module 3: Core S...

AL V. DELA CRUZ, RSW Planning Officer DSWD Field Office II Policy and Plans Division SPUP SASTE Social Work Faculty  Module 1: Introduction to Personality Development  Module 2: Human Development Developmental Framework( bio-psycho-social framework) and Ecological Framework  Module 3: Core Social Work Concepts and Introduction to the Theory of Human Behavior  Module 4: Psycho-Dynamic,Psycho-Analysis and Socio- Cultural Theories  Module 5: Cognitive Behavioral Theories (Watson, Pavlov, Skinner, Piaget)  Personality Development  dynamic organization – personality is constantly evolving and changing. A newborn infant lacks personality because his or her behavior keeps on changing. An infant’s personality is influenced by heredity and by the surrounding condition. Personality development begins at birth and unfolds gradually until death.  …. psychophysical – personality is neither exclusively mental nor exclusively neural. The organization entails the operation of both body and mind. People’s functions include vegetative, sentient and rational functions.  …. determine – personality is what lies behind specific acts. It is within the individual. A person is not simply a passive reactor to the environment but does something about it.  …. characteristic behavior and thoughts – the replacement of the phrase “unique adjustments to the environment” in Allport’s original definition of personality. The earlier definition seemed to emphasize too much in biological needs. His revised definition covers all behaviors and thoughts, whether or not they are related to adaptation to the environment. Personality Development  Definition of Personality  The origin or the etymological derivative of personality comes from the word “person”, theatrical masks worn by the Romans in Greek and Latin Drama. Personality also comes from the two Latin words “per” and “sonare”, which literally means “to sound through”. This concept extends to Jung’s component of “persona”, meaning “public image”, which refers to the role expected by social or cultural convention.  In 1937, Gordon Allport defined personality as “what a man really is”. This statement indicates that personality is the typical and peculiar characteristics of a person. In 1961, after 24 years. Allport modified his definition as a dynamic organization within an individual of the psychophysical system that determines his or her characteristic behaviors and thoughts.  PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT  Culture refers to the knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, etc. that constitute the way of life of a people or society.  The physical environment has two aspects: (1)the natural environment which makes demands, sets constraints and provides resources (e.g., climate, topography, amount of rainfall and ozone levels); and (2) constructed environments such as homes, offices and hospitals which can have psychological effects (e.g., very limited space, no windows, poor ventilation and seating arrangements that prevent interaction).  This area covers personality development theories, historical perspectives, Filipino family factors, social processes, community forces, and psychosocial problems dynamics.  NATURE OF MAN  Lawrence Pervin in 1975 has defined personality in terms of the following: a. Personality includes both structure and dynamics. Personality is viewed in terms of both the parts and the relationship among the parts of a system; b. Personality is ultimately defined in terms of behavior; and c. Personality manifests consistencies in individuals and in group of individuals. Nature of Man  Man is a rational animal. This nature is manifested in his various characteristics: a. He is alive – seen in his ability to perform various acts; b. He is a body – he is composed of material parts; c. He has feelings – able to sense his surroundings and his reactions are expressed in his emotions and bodily movements; and d. He is a thinking and willing being – he is endowed with intellect and will. Decision on choice making is the culmination of his thought processes.  NATURE OF MAN  His innate dignity is rooted in this rationality, i.e., a person endowed with reason and volition. It is this characteristic that enables man to muster his environment and this he does as an individual and in collaboration with the larger society. These characteristics mentioned are manifested in his different activities: a. He nourishes himself – the result is physical growth and development. This physical maturation enables to reproduce; b. He becomes aware of his material environment through his senses – thus, his emotions are perceived as pleasant or unpleasant. He then moves towards or sway this environment that serves as stimuli to him; and c. With his intellect, he thinks – he abstracts, form ideas, judges and reasons. Based upon his evaluations, he decides and determines how to live his life.  Three Determinants of Behavior 1. Heredity – Individuals inherit genes from both parents, determining traits and personality traits. Genetic heritage interacts with environmental influences, guiding maturation and development of body structures and behavior. 2. Environment – in the environment, factors such as physical and social and economic condition affect human behavior. Heredity and environment jointly determine behavior of the individual, though some kinds of behavior are determined more by heredity and others more by environment; and c. Training – Training is a crucial human behavior process that influences language, customs, attitudes, goals, personality traits, and perceptions. Learning, a change in behavior resulting from experience or practice, involves association ideas, sensations, stimulus-response, and motivation. The bio-psycho-social framework is a model used in human development that integrates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors to understand and explain human behavior and development. 1. Biological, Psychological, and Socio-cultural Forces: This concept acknowledges that human development is influenced by a combination of biological factors (such as genetics, brain development, and hormones), psychological factors (such as cognitive processes, emotions, and personality), and socio-cultural factors (such as family, peers, education, and cultural norms). These forces interact with each other dynamically throughout a person's lifespan. 2.Social Functioning of Individuals: This concept focuses on how individuals interact with and are influenced by their social environment. It considers how social relationships, social roles, and societal structures impact an individual's development and behavior. Social functioning encompasses aspects such as communication skills, interpersonal relationships, and the ability to navigate social contexts effectively. 3.Person-in-Situation/Environment (PIE) Perspective: This perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding individuals within the context of their environment or situation. It recognizes that individuals are shaped by their interactions with various environmental factors, including family, peers, communities, culture, socioeconomic status, and physical surroundings. The PIE perspective highlights the dynamic interplay between individuals and their environments, emphasizing that both influence and are influenced by each other.  The phrase “the individual is a biopsychosocial being” means that there is inseparable, interacting forces – biological, psychological and social that influence human behavior and personality. The biological components would include the individual’s state of health and nutrition, genetics and natural physical endowments at birth, normal biological growth and development, as well as any deviation from normal functioning including illness and physical disabilities. These may be obvious and can be described using medical information that is obtained when necessary. The social worker is expected to know the psycho-social effects of both normal as well as abnormal biological growth and development. The psychological component is concerned with the individual’s personality, comprising what is commonly termed “inner states”, which has three aspects: 1. Cognitive (perceptual or intellectual); 2. Emotional (feelings); and 3. Conative (striving, tendency to do actively or purposefully). The social component includes the following elements: 1. Societal: aggregate data and social patterns which help create the social climate in which we live, regardless of whether or not people are aware or accept them, such as poverty and unemployment; 2. Institutional: organizational arrangements in society, such as family, government, education, and social services; 3. Status: characteristics of persons and their position in society as seen in the way persons are described, e.g., by age, sex, race and religion; 4. Normative: the forms in which social; behavior is expressed, and the social rules that shape these forms. These forms and rules that reflect the values of society which are, in turn, influenced by the existing culture; and 5. Interactive: the type of interaction and perception of interactions made of self and others that are a basis of behavior. The physical environment has two aspects: (1)the NATURAL ENVIRONMENT which makes demands, sets constraints and provides resources (e.g., climate, topography, amount of rainfall and ozone levels); and (2)The CONSTRUCTED ENVIRONMENTS such as homes, offices and hospitals which can have psychological effects (e.g., very limited space, no windows, poor ventilation and seating arrangements that prevent interaction). The scope of this area includes the following: main theories and phases of personality development; historical perspectives and different factors influencing the Filipino family; social processes relevant to the group and the community; community forces influencing group behavior; and the dynamics of psychosocial problems. The Ecological Framework, also known as the Ecological Perspective or Ecological Systems Theory, is a theoretical framework used in various fields, including psychology, sociology, and social work, to understand human behavior and development within the context of interconnected systems. This framework emphasizes the dynamic interaction between individuals and their environments, recognizing that human development is influenced by multiple levels of ecological factors. FIVE ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS: 1.Microsystem: This refers to the immediate environments and relationships that directly impact an individual, such as family, peers, school, and community. The microsystem is where most direct interactions occur and plays a crucial role in shaping an individual's development. 2. Mesosystem: The mesosystem involves the interconnections between different microsystems in an individual's life. For example, the relationship between a child's school experiences and their family dynamics or the influence of peer relationships on family interactions. 3. Exosystem: The exosystem consists of external settings that indirectly influence an individual's development, even though the individual may not directly participate in them. This includes societal institutions such as government policies, mass media, and community organizations. 4. Macrosystem: The macrosystem encompasses the broader cultural, societal, and historical contexts in which individuals are embedded. It includes cultural norms, values, beliefs, and socio-economic factors that influence the other ecological levels. 5. Chronosystem: The chronosystem represents the dimension of time and how historical changes and life transitions impact individuals and their environments. This includes life events, socio-historical contexts, and developmental trajectories over time. Person-in-Environment (PIE): The Person-in-Environment perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding individuals within the context of their environments. It recognizes that individuals are shaped by and shape their environments through dynamic interactions. This perspective highlights the bidirectional influence between individuals and their social, cultural, economic, and physical environments. By considering the interactions between individuals and their environments, practitioners can develop interventions and strategies that address both individual needs and systemic factors contributing to social issues or challenges. Intersectionality of Social, Political, Economic, Cultural, Sexual Factors: Intersectionality acknowledges that individuals hold multiple social identities (e.g., race, gender, class, sexual orientation) that intersect and interact to shape their experiences and opportunities. Social, political, economic, cultural, and sexual factors intersect in complex ways to influence individuals' identities, experiences, and outcomes. For example, a person's gender identity may intersect with their socio-economic status and cultural background to shape their access to resources, opportunities, and social privileges. Intersectionality refers to the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and other aspects of identity. In the ecological framework, intersectionality plays a crucial role in understanding how multiple social, political, economic, cultural, and sexual factors intersect to shape individuals' experiences, opportunities, and identities.  FIVE FACTORS INFLUENCES THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PERSON'S IDENTITY WITHIN THE ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 1. Social Factors: Social factors like race, ethnicity, gender, age, religion, and class create unique experiences and challenges for individuals, such as discrimination or privilege based on intersections. 2.Political Factors: Political factors, such as policies, laws, and governance structures, can perpetuate or challenge social inequalities, such as discriminatory policies or lack of representation in decision-making processes. 3. Economic Factors: Economic factors significantly influence individuals' identities, life chances, and access to resources, contributing to inequalities and shaping self-concept and social experiences. 4.Cultural Factors: Cultural factors, including norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and practices, influence individuals' sense of belonging, expression, and experiences of discrimination or acceptance in various social contexts. 5. Sexual Factors: Sexual orientation, gender identity, and sexuality intersect with other social identities, affecting discrimination, stigma, and inclusion, particularly for LGBTQ+ individuals, affecting identity development, mental health, and well-being. Module 3: Core Social Work Concepts and Introduction to the Theory of Human Behavior By Al V. Dela Cruz, RSW SASTE Faculty, Social Work Department St. Paul university Philippines Definition of Terms Social Functioning refers to Individuals interactions with their environment and the ability to fulfill their role within environments such as work, social activities and relationship with partners and families Social Environment refers to the broader societal context in which individuals, families, groups, and communities exist and interact. It encompasses various social structures, institutions, norms, values, and cultural factors that shape people's lives and experiences. Human Relationships refer to the connections and interactions that individuals have with others within various social contexts, including family, friends, communities, and broader society. These relationships are fundamental to understanding and addressing clients' needs, strengths, and challenges. Well-Being refers to the overall quality of life experienced by individuals, families, groups, and communities. It encompasses various dimensions of human existence, including physical, emotional, social, psychological, and spiritual aspects. Well-being is not merely the absence of problems or distress but also the presence of positive factors that contribute to a fulfilling and meaningful life. Definition of Terms Human Behavior refers to the actions, reactions, thoughts, and emotions exhibited by individuals, families, groups, and communities within their social contexts. It refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans as they adapt to their environment, which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics. Motivation refers to the driving force behind an individual's actions, behaviors, and choices. It encompasses the internal processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior toward specific goals or outcomes. Understanding motivation is crucial for social workers as it informs interventions aimed at supporting clients in achieving desired changes and outcomes in their lives. Theories are interrelated sets of concepts and propositions, organized into a deductive system to explain relationships about certain aspects of the world (e.g., the theories in this material). A theory is a set of ideas or concepts that, when considered together, help to explain certain phenomena and allow people to predict behavior and other events. Theories differ from other types of knowledge in that they allow you to organize knowledge on a particular issue or topic.  Definition of Terms Personality - a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person who uniquely influences his or her cognitions, emotions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. - Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influence one's expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress. Human Behavior - refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans as they adapt to their environment, which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics. Framework Social Work Individuals, Groups, Communities Social Admin What Social Research Why Philosophy Theories: Personality, Learning, Social Role, Culture, Values Systems, Communication, Belief about man Small Group, Organization, Principles the Community, etc Ethics Social Work Practice (How) Goal Helping Process Functions Helping Models and Approaches Elements Tools in Problem-Solving Skills Theoretical interactions in social work involve the integration and application of various theoretical perspectives to understand and address the complexities of human behavior and social systems. Social workers often integrate these theoretical perspectives to develop comprehensive assessments, interventions, and advocacy efforts that address the complex interplay between individual experiences and broader social contexts. Human Development Theories (Individual) Focus Application Interaction Human development Social workers utilize human Human development theories theories explore the development theories to provide a foundation for psychological, assess clients' developmental understanding how individuals' emotional, cognitive, stages, milestones, and growth and experiences interact and physical growth challenges. Theories such as with social systems and contexts. and changes that Erikson's psychosocial stages, Social workers consider how individuals experience Piaget's cognitive developmental processes over the lifespan. development theory, and influence individuals' behaviors, Bronfenbrenner's ecological relationships, and coping systems theory provide mechanisms within their families, frameworks for understanding communities, and larger societal how individuals' experiences structures. and interactions shape their development. Sociological Theories Focus Application Interaction Sociological theories Social workers apply Sociological theories complement analyze the social sociological theories to human development perspectives structures, institutions, examine the impact of social by highlighting the influence of and processes that factors such as class, race, broader social contexts on shape human behavior, gender, ethnicity, and individual development and interactions, and socialization on individuals behavior. Social workers consider outcomes within and communities. Theories how societal structures and norms society. such as conflict theory, shape individuals' opportunities, symbolic interactionism, and resources, and identities, and social constructionism help inform interventions aimed at social workers understand addressing systemic barriers and power dynamics, inequality, promoting social justice. social norms, and identity formation. Small/Ecological Systems Theory Focus Application Interaction Small systems theory, Social workers apply small Small systems theory integrates or ecological systems systems theory to assess the individual and sociological theory, examines the impact of microsystems on perspectives by emphasizing the interactions between individuals' development, dynamic interactions between individuals and their relationships, and well-being. individuals and their social immediate social Bronfenbrenner's ecological environments. Social workers environments, systems theory emphasizes assess how individuals' including families, the importance of considering interactions within their schools, peer groups, multiple levels of influence, immediate social systems and communities. from the microsystem (e.g., contribute to their development, family) to the macrosystem resilience, and challenges, and (e.g., cultural norms), in intervene at various levels to understanding human promote positive outcomes. behavior.  The various school of thought on individual personality was categorized as: Category Theoretical Authors Remarks Psychodynamic and Sugmund Freud, Carl Jung, Insights is learned through exploration of childhood Socio-Cultural Alfred Adler, Melanie Kilin, events and phases and by understanding unconscious Theories Erik Erikson processes which influence the conscious Humanistic Theories Carl Rogers, Abraham Comprise the non-directive approach where power is and Feminist Theories Maslow , Transactional located within the service user. Relationship is a key Analysis , Eric Berne, Gestalt, element for change and this is based on respect, warmth Fritz Perls, Laura Perls , genuineness Behavioral and Ivan Pavlov, Hans Eysenneck, This is more directive with different behaviors identified Cognitive Theories B.F. Skinner, Watson, Pavlov and goals determined. It deals with symptoms rather than underlying causes. Both Focus on changing irrational and debilitating thinking patterns. Systems Theories Family Theory and Couples It states that individuals are all parts of a wider systems Theraphy (ie. Families, needs can only be addressed by working with the while group together).  Core Social Work Concepts SW Concept Concept Implications Systems Theory Systems theory views individuals as part Social workers recognize that individuals' of larger interconnected systems, including behavior is influenced by their interactions with families, communities, and societies. It their social environment. For example, in a emphasizes the interactions and case involving a child displaying behavioral interdependence between various issues at school, a social worker would elements within these systems. consider family dynamics, school environment, peer influences, and community resources to develop interventions that address multiple levels of the system. Ecological The ecological perspective emphasizes Social workers assess clients' environments Perspective the dynamic interplay between individuals and identify environmental stressors, and their environments. It considers resources, and supports that impact their multiple layers of influence, including the behavior. For instance, in working with a microsystem (immediate surroundings), homeless individual struggling with addiction, a mesosystem (interactions between social worker would consider not only the microsystems), exosystem (external individual's personal challenges but also systems indirectly impacting individuals), systemic factors such as lack of affordable and macrosystem (larger cultural and housing and access to substance abuse societal contexts). treatment.  Core Social Work Concepts SW Concept Concept Implications Strength The strengths perspective focuses on Social workers highlight clients' strengths and Perspective identifying and building upon individuals' empower them to leverage these strengths in strengths, resources, and capacities overcoming challenges. For example, in rather than solely focusing on deficits or working with a survivor of domestic violence, problems. It recognizes the resilience and a social worker would help the client identify potential for growth within individuals and utilize their resilience, support networks, and communities. and coping skills to regain a sense of empowerment and safety. Cultural Cultural competence involves Social workers recognize the impact of culture Competence understanding and respecting the cultural on human behavior and tailor interventions to backgrounds, beliefs, values, and align with clients' cultural preferences and practices of clients. It requires social needs. For example, in providing therapy to an workers to engage in self-awareness, immigrant family, a social worker would ongoing learning, and effective consider cultural norms around family communication across diverse cultural dynamics, communication styles, and help- contexts. seeking behaviors to ensure culturally responsive care.  Core Social Work Concepts SW Concept Concept Implications Empowerment Empowerment and self-determination Social workers respect clients' right to self- and Self- emphasize the importance of fostering determination and empower them to set their Determination clients' autonomy, choice, and control own goals and make informed choices. For over their lives. It involves collaborating example, in supporting a person with with clients as equal partners in the disabilities in transitioning to independent decision-making process and supporting living, a social worker would involve the client their capacity to advocate for themselves. in decision-making, provide information about available supports, and advocate for their rights to access services and accommodations. By integrating these core concepts into social work practice, Social Workers can gain a deeper understanding of human behavior and effectively support clients in addressing their needs, enhancing their well-being, and promoting positive change within their social environments.  Human Behavior and the Social Environment The Person in Situation The Person and his/her Environment This concept focuses on understanding This concept emphasizes the broader context in which individuals are individuals within the specific situations situated, including their social, cultural, economic, and physical or circumstances they are facing. environments. It emphasizes the immediate context or It highlights the influence of various environmental factors on individuals' immediate challenges that individuals behaviors, choices, and opportunities. are experiencing. Social workers using the "person in his/her environment" approach For example, if a person is experiencing would consider factors such as family dynamics, community resources, unemployment, homelessness, or a societal norms, and structural inequalities when understanding and health crisis, social workers using the intervening with clients. "person in situation" approach would focus on understanding how these This approach recognizes that individuals are shaped by their specific situations are affecting the environments and that interventions should address not only individual individual's well-being and functioning. needs but also the systemic factors that contribute to social problems. While both concepts focus on understanding individuals within their contexts, "Person in Situation" zooms in on immediate challenges and circumstances, while "Person in his/her environment" takes a broader perspective that considers the influence of various environmental factors on individuals' lives.  Why do we use personality theories in social work? “As social workers, it is essential that our interventions are grounded in well-studied foundations. We must accurately plan the changes we aim to implement and ensure that the helping strategies are executed collaboratively, with the client, by the client, and for the client”  Psycho- Dynamic,Psycho-Analysis and Socio-Cultural Theories  Filipino Personality and Social Work By AL V. DELA CRUZ, RSW SASTE FACULTY, ST. UNIVERSITY PHILIPPINES OUTLINE: 1. Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality (Psychoanalytic Theory) 2. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development 3. Alfred Adler's - Personality Types 4. Carl Jung – Personality Theory(Introvert/Extrovert) 5. Karen Horney - Neurotic Needs  PSYCHODYNAMIC: refers to a wide group of theories that emphasize the overriding influence of instinctive drives and forces and the importance of developmental experiences in shaping personality. It has many forms, some of which are neo-Freudians which retained many concepts of Freud  Founder of psychoanalysis- both a theory of personality and a therapeutic practice. He proposed the existence of an unconscious element in the mind which influences consciousness, and of conflicts in it between various sets of forces. Freud also stated the importance of a child's semi-consciousness of sex as a factor in mental development His theory of the sexual origin of neuroses aroused great Sigmund Freud controversy. Three (3) Elements of Personality: 1.ID is driven by internal and basic drives and needs, which are typically instinctual such as hunger, thirst, and the drive for sex, or libido. Acts in accordancewith the pleasure principle in that it avoids pain and seeks pleasure. Due to the instinctual quality of the id, it is impulsive and often unaware of implications of actions. Three (3) Elements of Personality: 2. EGO- works to balance both the id and superego by working to achieve the id's drive in the most realistic ways. It is driven by the reality principle. EGO seeks to rationalize the ID's instinct, separate what is real, and realistic of our drives as well as being realistic about the standards that the SUPEREGO sets for the individual. Three (3) Elements of Personality: 3. SUPEREGO, driven by the morality principle in connection with the morality of higher thought and action. Superego works to act in socially acceptable ways. It employs morality, judging our sense of wrong and right and using guilt to encourage socially acceptable behavior. Dynamics of personality refers to those forces that motivate people Instincts Anxiety Freud categorized human drives into Freud believed only the ego feels sex and aggression, with the sexual anxiety, but the id, superego, and instinct aiming for pleasure through outside world can each be a source of erogenous zones, and the object anxiety. being any person or thing bringing it. Neurotic anxiety stems from the ego's Infants exhibit primary narcissism, relation with the id; moral anxiety is but secondary narcissism in similar to guilt and results from the adolescence and adulthood is not ego's relation with the superego; and universal. Sadism and masochism realistic anxiety, which is similar to satisfy sexual and aggressive drives, fear, is produced by the ego's relation with aggression directed against with the real world. others.  ANXIETY For Freud, the most extreme form of anxiety human beings experience is when they are separated from their mother at birth. He calls this the birth trauma. It signifies a change from an environment of complete security and satisfaction to one in which the satisfaction of needs is less predictable. The function of anxiety is to warn us that, if we continue thinking or behaving in a certain way, we will be in danger. Since anxiety is not pleasant, we try to reduce it. There are three (3) kinds of anxiety: 1. Reality anxiety – caused by real, objective sources of danger in the environment. This is the easiest to reduce; 2. Neurotic anxiety – fear that the impulses of the id will overwhelm the ego and making the person do something for which he or she will be punished; and 3. Moral anxiety – fear of doing something contrary to the superego and thus experience guilt.  ANXIETY There are two general ways to decrease anxiety. 1. The first is to deal with the situation directly. We resolve problems, overcome obstacle, either confront or run from threats, or come to terms with the problems to minimize their impact. In these ways we are working to illuminate difficulties, lower the chances of their future recurrence and decrease the prospects of additional anxiety in the future. 2. The alternative approach defends against anxiety by distorting or denying the situation itself. The ego protects the whole personality against the threat by falsifying the nature of the threat. The ways in which the distortions are accomplished are called defense mechanisms. Defense Mechanism Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, proposed several defense mechanisms as part of his psychoanalytic theory. These mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that people use to cope with anxiety and protect themselves from uncomfortable feelings or threatening thoughts. These defense mechanisms serve as ways for the ego to protect itself from anxiety and distress, but they can also lead to maladaptive behaviors or patterns if relied on excessively. What are the Type of Defense Mechanisms? Type of Defense Description Example Mechanism 1. DENIAL OF Protecting self from an A man whose wife has left him might still set a REALITY unpleasant reality by refusal to place at the dinner table for her and insist that perceive or face it she is supposed to come home at any time. Playing out this scenario night after night might be more acceptable than acknowledging that she is, in reality, gone. 2. REPRESSION Preventing painful or dangerous A mother’s occasional murderous thoughts thought from entering toward her hyperactive two-year-old are consciousness denied access to awareness. 3. Preventing affection in hurtful A prisoner on death row awaiting execution INTELLECTUALIZA situations by separating resists appeals on his behalf and coldly insists TION incompatible attitudes into the letter of the law should be followed. logic-tight compartments 4. PROJECTION Attributing one’s unacceptable An expansionist dictator of a totalitarian state motives or characteristics to is convinced that neighboring countries are others planning to invade.  What are the Types of Defense Mechanisms? Type of Defense Description Example Mechanism 5. REACTION Objectionable thoughts and A man troubled by homosexual urges initiates a FORMATION designs are repressed and zealous community campaign to stamp out gay bars. their opposites are expressed. 6. DISPLACEMENT Discharging pent-up A woman who has an argument with her supervisor at work. feelings, often of hostility, on She is really angry with the supervisor, but her ego keeps her objects or people less in check because, after all, the supervisor is the boss and dangerous than those can make her work life difficult, so she goes home and arousing the feelings. displaces her anger onto her husband, perhaps yelling and nagging at him or belittling him. Sometimes displacement has a domino effect, whereby one spouse berates another, who in turn yells at the children, who then abuse the family dog. 7. RATIONALIZATION Using contrived A woman whose boyfriend has broken up with “explanations” to conceal or her reasons out that her friends never really disguise unworthy motives for one’s behavior liked him to begin with. Minimizing something to which one has aspired but failed to obtain.  What are types of Defense Mechanisms: Type of Defense Description Example Mechanism 8. Regression Retreating to an earlier developmental level A child who is frightened by the first day of involving less mature behavior and school may indulge in infantile behavior, such as responsibility. With this mechanism, the person weeping, sucking the thumb, hanging onto the returns to an earlier stage of development teacher, or hiding in a corner. when he or she experiences stress. 9. Sublimation Converting an impulse from socially An angry, aggressive young man becomes a star unacceptable aim to a socially acceptable one. on his school’s debate team. Sexual impulses are displaced into such activities as painting, writing, building or just plain hard work Displacement results in something advantageous to civilization. 10. Introjection Taking direct characteristic of another person An abused woman feels angry with herself into the self in order to avoid direct conflict. rather than her abusing partner, because she The emotions originally felt about the other has taken in the belief that she is an person are now felt toward the self. inadequate partner. Believing otherwise would make her more fearful than she desired relationship might end. 11. Emotional A boy who suffers trauma from the death of his A boy who suffers trauma from the death of his Insulation mother and describes the details of the crisis mother and describes the details of the crisis without without expressing affect. expressing affect. 1. Repression: This involves pushing threatening or distressing thoughts and feelings out of conscious awareness. Repressed thoughts remain in the unconscious mind but may still influence behavior. 2. Denial: Denial involves refusing to accept reality or the truth of a situation. It's a way of avoiding uncomfortable truths or emotions by rejecting their existence. 3. Projection: Projection involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses onto someone else. For example, someone who is angry but denies it might accuse others of being angry instead. 4. Displacement: Displacement involves redirecting one's emotions or impulses from the original source toward a less threatening target. For instance, a person who is angry with their boss may come home and yell at their spouse. 5. Sublimation: Sublimation involves channeling unacceptable impulses or emotions into socially acceptable activities or behaviors. For example, someone with aggressive tendencies might channel that energy into sports or artistic pursuits. 6. Regression: Regression involves reverting to an earlier stage of development in the face of stressful situations. This can manifest as childlike behaviors or responses to stress. 7. Rationalization: Rationalization involves creating logical explanations or justifications for behaviors, thoughts, or feelings that are otherwise unacceptable. It's a way of convincing oneself or others that the behavior is justified. 8. Reaction Formation: Reaction formation involves expressing the opposite of one's true feelings or impulses. For example, someone who feels attraction towards someone they deem inappropriate might express hostility towards that person instead. 9. Intellectualization: Intellectualization involves approaching an emotionally challenging situation in a detached, analytical manner, focusing on facts and logic rather than emotions. Other Defense Mechanisms  Acting out - The individual copes with stress by engaging in actions rather than reflecting upon internal feelings.  Affiliation - Involves turning to other people for support.  Aim inhibition - The individual accepts a modified form of their original goal (i.e. becoming a high school basketball coach rather than a professional athlete.)  Altruism - Satisfying internal needs through helping others.  Avoidance - Refusing to deal with or encounter unpleasant objects or situations.  Compensation - Overachieving in one area to compensate for failures in another.  Humor - Pointing out the funny or ironic aspects of a situation.  Passive-aggression - Indirectly expressing anger. While all defense mechanisms can be unhealthy, they can also be adaptive and allow us to function normally. The greatest problems arise when defense mechanisms are overused in order to avoid dealing with problems. Stages of Psychosexual Development According to Freud: Personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. Freud'stheory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. Stages of Psychosexual Development According to Freud: If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. Fixation- a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating. Levels of Mental Life: Freud saw mental functioning as operating on three levels: unconscious, preconscious, and conscious Levels of Mental Description Life 1. Unconscious The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond awareness but that motivate most human behaviors. Unconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted form, such as dream images, slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms. Unconscious processes originate from two sources: (1) repression, or the blocking out of anxiety-filled experiences and (2) phylogenetic endowment, or inherited experiences that lie beyond an individual's personal experience. 2. Preconscious The preconscious contains images that are not in awareness but that can become conscious either quite easily or with some level of difficulty. 3. Conscious Consciousness plays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory. Conscious ideas stem from either the perception of external stimuli (our perceptual conscious system) or from the unconscious and preconscious after they have evaded censorship. Tapping the Unconscious Mind (Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory) Freud employed the following methods/techniques to determine the contents of the unconscious mind: Methods Description 1. Free In conscious expressions, there are hints regarding the contents of the unconscious association mind that a trained observer could detect. What is not spoken is as important as what is spoken. Topics which patients offer strong resistance to provide the analyst with useful hints to problem areas in the unconscious mind; 2. Dream Dreams are camouflaged or disguised thoughts. The manifest content of a dream is Analysis what it appears to be, while the latent content is the underlying repressed thoughts that caused the dream. The following are the forms of dream distortion: condensation (when a part of something symbolizes the whole thing), synthesis (when an idea contained in the manifest content is actually a combination of many ideas in the latent content), and dislocation (displacement of unacceptable ideas to something that is symbolically equivalent and acceptable). The nature of dreams and the process of repression explain why the memory of dreams is so short-lived. Tapping the Unconscious Mind (Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory) Freud employed the following methods to determine the contents of the unconscious mind: Methods Description 3. Everyday Life Freud believed that all human behavior has a cause; nothing happens simply by chance. Little mistakes such as lapses of memory, provide information about the unconscious mind. Slips of the tongue reveal unconscious motives. The main point of Freud is, “just because a thought is repressed does not mean that it goes away; it is always there striving for expression, and these manifestations in everyday life are ways of getting a glimpse into the unconscious.”; and 4. Humor Humor allows expression of repressed thoughts in a socially approved manner. For a joke to be funny, it must contain anxiety provoking materials. We laugh only at the things that bother us. Most often, sex, elimination and death are favorite topics. If you want to know what has been repressed in a person’s mind, examine what he or she find humorous. 5. Interpretation Counselor points out, explains, and teaches the meanings of whatever is revealed Stages of Psychosexual Development  Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud believed that every child goes through a sequence of developmental stages, and the experiences during these stages will determine his or her adult personality characteristics. The adult personality is formed by the end of the 5th year of life. Each stage has a corresponding erogenous zone, which is the greatest source of stimulation and pleasure during the stage. In order to make a smooth transition from one psychosexual stage to the next, the child must neither be overgratified nor undergratified because it can lead to fixation or regression. Freud uses the term fixation to describe what occurs when a person does not progress normally from stage to stage and remains overly involved with a particular stage. That person will prefer to gratify his or her needs in simpler or more child like ways, rather than in an adult mode that would result in normal development. The three stages – oral, anal and phallic – are considered by Freud as the basic ingredients of the adult personality. Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychosexual Stages Description A. Pregenital Stage (Oral, Anal, Phallic) 1. Oral stage The erogenous zone is the mouth, particularly the lips, tongue and (1st year of life) later the teeth. Physical expressions are sucking, biting and licking or smacking one’s lips, it is normal to retain some interest in oral pleasures. It can be looked upon as pathological if it is a dominant mode of gratification, that is, if the child is excessively dependent on oral habits to relieve anxiety or tension. 2. Anal stage The erogenous zone is the anus or buttocks region. In the first part of (2nd year of life) this stage, pleasure is derived from feces expulsion and fixation results in the lack of sphincter control or enuresis. Symbolical acts are over generosity or wanting to give away everything he or she owns. This is termed anal-explosive character. In the later anal stage, pleasure comes from feces possession and affection is manifested through constipation. Symbolic acts are stinginess, orderliness and perfectionism. This is termed anal retentive character.  Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychosexual Stages Description A. Pregenital Stage 3. Phallic Stage (3rd Phallic stage the erogenous zone is the genital area. This is considered the most to the 5th year of life) controversial stage. Both female and male children develop strong positive feelings toward the mother because she satisfied their needs, while the father is resented because he is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention and affection. This feeling will persist in male but will change in female children. The male child will fear the father as he views him as his dominant rival. The fear becomes a constriction anxiety, where the boy develops the fear that he will lose his sex organ since it is assumed to be responsible for the conflict between him and his father. The anxiety causes a repression of sexual desire for the mother and hostility towards the father. When he grows up, he will seek characteristics of women like his mother’s. The female child discovers that she does not possess a penis, holds the mother responsible and comes to hate her for it. This is known as the electra complex. Her positive feelings for her father are mixed with envy since he has something she does not have. Freud term this penis envy. The only hope for a female child is to have a baby boy. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). Oedipus complex and Electra Complex The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e. general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes. In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety. The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex. Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes and behaviors of another person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego. Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex. For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy. The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state' and this creates great tension. The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role.  Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychosexual Description Stages B. Latency Stage No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies and friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender. Lower sexual energy and no live object, a time of relative calm. For Freud, one’s personality is generally completed by this stage. C. Genital Stage The final stage following puberty. This is the time when the person emerges from the pre-genital stages as the adult he or she is destined to become. Hopefully, the child has now been transformed from a selfish, pleasure- seeking child to a realistic social adult with heterosexual interests leading to marriage and child rearing. If the experiences during the pre-genital stages caused fixations, it will be manifested throughout one’s adult life. Only psychoanalysis could bring out these repressed experiences and make the individual face them so that their effects on one’s life may be reduced. This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse. Psychosocial Development Theory - a pupil of Sigmund Freud - the first child psychoanalyst in Boston - Although Erikson lacked even a bachelor's degree, he served as a professor at prominent institutions such as Harvard and Yale. Erik Erikson Psychosocial Stages Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s life. Erikson puts a great deal of emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a person’s identity. Like Freud, Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson (1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social). According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time. After extensive study of children from various cultural backgrounds and areas he began to compile this information to form his theories on development, personality, and what forms our identity. Erikson’s theory breaks down psychosocial development into eight stages. These stages are delineated by age and characterized by a struggle or crisis that must be overcome in order to adapt and continue to develop. Most famous for coining the phrase: Identity crisis Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 1. ORAL SENSORY Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (Birth – 1 year old) MODE (Infancy) “If the crisis is successfully resolved, hope emerges. If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, fear/withdrawal emerges.” Significant Relations: Mothering One Infants develop a relative sense of trust and mistrust of the world around them. Crucial to this development is experience with the mother. If the mother is sensitive and responsive to her child, the infant’s sense of security increases, and frustration due to hunger and discomfort is more tolerated. According to Erikson, development of a strong sense of basic trust implies not only that one has learned to rely on the sameness and continuity of outer providers, but also that one may trust oneself and the capacities of one’s own organs to cope with urges. A sense of trust develops not so much from absolute quantities of food or demonstrations of love from the quality of maternal care. Mothers who trust their ability to care for their babies and trust in the healthy development of their children are able to communicate to the infant the sense of trust in the self and the world. Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 2. MUSCULAR ANAL Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (2-3 years old) MODE (Early Childhood) “If the crisis is successfully resolved, self-control and will power emerges. If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, self-doubt/compulsion emerges.” Significant Relations: Parents This stage involves muscular maturation and the ability to hold on or let go. Children interact with the world, exert control, and develop a sense of autonomy. They experience free choice and test their faith in existence through sudden, stubborn choices. Example, to grab demandingly or to eliminate inappropriately. Shame stems from a sense of self-exposure, a feeling that one’s deficiencies are exposed to others. It is associated with the first experience of standing upright – small wobbly and powerless in an adult world. Doubt is closely related to the consciousness of having a front and a back. Our front is the acceptable face that we turn towards the world. The back part of the body cannot be seen by the child. It is an unknown and unexplored territory and yet, at the stage of toilet training, one’s backside can be dominated by the will of others. Unless the split between front and back is reduced, the feelings of autonomy will become tinged with doubt. Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 3. GENITAL- Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years old) LOCOMOTOR “If the crisis is successfully resolved, direction and MODE (Play Age) purpose emerge. If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, feelings of unworthiness emerge.” Significant Relations: Family At this stage, the child experiences mobility and inquisitiveness, an expanding sense of mastery and responsibility. The child is eager to learn and perform well. Language and imagination develop. The sense of mastery is tempted by feelings of guilt. The new freedom and assertion of power create anxiety. The child develops conscience, a parental model that supports self-punishment. At this stage, the child can do more than before and must learn to set limits. Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 4. LATENCY Industry versus Inferiority (6-11 years old) MODE (School “If the crisis is successfully resolved, competence emerges. Age) If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, inferiority/inertia emerges.” Significant Relations: Neighborhood and School This stage is the beginning of life outside the family. In our culture, school life begins here. This is a stage of systematic instruction, a movement from play to a sense of work. The child needs to do well and develops a sense of work completion and satisfaction in a job well done. Otherwise, the child develops a sense of inferiority and inequality. Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 5. PUBERTY MODE Identity versus Identity Confusion (12-20 years old) (Adolescence) “If the crisis is successfully resolved, fidelity emerges. If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, uncertainty/role repudiation emerges”. Significant Relations: Peer Groups As childhood ends, adolescence begins. Adolescence marks the transition from childhood to adulthood, characterized by a challenging integration of past identifications with present impulses and skills, influenced by societal and cultural opportunities. The adolescent is likely to suffer from some confusion roles. Doubts about sexual attractiveness and sexual identity are common at this stage. The inability to develop a sense of identification with an individual or cultural role model that gives direction to one’s life can lead to a period of floundering and insecurity. There is also the possibility of over identification with youth culture heroes or clique leaders leading to a loss of identity. Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 6.GENITALITY MODE Intimacy versus Isolation (20-24 years old) (Young Adulthood) “If the crisis is successfully resolved, the capacity for love emerges. If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, promiscuity/exclusivity emerges”. Significant Relations: Sexual Partner and Friends Only after a relatively firm sense of identity is developed are we capable of committing to a partnership, an affiliation and an intimate relationship with others. A critical commitment that generally occurs at this stage is mutuality with a love partner. This level of intimacy is significantly different from the earlier sexual exploration and intense search for sexual identity. Without a sense of intimacy and commitment, one may become isolated and be unable to sustain an intimate relationship. If one’s sense of identity is weak and threatened by intimacy, the individual may turn away from or attack the possibility of a relationship. Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 7. Generativity versus stagnation (25-65 years old) PROCREATIVITY “If the crisis is successfully resolved, care emerges. MODE (Adulthood) If the crisis unsuccessfully resolved, selfishness emerges.” Significant Relations: Divided labor and shared household Intimate commitment widens to a more general concern of guiding and supporting the next generation. Generativity includes concern for our children, and for the ideas and products that we have created. We are teaching as well as learning human beings. Creations are important to ensure the health and maintenance of ideals and principles. Otherwise, we fall into a state of boredom and stagnation.  Psycho-Social Development of Personality Stage Basic Conflict 8. Ego Integrity versus Despair (65 years to death) GENERALIZATION “If the crisis is successfully resolved, wisdom emerges, OF SENSUAL MODES If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, feelings of despair and meaninglessness emerge”. (Old Age) Significant Relations: All humanity Ego integrity involves accepting a unique life cycle, embracing triumphs and failures, and valuing different lifestyles. It brings order, meaning, and new love to oneself and others, and allows individuals to defend their dignity against criticisms and threats. Erikson formulated the “golden rule” in the light of modern psychological understanding. He states that worthwhile moral acts strengthen the doer as they strengthen his values and enhance the relationship between the two. The therapist is encouraged to develop as a practitioner and as a person, and to develop the patient as a patient and as a person.  Individual Psychology The Secure Based Model Theory of Birth Order Individual Psychology - Austrian Psychologist - a prominent figure in psychology and a contemporary of Sigmund Freud, developed his own theory of personality known as individual psychology. While Adler did not categorize personality into specific types in the way that some other theorists, such as Carl Jung, did, he did emphasize certain personality constructs and dynamics. ALFRED ADLER Adler called his approach individual psychology because it expressed his belief that every human personality is unique and indivisible (Ewen, 1988). His emphasis on the individual did not preclude the social. The social element was an “all-important” factor since it is only in a social context that an individual becomes an individual. Adler has been considered to be a disciple of Freud but he vehemently rejected that. As Adler stated (1938): Freud and his followers are uncommonly fond of describing me in an unmistakably boastful way as one of his disciples, because I had many an argument with him in a psychological group. But I never attended one of his lectures, and when this group was to be sworn in to support the Freudian views I was the first to leave it. In my investigations concerning dreams I had two great aids. The first was provided by Freud, with his unacceptable views. I profited by his mistakes. I was never psychoanalyzed, and I would have at once rejected any such proposal, because the rigorous acceptance of his doctrine destroys scientific impartiality which in any case is not very great. In the Secure Base Model, the primary caregiver (often the mother) serves as a secure base from which an infant can explore the world and return for comfort and reassurance when needed. This model suggests that the quality of early attachment relationships can have profound effects on later emotional and social development. The key components of the Secure Base Model include: 1. Safe Haven: The caregiver provides a secure and nurturing environment in which the infant feels safe and protected. This involves responsiveness to the infant's needs for comfort, feeding, and physical care. 2. Secure Base: The caregiver also serves as a secure base from which the infant can explore and engage with the world. Knowing that the caregiver is there for support allows the infant to venture out and explore with confidence. 3. Exploration and Learning: When the infant feels secure in the attachment relationship, they are more likely to engage in exploration and learning experiences. This exploration promotes cognitive and social development. 4. Proximity Maintenance: The infant seeks to maintain proximity to the caregiver, especially in times of stress or uncertainty. The presence of the caregiver provides comfort and reassurance. 5. Separation and Reunion: It also includes the processes of separation and reunion, in which the infant learns to tolerate brief separations from the caregiver and to trust in their eventual return. Alfred Adler proposed that birth order, or the sequence in which children are born within a family, plays a significant role in shaping personality development. He suggested that birth order influences how individuals perceive themselves, their relationships with others, and their approach to life's challenges. Adler's ideas about birth order are a central component of his broader theory of individual psychology. It's important to note that while Adler's theory of birth order provides a framework for understanding how family dynamics influence personality, it is not deterministic. Other factors, such as parental attitudes, cultural influences, and life experiences, also contribute to individual differences in personality development. Additionally, research on birth order effects has yielded mixed findings, with some studies supporting Adler's ideas and others finding limited or inconsistent evidence for birth order effects on personality.  ADLERS THEORY OF BIRTH ORDER 1. Firstborn Children: Adler proposed that firstborn children often receive a great deal of attention and responsibility from parents. As a result, they may develop characteristics such as leadership skills, conscientiousness, and a desire for achievement. Firstborns may also feel pressure to succeed and may be perfectionistic in their endeavors. 2. Middle Children: Middle children, according to Adler, may feel somewhat overshadowed by their older siblings and may strive to differentiate themselves. They may develop traits such as adaptability, diplomacy, and a tendency to seek attention through social connections or achievement outside the family. 3. Youngest Children: Youngest children are often the recipients of parental indulgence and may enjoy a more relaxed and carefree upbringing. Adler suggested that youngest children may develop characteristics such as creativity, sociability, and a tendency to rely on others for support. They may also be more rebellious or adventurous compared to their older siblings. 4. Only Children: Adler proposed that only children, who do not have siblings, may exhibit characteristics similar to both firstborns and youngest children. Like firstborns, they may receive a great deal of attention and responsibility from parents. However, like youngest children, they may also experience a sense of being "the baby" of the family. 5. Twins and Multiples: Adler acknowledged that birth order dynamics may be different for twins or multiples, as they share the same birth order position. However, he suggested that individual temperament and interactions with parents and siblings still play a significant role in shaping personality development.  Jungian Analytical Psychology Filipino Personality and Social Work  Carl Jung was an early supporter of Freud CARL JUNG because of their shared interest in the unconscious. He was an active member of the the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (formerly known as the Wednesday Psychological Society). When the International Psychoanalytical Association formed in 1910 Jung became president at the request of Freud. However in 1912 while on a lecture tour of America Jung publicly criticized Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex and his emphasis on infantile sexuality. The following year this led to an irrevocable split between them and Jung went on to develop his own version of psychoanalytic theory. Most of Jung's assumptions of his analytical psychology reflect his theoretical differences with Freud. For example, while Jung agreed with Freud that a person’s past and childhood experiences determined future behavior, he also believed that we are shaped by our future (aspirations) too.  Differences between Jung and Freud Theories Carl Jung Sigmund Freud Theory of the Jung (1948) disagreed with Freud regarding the role of sexuality. He Libido is a term used in Libido believed the libido was not just sexual energy, but instead generalized psychoanalytic theory to psychic energy. describe the energy created by survival and sexual For Jung for purpose of psychic energy was to motivate the individual instincts. According to in a number of important ways, including spiritually, intellectually, and Sigmund Freud, the libido is creatively. It was also an individuals motivational source for seeking part of the id and is the pleasure and reducing conflict. driving force of all behavior Theory of the Like Freud (and Erikson) Jung regarded the psyche as made up of a According to Freud, the Unconscious number of separate but interacting systems. The three main ones were unconscious is a potent part the ego, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. of the human mind. It is the source of human behavior According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind as it and acts as a reservoir for comprises the thoughts, memories, and emotions a person is aware of. human thoughts and The ego is largely responsible for feelings of identity and continuity. memories. Freud established that humans are fully aware Like Freud, Jung (1921, 1933) emphasized the importance of the of what happens in their unconscious in relation to personality. However, he proposed that the conscious minds. unconscious consists of two layers. Theory of the Unconscious, According to Carl Jung The first layer called the personal unconscious is essentially the same as Freud’s version of the unconscious. The personal unconscious contains temporality forgotten information and well as repressed memories. Jung (1933) outlined an important feature of the personal unconscious called complexes. A complex is a collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and memories that focus on a single concept. The more elements attached to the complex, the greater its influence on the individual. Jung also believed that the personal unconscious was much nearer the surface than Freud suggested and Jungian therapy is less concerned with repressed childhood experiences. It is the present and the future, which in his view was the key to both the analysis of neurosis and its treatment. Theory of the Unconscious, According to Carl Jung However by far the most important difference between Jung and Freud is Jung’s notion of the collective (or transpersonal) unconscious. This is his most original and controversial contribution to personality theory. This is a level of unconscious shared with other members of the human species comprising latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past. ‘The form of the world into which [a person] is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image’ According to Jung the human mind has innate characteristics “imprinted” on it as a result of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral past. Fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders might be examples and it is interesting that this idea has recently been revived in the theory of prepared conditioning. However more important than isolated tendencies are those aspects of the collective unconscious that have developed into separate sub-systems of the personality. Jung called these ancestral memories and images as archetypes.  Archetypes Archetypes (Jung, 1947) are images and thoughts which have universal meanings across cultures which may show up dreams, literature, art or religion. Jung believes symbols from different cultures are often very similar because they have emerged from archetypes shared by the whole human race. For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing present behavior. Jung claimed to identify a large number of archetypes but paid special attention to four. The (1)“persona” (or mask) is the outward face we present to the world. It conceals our real self and Jung describes it as the “conformity” archetype. This is the public face or role a person presents to others as someone different to who we really are (like an actor).  Archetypes Another archetype is the (2) anima/animus. The “anima/animus” is the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women. Each sex manifests attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche of a woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype) and the psyche of a man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype). Next is the (3) shadow. This is the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud). It is the source of both our creative and destructive energies. In line with evolutionary theory it may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival value. Finally there is the (4) self which provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung the ultimate aim of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to self- actualisation) and in this respect Jung (like Erikson) is moving in the direction of a more humanist orientation. That was certainly Jung’s belief and in his book “The Undiscovered Self” he argued that many of the problems of modern life are caused by “man’s progressive alienation from his instinctual foundation”. One aspect of this is his views on the significance of the anima and the animus. Archetypes Jung argues that these archetypes are products of the collective experience of men and women living together. However in modern Western civilization men are discouraged from living their feminine side and women from expressing masculine tendencies. For Jung the result was that the full psychological development both sexes was undermined. Together with the prevailing patriarchal culture of Western civilization this has led to the devaluation of feminine qualities altogether and the predominance of the persona (the mask) has elevated insincerity to a way of life which goes unquestioned by millions in their everyday life The term “archetype” means original pattern in ancient Greek. Jung used the concept of archetype in his theory of the human psyche. He identified 12 universal, mythic characters archetypes reside within our collective unconscious. Jung defined twelve primary types that represent the range of basic human motivations. Each of us tends to have one dominant archetype that dominates our personality.  The Ego Types Archetypes Motto Core Desire Goal Greatest Fear Strategy Weakness Talent 1. The Free to be to get to to be to be punished to do things boring for all faith and Innocent you and me paradise happy for doing right their naive optimism something bad innocence or wrong 2. The All men and connecting to belong to be left out or develop losing one’s realism, Everyman women are with others to stand out ordinary solid own self in an empathy, created equal from the crowd virtues, be effort to blend lack of down to in or for the pretense earth, the sake of common superficial touch relationships 3. The Hero Where there’s to prove expert weakness, to be as arrogance, competence a will, there’s one’s worth mastery in vulnerability, strong and always and courage a way through a way that being a competent as needing courageous improves “chicken” possible another battle acts the world to fight 4. The Love your to protect to help selfishness and doing things martyrdom compassion, Caregiver neighbour as and care for others ingratitude for others and being generosity yourself others exploited  The Soul Types Archetypes Motto Core Desire Goal Greatest Fear Strategy Weakness Talent 5. The Don’t the freedom to getting journey, seeking aimless autonomy, Explorer fence me to find out experience a trapped, out and wandering, ambition, in who you are better, more conformity, experiencing new becoming a being true to through authentic, and inner things, escape misfit one’s soul exploring more emptiness from boredom the world fulfilling life 6. The Rebel Rules are revenge or to overturn to be disrupt, destroy, crossing over outrageousne made to revolution what isn’t powerless or or shock to the dark ss, radical be broken working ineffectual side, crime freedom 7. The Lover You’re the intimacy being in a being alone, a to become more outward- passion, only one and relationship wallflower, and more directed gratitude, experience with the unwanted, physically and desire to appreciation, people, work unloved emotionally please others and and attractive at risk of commitment surrounding losing own s they love identity 8. The If you can to create to realize a mediocre develop artistic perfectionism, creativity and Creator/Artist imagine it, things of vision vision or control and skill bad solutions imagination it can be enduring execution done value  The Self Types Archetypes Motto Core Desire Goal Greatest Fear Strategy Weakness Talent 9. The Jester You only to live in the to have a great being bored or play, make jokes, frivolity, Joy, The fool, live once moment with time and boring others be funny wasting trickster, full lighten up the time joker, or enjoyment world comedian. 10. The Sage The truth to find the to use being duped, seeking out can study wisdom, will set you truth. intelligence misled—or information and details intelligence. free and analysis to ignorance. knowledge; self- forever understand reflection and and never the world. understanding act. thought processes. 11. The I make understandin to make unintended develop a vision becoming finding win- Magician things g the dreams come negative and live by it manipulati win solutions happen. fundamental true consequences ve laws of the universe 12. The Ruler Power isn’t control create a chaos, being exercise power being responsibility, everything, prosperous, overthrown authoritari leadership it’s the only successful an, unable thing. family or to delegate community The 4 cardinal orientations that the archetypes are seeking to realize are: 1. Ego – Leave a Mark on the World 2. Order – Provide Structure to the World 3. Social – Connect to others 4. Freedom – Yearn for Paradise Dynamics of Personality Jung believed that the dynamic principles that apply to physical energy also apply to psychic energy. These forces include causality and teleology as well as progression and regression. A. Causality and Teleology Jung accepted a middle position between the philosophical issues of causality and teleology. In other words, humans are motivated both by their past experiences and by their expectations of the future. B. Progression and Regression To achieve self-realization, people must adapt to both their external and internal worlds. Progression involves adaptation to the outside world and the forward flow of psychic energy, whereas regression refers to adaptation to the inner world and the backward flow of psychic energy. Jung believed that the backward step is essential to a person's forward movement toward self-realization. Psychological Types Eight basic psychological types emerge from the union of two attitudes and four functions. A. Attitudes Attitudes are predispositions to act or react in a characteristic manner. The two basic attitudes are introversion, which refers to people's subjective perceptions, and extraversion, which indicates an orientation toward the objective world. Extraverts are influenced more by the real world than by their subjective perception, whereas introverts rely on their individualized view of things. Introverts and extraverts often mistrust and misunderstand one another. B. Functions The two attitudes or extroversion and introversion can combine with four basic functions to form eight general personality types. The four functions are (1) thinking, or recognizing the meaning of stimuli; (2) feeling, or placing value on something; (3) sensation, or taking in sensory stimuli; and (4) intuition, or perceiving elementary data that are beyond our awareness. Jung referred to thinking and feeling as rational functions and to sensation and intuition as irrational functions. Development of Personality Nearly unique among personality theorists was Jung's emphasis on the second half of life. Jung saw middle and old age as times when people may acquire the ability to attain self- realization. A. Stages of Development: Jung divided development into four broad stages: (1) childhood, which lasts from birth until adolescence; (Anarchic, Monarchic, Dualistic) (2) youth, the period from puberty until middle life, which is a time for extraverted development and for being grounded to the real world of schooling, occupation, courtship, marriage, and family; (3) middle life, which is a time from about 35 or 40 until old age when people should be adopting an introverted attitude; and (4) old age, which is a time for psychological rebirth, self-realization, and preparation for death. (Twilight Years) B. Self-Realization Self-realization, or individuation, involves a psychological rebirth and an integration of various parts of the psyche into a unified or whole individual. Self-realization represents the highest level of human development. Jung used the word association test, dreams, and active imagination during the process of psychotherapy, and all these methods contributed to his theory of personality. A. Word Association Test Jung used the word association test early in his career to uncover complexes embedded in the personal unconscious. The technique requires a patient to utter the first word that comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus word. Unusual responses indicate a complex. B. Dream Analysis Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause and a purpose and thus can be useful in explaining past events and in making decisions about the future. "Big dreams" and "typical dreams," both of which come from the collective unconscious, have meanings that lie beyond the experiences of a single individual. C. Active Imagination Jung also used active imagination to arrive at collective images. This technique requires the patient to concentrate on a single image until that image begins to appear in a different form. Eventually, the patient should see figures that represent archetypes and other collective unconscious images. D. Psychotherapy The goal of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients become healthy and to move healthy people in the direction of self-realization. Jung was eclectic in his choice of therapeutic techniques and treated old people differently than the young.  Psychoanalytical Social Theory Karen Horney's psychoanalytic social theory assumes that social and cultural conditions, especially during childhood, have a powerful effect on later personality. Like Melanie Klein, Horney accepted many of Freud's observations, but she objected to most of his interpretations, including his notions on feminine psychology. Although Horney's writings deal mostly with neuroses and neurotic personalities, her theories also appropriate suggest much that is appropriate to normal development. She agreed with Freud that early childhood traumas are important, but she placed far more emphasis on social factors. KAREN HORNEY A. Horney and Freud Compared Horney criticized Freudian theory on at least three accounts: (1) its rigidity toward new ideas, (2) its skewed view of feminine psychology, and (3) its overemphasis on biology and the pleasure principle. B. The Impact of Culture Horney insisted that modern culture is too competitive and that competition leads to hostility and feelings of isolation. These conditions lead to exaggerated needs for affection and cause people to overvalue love. C. The Importance of Childhood Experiences Neurotic conflict stems largely from childhood traumas, most of which are traced to a lack of genuine love. Children who do not receive genuine affection feel threatened and adopt rigid behavioral patterns in an attempt to gain love. Feminine Psychology Perhaps the