Psychology Study Guide PDF

PSYCHOLOGY STUDY GUIDE ### **Psychology Approaches** 1. **Biological Approach:** Focuses on **genetics, brain structures, and neurotransmitters**, viewing behavior from **biological processes**. 2. **Behavioral Approach**: Studies observable **behavior, emphasizing learning through...

PSYCHOLOGY STUDY GUIDE ### **Psychology Approaches** 1. **Biological Approach:** Focuses on **genetics, brain structures, and neurotransmitters**, viewing behavior from **biological processes**. 2. **Behavioral Approach**: Studies observable **behavior, emphasizing learning through conditioning (e.g., Pavlov's dogs for classical conditioning).** 3. **Cognitive Approach**: Examines internal mental processes such as **memory, problem-solving, and perception.** 4. **Psychoanalytic Approach**: Developed by Freud, focusing on **unconscious processes and unresolved childhood conflicts**. 5. **Humanistic Approach**: Emphasizes **personal growth, self-actualization,** and **free will** (e.g., Maslow\'s hierarchy of needs). 6. **Sociocultural Approach**: Considers how **social and cultural environments** influence behavior. 7. **Evolutionary Psychology**: Examines behavioral traits as **adaptations shaped by natural selection.** ### **Research Approaches** 1. **Descriptive Research**: Involves **observing and describing behavior** without manipulating variables (e.g., case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys). 2. **Correlational Research**: Studies **relationships between variables** to determine if they are associated, but **without establishing causation**. 3. **Experimental Research**: **Manipulates one variable** (**independent**) to **observe its effect on another** (**dependent**), establishing **cause and effect**. 4. **Qualitative Research**: **Explores** complex behaviors **through interviews, focus groups, and content analysis**, focusing on understanding **rather than quantifying**. 5. **Longitudinal Research-** research **follows subjects over time** 6. **and Cross-Sectional Studies**: **compare different groups** at **one point in time**. ### **Parts and Functioning of the Neuron** - **Soma (Cell Body)**: Contains the **nucleus** and **keeps the neuron functioning**. - **Dendrites**: **Receive signals** from other neurons. - **Axon**: **Sends electrical impulses** (action potentials) **away** **from** the **cell body**. - **Myelin Sheath**: Insulates the axon to **speed up signal transmission**. - **Synapse**: The gap between neurons where **neurotransmitters are released to communicate with other neurons.** ### **Neurotransmitters** 1. **Acetylcholine**: Involved in **muscle movement** and **memory**. 2. **Dopamine**: Influences **reward, motivation,** and **motor control**. 3. **Serotonin**: Affects **mood, sleep,** and **appetite**. 4. **GABA**: Inhibitory neurotransmitter that **calms the brain**. 5. **Norepinephrine**: Linked to **arousal** and **alertness**. 6. **Glutamate**: Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in **learning** and **memory**. ### **Lobes of the Brain** 1. **Frontal Lobe**: Involved in **reasoning, planning, movement, and problem-solving** **Location:** **front of** the **brain,** **behind the forehead** 2. **Parietal Lobe**: Processes sensory information like **touch and spatial awareness**. **Location:** top and toward the **back of the brain**, near the **crown of the head**. 3. **Temporal Lobe**: Associated with **auditory processing** and **memory**. **Location: sides of** the **brain**, **near the ears**. 4. **Occipital Lobe**: Responsible for **vision**. **Location:** **back of** the **brain,** **near** the **base of the skull** ### **Divisions of the Nervous System** 1. **Central Nervous System (CNS)**: Comprises the **brain** and **spinal cord**. 2. **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)**: **Divided into** two sections, **somatic** and **autonomic nervous** systems. a. **Somatic Nervous System**: Controls **voluntary movements**. b. **Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)**: **Regulates involuntary functions** and is subdivided into: i. **Sympathetic Nervous System**: Prepares the body for **fight or flight**. ii. **Parasympathetic Nervous System**: Restores the body to a **state of calm**. ### **Theories of Emotion** 1. **James-Lange Theory**: Emotions result from **physiological responses** (e.g., **we feel fear because we tremble).** 2. **Cannon-Bard Theory**: **Emotions and physiological** reactions **occur simultaneously**. 3. **Schachter-Singer Theory**: Emotion is determined by **physiological arousal** and **cognitive labeling of that arousal.** 4. **Dobson-Yorke Theory**- **even simple systems** that follow clear rules **can behave unpredictably**, where **small changes** at the start can **lead to big differences in the outcome.** ### **Stages of Sleep** 1. **Stage 1 (NREM)**: **Light sleep**, transition between **wakefulness and sleep.** 2. **Stage 2 (NREM)**: **Heart rate slows**, body **temperature drops**. 3. **Stage 3 (NREM)**: **Deep sleep**, crucial for physical recovery. 4. **Stage 4 (REM)**: **Dreaming occurs**, **brain activity is high,** but the **body is immobilized**. ### **Classical vs. Operant Conditioning** - **Classical Conditioning**: Learning **by association** (e.g., Pavlov's **dogs salivating to a bell).** - **Operant Conditioning**: Learning **through consequences (reinforcement or punishment)** developed by **B.F. Skinner.** ### **Reinforcement and Punishment** 1. **Positive Reinforcement**: Adding a **pleasant stimulus** to **increase behavior**. 2. **Negative Reinforcement**: Removing an **unpleasant stimulus** to **increase behavior.** 3. **Positive Punishment**: Adding an **unpleasant stimulus** to **decrease behavior.** 4. **Negative Punishment**: Removing a **pleasant stimulus** to **decrease behavior.** ### **Schedules of Reinforcement** 1. **Fixed-Ratio**: Reinforcement after a **set number of responses.** 2. **Variable-Ratio**: Reinforcement after a **random number of responses.** 3. **Fixed-Interval**: Reinforcement after a **fixed time period.** 4. **Variable-Interval**: Reinforcement after a **variable amount of time.** ### **Taste Aversion** - A form of **classical conditioning** where an **organism learns to avoid food** **that caused illness.** ### **Memory Types** 1. **Episodic Memory**: Memory of **personal experiences**. 2. **Semantic Memory**: **General world knowledge (facts**). 3. **Implicit Memory**: **Unconscious memory** (e.g., procedural memory for tasks like riding a bike). ### **Amnesia** 1. **Retrograde Amnesia**: Loss of **past memories**. 2. **Anterograde Amnesia**: Inability to form **new memories.** ### **Encoding and Levels of Encoding** 1. **Shallow Encoding**: Based on **physical traits** (e.g., how a word **looks or sounds**). 2. **Deep Encoding**: Involves **semantic processing** (e.g., understanding the **meaning of a word).** ### **Memory Failures and False Memory** 1. **Forgetting**: Can occur due to **decay, interference, or retrieval failure.** 2. **False Memory**: Memory that is **distorted or fabricated**. **Studies by Elizabeth Loftus** showed **how suggestive questioning can lead to false memories.**