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of the strength and direction of the Vocab relationship between two variables -​ confounding variable: some factor -​ selective attrition: nonrandom loss of...

of the strength and direction of the Vocab relationship between two variables -​ confounding variable: some factor -​ selective attrition: nonrandom loss of other than the independent variable participants during a study, resulting that, if not controlled by the in a nonrepresentative sample experimenter, could explain any -​ Ethnography: Researcher immersing differences across treatment themselves in culture or subculture conditions in participants’ to understand the unique values, performance on the dependent traditions, and social processes while variable making extensive observations and -​ heuristic value: a criterion for notes evaluating the scientific merit of -​ developmental stage: A distinct theories. An heuristic theory is one phase within a larger sequence of that continues to stimulate new development; A period characterized research and new discoveries by a particular set of abilities, -​ Cohort-effect: age-related difference motives, behaviors, or emotions that among cohorts that is attributable to occur together and form a coherent cultural/historical differences in patter cohorts’ growing-up experiences -​ observer influence: tendency of rather than to true developmental participants to react to an observer’s change presence by behaving in unusual -​ experimental design ways -​ scientific method -​ cross-generational problem: the fact -​ independent variable that long-term changes in the -​ correlational design environment may limit conclusions -​ experimental control of a longitudinal project to that -​ Fixation: Arrested development at a generation of children who were particular psychosexual stage, often growing up while the study was in occurring as a means of coping with progress existing conflicts and preventing -​ Adolescence: A distinct phase of life, movement to the next stage, where separate from adulthood stress may be even greater -​ dependent variable -​ Identification: Frued’s term for the -​ ecological validity: state of affairs in child’s tendency to emulate another which the findings of one’s research person, usually the same-sex parent are an accurate representation of -​ Repression: a type of motivated processes that occur in the natural forgetting in which anxiety-provoked environment thoughts and conflicts are forced out -​ correlation coefficient: A numerical of conscious awareness index, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00, -​ Reinforcer -​ Punisher thoughts and feelings are special or -​ habits (according to Watson) unique -​ deferred imitation: reproduction of a -​ imaginary audience: allegedly a form modeled activity that has been of adolescent egocentrism that witnessed at some point in the past involves confusing one’s own -​ verbal mediator: A verbal encoding thoughts with those of a of modeled behavior that the hypothesized audience and observer stores in memory concluding that others share your -​ Emulation: reproduction of a preoccupations modeled outcome by use of means -​ social cognition: the thinking that other than those that the model people display about the thoughts, displayed feelings, motives, and behaviors of -​ mirror neurons themselves and other people -​ object permanence -​ Natural selection -​ invisible displacement -​ Concordance rate: the percentage of -​ Centration: the tendency to focus on cases in which a particular attribute only one aspect of a problem when is present for one member of a twin two or more aspects are relevant pair if it is present for the other -​ Conservation: the recognition that -​ Tools of intellectual adaptation the properties of of an object or -​ Empathy substance do not change wen its -​ Scaffolding: process by which an appearance is altered in some expert, when instructing a novice, superficial way responds contingently to the novice’s -​ Reversibility: the ability to reverse, behavior in a learning situation so or negate, an action by mentally that the novice gradually increases performing the opposite action his or her understanding of a -​ Compensation: the ability to consider problem more than one aspect of a problem at -​ Zone of proximal development a time (ZPD): Vygotsky’s term for the range -​ Seriation: a cognitive operation that of tasks that are too complex to be allows one to order a set of stimuli mastered alone but can be along a quantifiable dimension such accomplished with guidance and as height or weight encouragement from a more skillful -​ Transitivity: the ability to infer partner relations among elements in a serial -​ Heritability: the amount of order variability in a trait that is -​ personal fable: allegedly a form of attributable to hereditary factors adolescent egocentrism in which the -​ Collaborative learning individual thinks that he and his -​ Casual attribution: conclusions to appropriate levels of intensity in drawn about the underlying causes of order to accomplish one’s goals our own or another person’s behavior -​ temperament (be sure to include -​ Kinship: the extent to which two “constitutionally based” in your individuals have genes in common definition): a person’s characteristic -​ Private speech: Vygotsky’s term for modes of emotional and behavioral the subset of a child’s verbal responding to environmental events, utterances that serve a including such attributes as activity self-communicative function and level, irritability, fearful distress, and guide the child’s activities positive affect -​ Consistency schema: attributional -​ behavioral inhibition: a heuristic implying that actions that a temperamental attribute reflecting person consistently performs are the fearful distress children display likely to be internally caused and their tendency to withdraw from (reflecting a dispositional unfamiliar people and situations characteristic) -​ goodness-of-fit model -​ Good-enough parenting -​ effortful control: temperamental -​ Trait attribute that reflects one’s ability to -​ Emotion focus and/or shift attention as called -​ stranger anxiety: a wary or fretful for by the situation and to suppress reaction that infants and toddlers dominant or inappropriate responses often display when approached by a in favor of those more appropriate unfamiliar person for the situation -​ separation anxiety: a way or fretful -​ Attachment: a close emotional reaction that infants and toddlers relationship between two persons, often display when separated from characterized by mutual affection persons to whom they are attached and a desire to maintain proximity -​ natural clues to danger -​ synchronized routines: generally -​ social referencing: the use of others’ harmonious in interactions between emotional expressions to gain two persons in which participants information or infer the meaning of adjust their behavior in response to otherwise ambiguous situations the partner’s actions and emotions -​ emotional display rules: culturally -​ secure base: use of a caregiver as a defined rules specifying which base from which to explore the emotions should or should not be environment and to which to return expressed under which for emotional support circumstances -​ Amae: Japanese term that refers to -​ emotional self-regulation: the an infant’s feeling of total process of adjusting one’s emotions dependence on his or her mother and  presumption of the mother’s love -​ Categorical self: a person’s and indulgence classification of the self along -​ Imprinting socially significant dimensions such -​ preadapted characteristic: an innate as age and sex attribute that is a product of -​ Self-esteem evolution and serves some function -​ Adolescent identity crisis that increases the chances of survival -​ Moratorium: identity status for the individual and the species characterizing individuals who are -​ internal working models: cognitive currently experiencing an identity representations of self, others, and crisis and are actively exploring relationships that infants construct occupational and ideological from their interactions with positions in which to invest caregivers themselves -​ Strange Situation: a series of eight -​ Negative identity: Erikson’s term for separations and reunion episodes to identity that is in direct opposition to which infants are exposed in order to that which parents and most adults determine the quality of their would advocate attachments -​ Self -​ reactive attachment disorder: -​ Self-recognition inability to form secure attachment -​ Extended self: more mature bonds with other people; self-representations, emerging characterizes many victims of early between 3.5-5 years old, in which social deprivation and/or abuse children are able to integrate past, -​ learned helplessness: the failure to present, and unknown future learn how to respond appropriately self-representations into a notion of a in a situation because of previous self that endures over time exposures to uncontrollable events in -​ Public self: those aspects of self that the same or similar situations others can see or infer -​ Personal agency: the recognition that -​ Relational self-worth: feelings of one can be the cause of an event or self-worth within a particular events relationship context -​ Self concept -​ Identity diffusion: identity status -​ Present self: early self-representation characterizing individuals who are in which 2- 3-years old recognize not questioning who they are and current representations of self but are have not yet committed themselves largely unaware that past to an identity self-representations or self-relevant -​ Identity achievement: identity status events have implications for the characterizing individuals who have future carefully considered identity issues  and have made firm commitments to -​ Causal attribution: conclusions an occupation and ideologies drawn about the underlying causes of -​ Ethnic identity: sense of belonging to our own or another person’s behavior an ethnic group and committing -​ Authoritative parenting style: oneself flexible, democratic style of -​ Social cognition: the thinking that parenting in which warm, accepting people display about the thoughts, parents provide guidance and feelings, motives, and behaviors of unintrusive control while allowing themselves the child some say in deciding how -​ Looking-glass self: the idea that a best to meet challenges and child’s self-concept is largely obligations determined by the ways other people -​ Compensatory interventions: special respond to him or her educational programs designed to -​ False self-behavior: acting in ways further the cognitive growth and that do not reflect one’s true self or scholastic achievements of the “true me” disadvantaged children -​ Private self: those inner, or -​ Achievement motivation: a subjective, aspects of self that are willingness to strive to succeed at known only to the individual and are challenging tasks and to meet high not available for public scrutiny standards of accomplishment -​ Identity: a mature self-definition; a -​ nAch sense of who one is, where one is -​ Locus of control: personality going in life, and how one fits into dimension distinguishing people who society assume that they are personally -​ Foreclosure: identity status responsible for their life outcomes characterizing individuals who have (internal locus) from those who prematurely committed themselves believe that their outcomes depend to occupations or ideologies without more on circumstances beyond their really thinking about these control (external locus) commitments -​ Stereotype threat: a fear that one will -​ Role-taking: the ability to assume be judged to have traits associated another person’s perspective and with negative social stereotypes understand his or her intentions, about his or her ethnic group thoughts, feelings, and behaviors -​ HOME inventory: a measure of the -​ Mastery motivation: an inborn amount and type of intellectual motive to explore, understand, and stimulation provided by a child’s control one’s environment home environment -​ Achievement value: perceived value of attaining a particular goal should Important People one strive to achieve it -​ Jean Jacque Rousseau  -​ Founded Innate Purity -​ Diana Baumrind -​ Charles Darwin -​ Good enough parenting -​ Founder of developmental -​ Von Bertalanffy psychology -​ General systems theory -​ Thomas Hobbes -​ Lev Vygotsky -​ Founded Original sin idea -​ Sociocultural theory -​ Sigmund Freud -​ Robert Plomin -​ Founder of psychoanalytic -​ Behavioral genetics theory (heuristic) -​ Michael Lewis -​ John Locke -​ Self-conscious emotions -​ Founded Tabula Rasa idea -​ Carroll Izard (children are a blank slate) -​ Infant emotional expression -​ Stanley Hall -​ Jerome Kagan -​ One of the founders -​ Behavioral inhibition developmental psychology -​ Thomas and Chess -​ Jean Piaget -​ Temperament profiles -​ Cognitive Development -​ Goodness-of-fit Viewpoint -​ Mary Rothbart -​ Albert Bandura -​ IBQ and CBQ -​ Observational learning -​ Mary Ainsworth -​ David Elkind -​ Caregiving hypothesis & -​ Adolescent ego-centrsim strange situation paradigm -​ B.F. Skinner -​ Ed Tronick -​ Operant learning theory -​ Integrative theory of -​ John B. Waterson infant/caregiver attachments -​ Father of behaviorism -​ Mary Main -​ Erik Erikson -​ Causes of -​ Psychosocial development disorganized/disoriented -​ Martin Hoffman attachments -​ Infant empathy -​ John Bowlby -​ Fritz Heider -​ Internal working models -​ Attribution theory -​ Harry Harlow -​ Sandra Scarr -​ Effects of social deprivation -​ Parenting effects on on rhesus development -​ Grazyna Kochanska -​ Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen -​ Interactional synchrony -​ Evolutionary basis of -​ James Marcia behavior in animals -​ Identity statuses -​ Urie Bronfenbrenner -​ Simon Baron-Cohen -​ Ecological systems theory  -​ SAM, TOMM, and -​ Henry Murray mindblindness -​ Taxonomy of human needs -​ Michael Lewis & Jeanne Brooks -​ Head Start Cole -​ Best known compensatory -​ Rouge test intervention -​ Robert Selman -​ Bernard Weiner -​ Role-taking theory -​ Attribution theory -​ Carol Dweck -​ Bettye Caldwell & Robert Bradley -​ Learned helplessness theory -​ HOME Inventory -​ John Atkinson -​ David McClelland -​ Theory of Achievement -​ Theory of Achievement Motivation Motivation Contrast Terms -​ Genotype vs phenotype -​ Intimacy vs isolation -​ Heritability vs inherited -​ Sensitive period vs critical period -​ Eros vs Thanatos -​ Electra complex -​ Reciprocal determinism vs environmental determinism -​ Assimilation vs accommodation -​ Behavioral schemes vs symbolic schemes -​ Discrete emotions theory vs functionalist perspective -​ Shame vs evaluative embarrassment -​ Emotional competence vs social competence vs personal adjustment -​ Caregiving hypothesis vs temperament hypothesis -​ Maternal deprivation hypothesis vs social stimulation hypothesis -​ Motivational view of achievement vs behavioral view of achievement -​ Extrinsic orientation vs intrinsic orientation -​ Incremental view of ability vs entity view of ability -​ Mastery orientation vs learned helplessness orientation -​ Trait praise vs process praise -​ Learning goal vs performance goal Chapter 1 What are the characteristics of a good scientific theory? Define parsimonious, falsifiable, and heuristic value as used in the context of theory characteristics.  1.​ Describe the "invention" of adolescence. What purpose does it serve for Western cultures? Adolescence as a distinct phase of life was formally recognized in the early 20th century. The spread of industry in Western societies played a major role in this "invention." As child labor laws were enforced and compulsory schooling was introduced, adolescents became a separate social category. They were no longer economically productive but were considered "emotionally priceless" as they spent more time with peers and developed their own subcultures 2.​ Compare and contrast the social philosophical doctrines of original sin, innate purity, and tabula rasa. -​ All of these social philosophies think that children are born with certain moral beliefs or lack of (meaning they are learned, not innate). Original Sin (Hobbes): Children are inherently selfish and require societal control. Innate Purity (Rousseau): Children are born with an innate sense of right and wrong but may be corrupted by society. Tabula Rasa (Locke): The mind of an infant is a blank slate shaped entirely by experience. Each doctrine influences theories on child-rearing and human nature​ 3.​ State the two sides of the debate in each of the following controversies among developmental theorists: nature versus nurture; activity versus passivity; continuity versus discontinuity; and universal vs. particularistic development. Nature vs. Nurture: Biological predispositions vs. environmental influences​. Activity vs. Passivity: Children as active contributors to their own development vs. passive recipients of external influences​. Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Gradual developmental changes vs. stage-like abrupt changes​. Universal vs. Particularistic Development: Common developmental patterns across cultures vs. individual-specific development 4.​ Describe and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of interview, case study, and clinical data collection methods. Interview: Efficient but may yield inaccurate or biased responses​. Case Study: Provides detailed insight but may lack generalizability​. Clinical Method: Flexible but may be influenced by the researcher’s bias​ 5.​ Describe diary study methodology, including its applications. A self-report method where participants answer standardized questions in a diary or when prompted. Useful for studying mood changes and daily stressors​ Applications: growth of moodiness and negativity as children transition into adolescence  6.​ Describe and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the naturalistic-observational method in comparison to structured observation. What major advantage does structured observation have over other observation methods? What is the major criticism of this method? Naturalistic Observation: Real-world setting but may miss rare behaviors​. Structured Observation: Controlled setting with uniform exposure, but behavior may not be natural Advantage of Structured Observation - able to view unusual or undesirable behaviors that they are unlikely to observe in the natural environment Criticism - not all participants respond the same way to a contrived setting as they would in everyday life 7.​ What kind of conclusion can be drawn from research utilizing an experimental method that cannot be drawn from research utilizing a correlational method? Experiments can establish cause-and-effect relationships, while correlational studies only show associations 8.​ Distinguish between an experiment, a (natural) quasi-experiment, and a field experiment. Experiment: Researcher manipulates variables with controlled conditions. Quasi-Experiment: Studies events researchers cannot manipulate. Field Experiment: Conducted in real-world settings with controlled variables 9.​ On what is a dependent variable dependent? The independent variable 10.​Compare and contrast cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequential and microgenetic experimental designs. Cross-Sectional: Compares different age groups at one time. Longitudinal: Follows the same individuals over time. Sequential: Combines both methods to detect cohort effects. Microgenetic: Intensive study of change as it happens 11.​How does sequential design overcome the cross-generational problem found with longitudinal research designs? Sequential designs help distinguish between age-related changes and generational effects, reducing cohort biases 12.​Describe microgenetic design methodology, including its applications. Studies rapid developmental changes through frequent observations over a short period 13.​Describe psychophysiological methods. How are they used? Measures physiological responses (e.g., heart rate, brain activity) to study psychological states. Useful but may be influenced by mood or discomfort with equipment​ 14.​Distinguish between reliability and validity in research. Reliability: Consistency of results. Validity: Accuracy in measuring what is intended​ 15.​What can cross-cultural methods tell us that no other method can illuminate? These methods reveal how cultural and societal influences shape development in ways that other methods may not capture​ Chapter 2 You will need to be familiar with the classic theories presented in this chapter (Freud, Erikson, Watson, Skinner, Bandura and Piaget) 1.​ List the major criticisms of the theories of Freud, Erikson, Bandura and Piaget. Freud: His theory has been criticized for being overly focused on sexual conflicts, controversial claims about the Oedipus and Electra complexes, and lack of empirical support. Erikson: Some critics argue that his stages are too broad and lack clear mechanisms for how individuals progress through them. Bandura: While influential, some criticize his theory for underestimating biological influences and focusing primarily on observational learning. Piaget: He has been criticized for underestimating children’s cognitive abilities, assuming development occurs in stages rather than continuously, and overlooking social and cultural influences. 2.​ Describe the functions of the id, ego, and superego. If these functions might be likened to the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of a democratic government, which aspect of personality plays each function? Id: Represents instinctual desires and operates on the pleasure principle. Ego: Mediates between the id and reality, operating on the reality principle. Superego: Represents moral and societal standards. Government Analogy: ​ Id = Legislative Branch (creates desires, like laws) ​ Ego = Executive Branch (mediates and executes decisions) ​ Superego = Judicial Branch (judges morality)  3.​ Freud and Erikson are both psychoanalysts, although their theories differ. On what points do they agree? How is Erikson's psychosocial theory different from Freud's psychosexual theory? Agreements: Both emphasize developmental stages and the importance of resolving conflicts at each stage. Differences: Erikson focuses less on sexuality and more on sociocultural factors, proposing eight psychosocial conflicts rather than Freud’s five psychosexual stages. 4.​ Describe Erikson's eight psychosocial crises (also called psychosocial stages). -​ Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy) -​ Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (toddlerhood) -​ Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool) -​ Industry vs. Inferiority (school age) -​ Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence) -​ Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) -​ Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) -​ Integrity vs. Despair (old age) 5.​ Describe Bandura's view of the relationship between children and their environments. How is Bandura's viewpoint different from that of John B. Watson? Children are active participants in shaping their environment. Difference from Watson: Watson believed in environmental determinism, whereas Bandura emphasized reciprocal determinism (children influence their environments and vice versa). 6.​ Describe Bandura's observational learning theory. How does this differ from B. F. Skinner's operant learning? Observational Learning: Children learn behaviors by watching others. Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning occurs through rewards and punishments. 7.​ Describe Bandura's reciprocal determinism. Give an example of reciprocal determinism from your own life. The idea that behavior, personal factors, and the environment influence each other. Example: A child who enjoys reading (personal factor) seeks out books (environment), which in turn enhances reading skills (behavior). 8.​ What finding from the Bobo doll experiment supports Bandura's belief that learning can occur without imitation? How did the child's perception of whether he/she would be punished affect his/her behavior? Learning occurs without direct imitation (children learn even when they do not immediately imitate). Effect of Punishment: If children expect punishment, they are less likely to display aggressive behavior. 9.​ Can newborns imitate? State the various explanations of this phenomenon. With which do you agree? Why? Some research suggests newborns can imitate facial expressions. Explanations: -​ Reflexive behavior -​ Early form of social learning Opinion: I agree with the social learning view because imitation aids early bonding. 10.​What does Piaget mean when he describes the child as a "constructivist?" Children actively construct their own knowledge rather than passively absorbing information. 11.​Describe the processes or intellectual functions that children use to construct and modify their intellectual schemes (organization, assimilation, disequilibrium, and accommodation), according to Piaget. Organization: Structuring knowledge into schemes. Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemes. Disequilibrium: Cognitive conflict when new information doesn’t fit existing schemes. Accommodation: Modifying schemes to incorporate new information. 12.​What is egocentrism? Provide one example of how egocentrism might influence a child's thinking about him/herself or his/her social behavior. Viewing the world from one’s own perspective. Example: A child assumes everyone sees the same things they do. 13.​According to Piagetian theory, why might adolescents become more idealistic as they make the transition to formal operations? How might this influence parent-child relations? Adolescents develop abstract reasoning and begin questioning societal norms. Effect on Parent-Child Relations: Adolescents may challenge authority, leading to conflicts with parents 14.​Describe the process of hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The ability to generate hypotheses and systematically test them (scientific thinking). Chapter 3 1.​ Prepare a thumbnail sketch (a quick abbreviated description) of each of the following 6 theories covered in Chapter 3. Additionally, what are the basic ideas or assumptions contained in the theory? Who are the theorists/researchers associated with the theory? What differentiates each theory from the others? What criticisms have been leveled at each theory? ​ Ethology ○​ Basic Ideas: Humans inherit adaptive traits shaped by natural selection. Some behaviors emerge during sensitive periods if the environment is supportive. ○​ Key Theorists: Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen ○​ What Differentiates It: Emphasizes the biological basis of behavior and evolution's role in shaping human development. ○​ Criticism: It often overlooks cultural and social influences, focusing too much on biological determinism. ​ Modern Evolutionary Theory ○​ Basic Ideas: Extends ethology by emphasizing the role of genetics in ensuring the survival of an individual's genes, rather than the individual. It includes behaviors such as altruism. ○​ Key Theorists: John Bowlby ○​ What Differentiates It: Focuses on genetic survival rather than individual survival. ○​ Criticism: It may underestimate the role of learning and socialization in shaping human behavior. ​ Behavior Genetics ○​ Basic Ideas: Studies the interaction of genetic and environmental factors in shaping individual differences. Uses twin and adoption studies to measure heritability. ○​ Key Theorists: Various behavioral geneticists ○​ What Differentiates It: Emphasizes genetic contributions to behavior rather than broad evolutionary processes. ○​ Criticism: While it describes genetic and environmental contributions, it does not explain how they interact to produce behavior. ​ Ecological Systems Theory ○​ Basic Ideas: Development results from interactions between an individual and multiple levels of environmental influence. ○​ Key Theorist: Urie Bronfenbrenner ○​ What Differentiates It: Focuses on environmental influences rather than biological or genetic ones.  ○​ Criticism: It can be difficult to measure the exact impact of each environmental level on development. ​ Sociocultural Theory ○​ Basic Ideas: Children develop cognitively and socially by internalizing cultural tools and engaging in collaborative learning with more knowledgeable individuals. ○​ Key Theorist: Lev Vygotsky ○​ What Differentiates It: Stresses cultural and social interaction rather than innate cognitive structures. ○​ Criticism: Underestimates biological influences on development. ​ Social Information Processing Theory ○​ Basic Ideas: Children's responses to social situations depend on how they interpret others’ behaviors and intentions. ○​ Key Theorists: Various theorists studying social cognition ○​ What Differentiates It: Focuses on cognitive interpretations of social behavior. ○​ Criticism: Does not provide a complete account of social development on its own. 2.​ Discuss the conceptual similarities and differences between classical ethologists (e.g., Lorenz & Tinbergen) and modern evolutionary theorists (John Bowlby). How do both of these groups differ from behavioral geneticists? Similarities: Both classical ethologists (Lorenz & Tinbergen) and modern evolutionary theorists (Bowlby) believe that behavior is biologically ingrained and shaped by evolution. Differences: Classical ethologists focus on innate behaviors triggered by the environment, while modern evolutionary theorists focus on gene survival and natural selection. Behavioral geneticists study individual genetic differences rather than species-wide traits shaped by evolution. 3.​ Explain Martin Hoffman's belief that the concept of survival of the fittest implies altruism. Hoffman believes that survival of the fittest includes the evolution of altruism since helping others can improve the survival chances of one’s genetic relatives, thus indirectly benefiting one’s own genes. 4.​ What evidence has been found that empathy is present at birth. How do neuroscientists explain newborn empathic responding? -​ Newborns cry when hearing another infant cry, suggesting an early form of empathy. -​ Neuroscientists propose that this is due to mirror neurons, which allow infants to automatically simulate observed behaviors and emotions.  5.​ Describe the two kinds of family studies that behavioral geneticists use to estimate hereditary contributions to human development. State the question asked by each type. Twin Studies: Compare identical and fraternal twins to determine how much genetics influence traits. Adoption Studies: Compare adopted children to biological and adoptive parents to separate genetic and environmental influences. 6.​ Define "shared environmental influences" and "nonshared environmental influences" and describe how each impacts similarities and differences between family members. Shared: Aspects of the environment that siblings experience together (e.g., same home, same parents). They contribute to similarities. Nonshared: Unique experiences (e.g., different friends, different schools) that contribute to differences. 7.​ Define and describe the differences between "active", "passive" and "evocative" gene influences (aka genotype/environment correlations). Passive: Parents provide both genes and environment (e.g., musical parents raising a musical child). Evocative: A child’s genetic traits elicit responses from the environment (e.g., a social baby gets more social interaction). Active (Niche-picking): Children seek environments that match their genetic predispositions (e.g., an athletic child chooses sports) 8.​ In terms, of Scarr and McCartney's theory explain how separated identical twins might show uncanny similarities and, at the same time, noteworthy differences in personality and social behavior. Separated identical twins show similarities due to genetic predisposition (passive and evocative influences) but also show differences due to nonshared environments. 9.​ Explain Sandra Scarr's ideas about "good enough parenting." Discuss Diana Baumrind's criticisms of these ideas? Scarr’s View: As long as a child’s environment meets basic needs, genetic potential will be expressed, and minor parenting differences don’t matter much. Baumrind’s Criticism: Parenting styles greatly impact child outcomes, and simply providing a “good enough” environment may not be sufficient for optimal development. 10.​How do behavior geneticists use heritability coefficients? Heritability coefficients measure how much of a trait’s variation in a population is due to genetics rather than environment.  11.​How does Bronfenbrenner's viewpoint on environmental influences differ from the viewpoints of Skinner and Bandura? Bronfenbrenner: Environment is a multi-layered system that interacts dynamically with the child. Skinner: Environment passively shapes behavior through reinforcement and punishment. Bandura: Environment and child influence each other (reciprocal determinism). 12.​Define microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem and provide an example of influences of each on child development. A.​ Note: "mesosystem" refers to the connections or interrelationships between microsystems. Figure 3.4 is a bit confusing. School, family, daycare are all microsystems to which the child belongs. Be sure to learn these from the written explanation, not Figure 3.4. Microsystem: Immediate surroundings (e.g., family, school, friends). Mesosystem: Interactions between microsystems (e.g., parents discussing school with teachers). Exosystem: Indirect environmental influences (e.g., a parent’s workplace affecting home life). Macrosystem: Cultural and societal influences (e.g., national policies on education). Chronosystem: Changes over time in individual or environment (e.g., parental divorce affecting a child’s development over years). 13.​What is collaborative learning? How is it different from the operant learning described by the early behaviorists and from observational learning described by the social learning theorists? Collaborative Learning (Vygotsky): Learning happens through guided social interaction with more knowledgeable individuals. Operant Learning (Skinner): Learning occurs through rewards and punishments. Observational Learning (Bandura): Learning occurs by watching others. 14.​What is the most common attributional error made by preschool children? Preschoolers often make global trait attributions, meaning they assume a person’s behavior reflects a stable personality trait rather than situational factors. 15.​According to social information-processing theorists, what must children understand about their own and others' behaviors before they are likely to describe the self and others in trait-like terms? Before children describe themselves and others in trait-like terms, they must understand: -​ That people have consistent behavioral patterns over time. -​ That actions can be intentional rather than random or situational.  16.​What is a "world view"? Distinguish between the following world views: A.​ Mechanistic: People develop in response to external forces (e.g., behaviorism). B.​ Organismic: Development occurs in stages and is driven by internal biological factors (e.g., Piaget). C.​ Contextual: Development results from interactions between individuals and their environments (e.g., Bronfenbrenner). Chapter 4 1.​ List the 4 components of emotion and make-up your own example illustrating these 4 components in action. -​ Feeling: A positive or negative emotional state. -​ Physiological Responses: Bodily reactions (e.g., increased heart rate). -​ Cognitive Appraisal: Thoughts that elicit or accompany emotions. -​ Action Desire: A motivation to take action. Example: Imagine a student walking into class and realizing there is a surprise test. They feel anxious (feeling), their heart starts to race (physiological response), they think, "I should have studied more!" (cognitive appraisal), and they consider leaving the room or cramming in the last few minutes (action desire). 2.​ What emotions are considered to be primary emotions? Construct a timeline for the emergence of the primary emotions. -​ Birth: Interest, distress, disgust, contentment -​ 6–10 weeks: Social smiles -​ 2 months: Anger, sadness -​ 6–7 months: Fear (including stranger anxiety and separation anxiety) 3.​ Describe how developmental researchers study/measure infant emotions. Researchers observe facial expressions, vocalizations, and body movements to measure emotions. Social referencing studies examine how infants react to caregivers’ emotional cues in uncertain situations. 4.​ Describe the development of happiness over the first year. What cognitive element is one of the strongest elicitors of surprise and joy among 2 to 8-month-old infants? -​ 6–10 weeks: Social smiles emerge. -​ 2 months: Smiling occurs in response to control over events. -​ 6–7 months: Smiling is strongest for familiar caregivers. Strongest Elicitor: Surprise and joy arise when infants realize they have control over their environment (e.g., moving a toy by kicking a mobile).  5.​ Describe the development of negative emotions over the first year. What cognitive element is one of the strongest elicitors of negative emotion among 2 to 8-month-old infants? -​ 2 months: Distress becomes distinguishable as anger or sadness. -​ 6–7 months: Fear emerges. Strongest Elicitor: Loss of control over the environment. 6.​ Describe two particular fears that most infants display between 7 and 8 months of age. Stranger Anxiety: Fear of unfamiliar people. Separation Anxiety: Discomfort when separated from a caregiver. 7.​ Compare the evolutionary interpretation with the cognitive-developmental interpretation of stranger and separation anxiety. Evolutionary: Fear of strangers and separation evolved to protect infants from danger (e.g., predators). Cognitive-Developmental: These fears emerge when infants develop better memory and object permanence, allowing them to distinguish familiar and unfamiliar faces. 8.​ Describe stranger behaviors that reduce the likelihood of upsetting a wary infant? What stranger behaviors might increase negative infant reactions? Reduce Anxiety: Approach slowly, smile, interact with the caregiver first. Increase Anxiety: Abrupt approach, loud voices, invading personal space. 9.​ List the secondary (complex) emotions. Why are they known as self-conscious emotions? When do they emerge? Emotions: Embarrassment, pride, guilt, shame. Why Self-Conscious? They require self-awareness and knowledge of social standards. Emergence: Around 2–3 years, when children develop self-recognition. 10.​Describe parental influence on children's display of pride, guilt and shame. Pride: Encouraged when parents praise achievements. Guilt: Fostered when parents explain why behavior was wrong and emphasize making amends. Shame: Elicited when parents scold harshly or focus on the child’s character rather than behavior. 11.​Outline the development of identification/interpretation of others' emotion and social referencing during the first year of life and those that occur between 18 months to 8 years.  ​ First Year: By 7–10 months, infants use social referencing to assess how to react to unfamiliar situations. ​ 18 Months–8 Years: ○​ By 3–5 years: Can identify emotions based on facial expressions and body language. ○​ By 6–10 years: Understand that people can feel different emotions in the same situation. 12.​What are some cognitive strategies that parents use to help children learn to regulate their emotions? -​ Labeling emotions and discussing their causes. -​ Teaching children strategies (e.g., deep breathing, distraction). -​ Modeling appropriate emotional regulation. 13.​When (at what ages) can children typically understand they can feel two emotions at the same times and know that they or others can experience mixed (positive and negative) emotions in the same situation. Ages 6–10: Children understand they can experience two emotions at the same time (e.g., happy but nervous about a competition). 14.​How does the culture in which a child is raised affect his/her emotional self-regulation and later display of emotion? Illustrate by describing culturally specified rules that differ between collectivist and individualistic peoples. -​ Collectivist Cultures (e.g., Japan): Emphasize suppressing emotions to maintain group harmony. -​ Individualistic Cultures (e.g., U.S.): Encourage open emotional expression. 15.​List and describe Rothbart & Bates six dimensions of temperament. -​ Fearful distress: Wariness in new situations. -​ Irritable distress: Frustration/anger when needs aren’t met. -​ Positive affect: Tendency to express joy. -​ Activity level: Degree of physical movement. -​ Attention span/persistence: Ability to focus. -​ Effortful control: Ability to suppress impulses and regulate behavior. 16.​Describe how shared environmental influences and nonshared environmental influences may be related to temperamental attributes. Shared: Aspects that siblings experience in common (e.g., parenting style). Nonshared: Unique experiences that create individual differences (e.g., different friend groups). 17.​Describe Jerome Kagan's research findings related to behavioral inhibition. Which groups of children displayed long-term stability? Children high in inhibition (shyness) displayed stability over time. Most stable in children at extreme levels of inhibition. 18.​Describe the three broad temperamental profiles that Thomas and Chess identified in their classic longitudinal research. Which profile(s) are thought to place children at risk of future adjustment difficulties, and what seems to determine whether or not children with such profiles actually experience adjustment problems? -​ Easy: Adaptable, positive, regular routines. -​ Difficult: Irritable, unpredictable (at risk for adjustment problems). -​ Slow-to-Warm-Up: Low activity, shy (potential difficulties with social adjustment). -​ Adjustment Risks: Depends on "goodness of fit" between child temperament and parental response. 19.​Discuss cross-cultural differences in the implications of childhood and adolescent shyness. Western Cultures: Shyness is often seen as social anxiety and may be a disadvantage. Eastern Cultures: Shyness is sometimes valued as a sign of respect and social competence. 20.​Is there an advantage to having high effortful control? Why? Leads to better emotional regulation, academic success, and social competence. Chapter 5 1.​ Describe the behavioral phases that Bowlby observed in young children during extended hospitalizations. -​ Protest – The child actively resists separation by crying, searching for the parent, and refusing comfort from others. -​ Despair – The child becomes withdrawn and passive, showing signs of sadness and hopelessness. -​ Detachment – The child appears indifferent or detached from caregivers, sometimes showing superficial interest in others but lacking emotional depth. 2.​ Use the information in Topic Comments to expand Shaffer's description of emotional attachments on page 135. 3.​ Contrast synchronous infant/parent interaction during parent/infant play with asynchronous infant/parent interaction during parent/infant play? Synchronous Interaction occurs when the parent's responses are well-timed and in harmony with the infant's behavior, creating a smooth and engaging exchange. Asynchronous Interaction happens when the parent's responses are mistimed or out of sync with the infant’s signals, which can lead to frustration or confusion for the baby. 4.​ Describe the phases infants pass through as they become attached to their caregivers. -​ Asocial Phase (0-6 weeks) – Infants respond similarly to social and nonsocial stimuli. -​ Indiscriminate Attachments (6 weeks – 6/7 months) – Infants prefer social over nonsocial stimuli but do not show attachment to a specific person. -​ Specific Attachment Phase (7-9 months) – Infants form strong attachments to one primary caregiver, showing separation anxiety. -​ Multiple Attachments (9+ months) – Infants expand their attachment to other familiar caregivers. 5.​ Compare and contrast the four major theories of attachment: ○​ Psychoanalytic Theory: I love you because you feed me -​ Mechanism: Attachment forms due to satisfaction of oral needs -​ Evidence: Feeding is not the primary factor in attachment, as per Harlow’s monkey studies ○​ Learning Theory: Rewardingness leads to love -​ Mechanism: Babies form attachments to caregivers who provide rewards (food, comfort) -​ Evidence: Ignores innate tendencies for attachment ○​ Cognitive Development Theory: To love you I must know you will be there -​ Mechanism: Object permanence is essential for attachment -​ Evidence: Explains why attachment strengthens with age and cognitive growth ○​ Ethological Theory: Perhaps I was born to relate and love -​ Mechanisms: Attachment behaviors are biologically programmed for survival -​ Evidence: Strong evidence from evolutionary and cross-cultural research 6.​ Based on what is known from available research, describe the strategies that parents might use to make necessary separations more tolerable for infants and toddlers. -​ Gradually increasing the duration of separations -​ Maintaining a predictable routine -​ Providing a comfort object (e.g., a favorite toy) -​ Offering reassurance and explaining separations in a developmentally appropriate way 7.​ Describe the 4 patterns of attachment usually characterized by observers of Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure. 8.​ A mother returns after a separation and is reunited with her 1-year-old as part of the "Strange Situation." How does the infant respond to this reunion if he is securely attached? resistant? avoidant? disorganized/disoriented? -​ Secure Attachment – Infant seeks comfort from caregiver upon reunion, quickly calming down. -​ Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment – Infant remains upset and is difficult to soothe, showing mixed responses. -​ Avoidant Attachment – Infant avoids caregiver upon reunion and does not seek comfort. -​ Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment – Infant displays contradictory behaviors, appearing confused or fearful. 9.​ How might cultural variations in child rearing affect attachment behaviors? In collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan), children may exhibit more resistant attachment due to limited separation from caregivers. In individualistic cultures (e.g., U.S.), more avoidant attachment may be seen due to encouragement of independence. 10.​Distinguish between the "caregiving hypothesis" and the "temperament hypothesis" as related to attachment security. Caregiving Hypothesis: Attachment security depends on caregiver responsiveness and sensitivity. Temperament Hypothesis: Attachment patterns reflect inborn temperament differences in infants rather than caregiving quality. 11.​Describe the two patterns of caregiving that are thought to foster avoidant attachments and compare each to the caregiving styles thought to promote resistant attachments and secure attachment. Avoidant Attachment – Caregivers are either rejecting or overstimulating. Resistant Attachment – Caregivers are inconsistent in responsiveness. Secure Attachment – Caregivers are consistently responsive and warm. 12.​What attachment pattern is most often related to maternal depression and/or child abuse/neglect? Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment is often linked to maternal depression, abuse, or neglect. 13.​Describe the long term outcomes of secure and insecure attachments. Is attachment history destiny? Secure Attachment → Higher self-esteem, better social skills, emotional resilience. Insecure Attachment → Higher risk of anxiety, poor relationships, and difficulty regulating emotions. Not Destiny – Later experiences and supportive relationships can modify attachment outcomes. 14.​Describe Bowlby's ideas about the development of "internal working models." How do the internal working models of caregivers affect their caregiving? Infants develop mental representations of relationships based on caregiver responsiveness. Parents with positive models provide responsive care; parents with negative models may struggle to be nurturing. 15.​What kind of caregiving is related to an infant's developing a positive working model of others? What factors are related to the quality of an infant's working model of herself? -​ Sensitive, responsive caregiving leads to trust in relationships. -​ Factors influencing self-models: parental warmth, consistency, and emotional support.  16.​Describe the long term correlates of social deprivation in infancy. Can children recover from it? Severe deprivation can lead to emotional withdrawal, developmental delays, and difficulty forming relationships. Recovery is possible with sensitive caregiving, but effects may persist in severe cases. 17.​What impact, according to research, does early care by caregivers other than a child's own parents have on attachment? -​ Quality matters more than who provides care. -​ Secure attachment can form with both parents and caregivers if responsiveness is high. 18.​Describe a concern about early day care raised by the NICHD study? How robust are those findings? Long hours in low-quality care correlated with increased aggression and disobedience. However, high-quality care had positive cognitive and social effects. 19.​Describe the characteristics of high-quality infant and toddler day care. -​ Low child-to-caregiver ratio -​ Trained, responsive caregivers -​ Stable caregiving relationships -​ Stimulating environment 20.​How is a working mother's attitude about working and child care related to her child's social and emotional well-being? Positive attitudes about work lead to better emotional outcomes for children. Quality of care and parental engagement matter more than whether a mother works. 21.​A social critic argues that because most day care in the U.S. is far less than optimal, women should stay home to care for their infants and toddlers, if not forever, at least until they are age 3 or older. Rebut this claim, citing at least two findings to suggest that the critic's viewpoint is misleading and potentially harmful. -​ Quality matters more than maternal presence – Studies show that high-quality day care does not harm attachment. -​ Maternal employment benefits – Working mothers model independence and provide economic stability, which positively impacts children. Chapter 6 1.​ Describe three research observations that suggest that newborn infants have the capacity to distinguish the self from the surrounding environment. -​ Newborns show a sense of personal agency, meaning they recognize that their actions can influence the environment.  -​ Infants can discriminate their own faces from those of others before having experience with mirrors. -​ Infants recognize that they and their caregivers are separate beings, showing early signs of social interaction. 2.​ Trace the development of self-recognition from birth through 3 years. -​ 0–6 months: Infants begin differentiating themselves from the external environment. -​ 18–24 months: Pass the rouge test, showing true self-recognition. -​ Toddler years: Develop a present self (awareness of self in the moment). -​ By age 3: Develop an extended self, understanding that they remain the same person over time. 3.​ Contrast children's self-descriptions at three ages: preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence. -​ Preschool (3-5 years): Describe themselves in concrete terms (e.g., "I have blue eyes," "I run fast"). -​ Middle childhood: Start including psychological traits (e.g., "I am kind" or "I get nervous easily"). -​ Adolescence: Self-concept becomes more abstract and integrated, including values, beliefs, and the ability to recognize contradictions in their personality. 4.​ Define "theory-of-mind" and describe its developmental course. Compare theory-of-mind with Bowlby's ideas about internal working models from Lesson 3 (pages 150-151). 5.​ Contrast "belief-desire theory of mind" with "desire theory of mind." Desire theory of mind: Young children (3-4 years) believe that people act only based on their desires and do not fully understand that beliefs also shape behavior. Belief-desire theory of mind: Older children (4+ years) understand that people act based on both beliefs and desires, even if those beliefs are false. 6.​ How do children at the "desire theorist" stage answer false belief tasks? They fail false-belief tasks because they assume people will always act based on reality rather than their mistaken beliefs. 7.​ Describe "belief-desire theory of mind." Discuss at least two social influences on its development. It emerges as children learn that people act based on both beliefs and desires. Influences include: -​ Conversations about mental states with parents and siblings. -​ Pretend play, which helps children take different perspectives. 8.​ Explain Simon Baron-Cohen's ideas SAMMs and TOMMs and the underlying cognitive deficit in autism. SAMM (Shared Attention Mechanism): Helps children recognize that others have different mental perspectives. TOMM (Theory of Mind Mechanism): Enables understanding of beliefs and desires. Cognitive Deficit: Baron-Cohen suggests autistic individuals have impairments in these mechanisms, leading to difficulty understanding others’ perspectives. 9.​ Contrast the content of people's self-concepts in individualistic societies with that of people in collectivist societies. Individualistic societies: Self-concept focuses on personal attributes (e.g., "I am smart and independent"). Collectivist societies: Self-concept emphasizes social relationships (e.g., "I am a good daughter and friend"). 10.​Does self-esteem "dip" in adolescence? Support your answer with research references. Yes, self-esteem often declines in early adolescence due to life stressors but recovers in young adulthood. Research shows self-esteem is linked to peer relationships, academic competence, and body image. 11.​How does Susan Harter explain the positive ratings 4 to 7 year-old children give themselves on a Self Perception scale. How do children's self appraisals change around age 8? Young children (4-7 years) rate themselves positively because they lack the ability for social comparison. Around age 8, they become aware of how others view them and begin self-appraising more accurately. 12.​Describe "adolescent identity crisis" including Erikson's teachings and James Marcia's four identity statuses. (Be sure to be able to describe each of the four statuses.) Adolescent identity crisis: -​ Identity diffusion: No clear sense of identity; uncommitted and unmotivated. -​ Foreclosure: Commit to an identity without exploring alternatives (e.g., adopting parents' beliefs). -​ Moratorium: Actively exploring identity but have not yet committed. -​ Identity achievement: Explored and committed to a stable identity. 13.​Erikson viewed achievement of a stable identity as a prerequisite for successful resolution of what young adult psychological crisis and for establishing what? A stable identity is necessary for resolving young adult psychological crises and establishing intimate relationships. 14.​Describe 4 factors that influence adolescents' progress toward identity. -​ Cognitive development (abstract thinking). -​ Parenting style (supportive yet encouraging independence). -​ Opportunities to explore (e.g., different social roles). -​ Cultural expectations (some cultures provide clearer identity roles). 15.​During what age period are children most likely to describe others by using a. behavioral comparisons? b. psychological constructs? c. psychological comparisons? Give an example of each type of description. -​ Behavioral comparisons (7-8 years): "He runs faster than me." -​ Psychological constructs (9-10 years): "She is kind and shy." -​ Psychological comparisons (14-16 years): "He is more introverted than I am, but we both like reading." 16.​What do current developmentalists believe is the "best" way to combat ethnic prejudice? Developmentalists suggest increasing cross-group interactions and cooperative learning experiences. 17.​Describe developmental trends in social cognition using: 1. Piaget's cognitive developmental stages, and 2. Selman's role-taking theory. -​ Piaget's stages: Move from egocentrism (preoperational) to considering multiple perspectives (concrete/formal operational). -​ Selman’s role-taking theory: Moves from egocentric perspective (young children) to recognizing complex social relationships (adolescents). 18.​Explain how disagreements between friends foster interpersonal understanding. Disagreements help children learn perspective-taking, practice negotiation, and understand others’ emotions. Chapter 7 1.​ Describe McClellan's motivational view of achievement and contrast it with Crandall’s behavioral view of achievement. -​ McClelland viewed achievement motivation as an intrinsic drive to compete and strive for success, a learned motive known as n Ach (need for achievement). High achievers are motivated by internal factors like personal accomplishment.  -​ Crandall’s Behavioral View, in contrast, emphasized extrinsic motivation, where achievement is driven by social approval and external rewards rather than internal satisfaction. 2.​ How does Susan Harter's research resolve the conflict between the motivational view and the behavioral view of achievement? Harter’s research suggests that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation influence achievement behavior. Children initially experience intrinsic mastery motivation but gradually become aware of external evaluations and societal expectations, incorporating both perspectives. 3.​ Describe the three phases through which children progress in learning to evaluate their performances in achievement situations. At what age does competition begin to influence children's performance? -​ Infants (Mastery Phase): Engage in activities for self-enjoyment. -​ By age 2 (Anticipatory Phase): Start expecting approval or disapproval from others. -​ By age 3+ (Self-Evaluation Phase): Compare their performance to standards and feel pride or shame. -​ Competition begins influencing performance at 3½ - 5 years, but losing is not yet seen as a "failure." 4.​ Describe McClelland's "Achieving Society" research. How did McClelland assess nAch? Give an alternate explanation to the McClellan's interpretation of the results? McClelland studied the cultural roots of achievement motivation and how it influenced economic development. He measured nAch by analyzing children's literature to determine societal emphasis on achievement. Alternate Explanation: Economic growth may be driven by political, technological, or social factors rather than just achievement motivation. 5.​ What did Atkinson add to McClelland's "Need Achievement Theory"? What role does expectancy play in Atkinson's theory? Atkinson introduced two competing motives: motive to achieve success (Ms) and motive to avoid failure (Maf). Expectancy’s Role: Achievement behavior is influenced by expectations of success and the perceived value of achievement. 6.​ Weiner proposes that the causal attributions children make about their achievement outcomes in a given domain affect their future achievement strivings in that domain. Describe the two major dimensions (stability and locus of control) on which these causal attributions differ and their implications for future strivings. -​ Stability: Success or failure is seen as either stable (e.g., ability) or unstable (e.g., effort). Stable causes influence long-term expectations.  -​ Locus of Control: Causes are either internal (e.g., ability, effort) or external (e.g., luck, difficulty of task). Internal attributions encourage persistence. 7.​ Explain Weiner’s belief that it is adaptive to attribute successes to ability and failure to low effort. Success attributed to high ability reinforces confidence. Failure attributed to low effort (rather than low ability) encourages persistence and improvement. 8.​ Why does Weiner's theory fail to explain achievement attributions of preschool children? Preschoolers do not differentiate between ability and effort, failing to apply Weiner’s attribution dimensions. 9.​ What is a "learned helplessness" orientation? According to Carol Dweck, how does it develop? Learned helplessness occurs when children attribute failure to unchangeable low ability rather than effort. It develops in children who receive excessive criticism for lack of ability and are pressured into performance goals rather than learning goals. 10.​Describe how attribution retraining can be used to treat learned helplessness. Encourages children to attribute failures to unstable causes like effort, helping them develop a growth mindset. 11.​Explain how praise can be dangerous. Person praise (e.g., "You're so smart") fosters an entity view of ability, making children fear failure. Process praise (e.g., "You worked really hard") fosters a growth mindset, encouraging persistence. 12.​Contrast individualistic versus collectivistic cultural perspectives on achievement. Individualistic cultures: Emphasize personal success and self-reliance. Collectivistic cultures: Emphasize group success and social harmony. 13.​Discuss three factors that contribute to ethnic variations in academic achievement. Parenting styles (e.g., authoritative vs. permissive) Peer influences (e.g., attitudes toward academics) Stereotype threat (fear of confirming negative stereotypes). 14.​Describe two methods of compensatory intervention that have been shown to effectively produce long-term results. Two-generation interventions (support for both parents and children). Early and long-term interventions (programs starting in preschool and lasting years). 15.​Describe differences in later achievement between children whose homes scored high on Caldwell's HOME inventory and those whose homes scored low when the children were 12 months old. High-scoring homes foster academic success by providing stimulating environments. Low-scoring homes are linked to lower academic achievement due to a lack of challenges. 16.​What childrearing strategies appear to foster high achievement in children? -​ Secure attachment -​ Stimulating environments -​ Early independence training -​ Warm, supportive, and authoritative parenting. 17.​Based on information from twin studies, what shared environmental influences play an important role in shaping children's achievement motivation and achievement behavior? -​ Parental expectations -​ Quality of home learning environment -​ Early educational experiences