Notes for Unit 2 - Human Growth and Development PDF

DiSW 2030: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 2: HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT LECTURER: NAMUSHI. N - 0977333304  HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT A human being goes through a long journey which starts from Conception up to the time of death. Human life span development is divided in...

DiSW 2030: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 2: HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT LECTURER: NAMUSHI. N - 0977333304  HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT A human being goes through a long journey which starts from Conception up to the time of death. Human life span development is divided in three stages namely: 1. Prenatal stage: from conception to birth 2. Perinatal stage: during birth 3. Postnatal stage: after birth to a point of death NOTE: Each of these stages has a bearing on human behaviour  PRENATAL STAGE: FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH CONCEPTION: Conception can be defined as the process by which sperm fuses with an ovum/egg. Conception happens in the fallopian tube & it is synonymous with fertilization which is also viewed as the onset of pregnancy. Conditions required for conception: Fertile sperm & ripe ovum released during menstrual.  PRENATAL STAGE: FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH CONT… A man releases 200 to 300 million sperms each time he ejaculates & very few of these sperms have a chance to reach the fallopian tube. Among the few that survive to reach the fallopian tube, only one has a chance to fertilise the ovum, no other sperm can penetrate the ovum thereafter. The fusion of sperm and egg/ovum to form a Zygote marks the begging of human life.  CHROMOSOME DISTRIBUTION At time of conception, a man & Woman contribute an equal number of Chromosomes (twenty three chromosomes each) giving the required total of 46 chromosomes for a normal human body cell. The chromosomes contains thousands of genes which carry the deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) which is the blue print which determines the unique attributes or characteristics that each person has.  CHROMOSOME DISTRIBUTION CONT… The 23rd pair of the chromosomes is responsible for determining the sex of the baby. A male chromosome constitutes XY sex attributes while the female chromosome consists XX sex attributes.  CHROMOSOME DISTRIBUTION CONT… Each ripe ovum released by a woman each month contain XX characteristics while a sperms a man release contains XY characteristics. A man determines the sex of child because his sperms contain chromosomes with both X and Y characteristics a combination needed to have a male child.  CHROMOSOME DISTRIBUTION CONT… If XY chromosomes from the man plus XX chromosomes from the woman gives an outcome of XX then the child will be a girl.  If XY chromosomes from the man plus XX chromosomes from the woman gives an outcome of XY then the child will be a boy.  CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES Aneuploidy: a genetic disorder where there are more or less chromosomes in a cell. A normal human body requires 46 chromosomes. If there is an extra chromosome copy (Trisomy) then a cell will have 47 chromosomes. Trisomy causes down syndrome. Down syndrome causes development delays, learning disabilities, distinct facial appearance, intellectual disability.  CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES CONT… If there is a missing chromosome copy (monosomy) then a cell will have 45. Monosomy causes Turner syndrome a condition that affect girls only. Girls with turner syndrome usually have stunted growth & usually don’t mature fast hence reaching menstrual period late.  CELL DIVISIONS Upon conception, two forms of cell divisions take place namely meiosis and mitosis. Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in the sex cells or gametes and ensures that the haploid number 23 of chromosomes is maintained in the sex cells. Mitosis on the other hand takes place in the body or sometic cells and ensures that the haploid number 46 of chromosomes is maintained in the body cells.  STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT It is evident that the baby is not born soon after conception & It takes about 266 (9 months) before the baby is born. During this nine months, the baby passes through three stages namely, 1. Germinal Period 2. Embryonic period 3. Foetal period  STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT CONT… 1. Germinal period: This period comes soon after conception & lasts for about two weeks. In the first two weeks mitosis takes place. The germinal period is the most sensitive period & should be well taken care of (Munsaka and Matafawali 2013).  STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT CONT… 2. Embryonic period: This is the second stage in prenatal development. It is from week three to week eight. It is at this stage where organogenesis occurs. Organogenesis is the process by which major organs of the embryo begin to form. Within 28 days after conception, a tiny heart, eyes and lungs develop & begin functioning. By the fifth week, ears, mouth and throat also begin to take shape. Legs & arms also begin to sprout (Sadler, 2004)  2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD CONT… By week six, the brain of the embryo begins to differentiate into forebrain, midbrain & hindbrain. The lower brain develops earlier than the other parts because it is responsible for survival process such: I. Digestion II. Respiration III.Expelling of waste IV.Control of sleep V. Simple motor activities  2. EMBRYONIC STAGE CONT… By week 7, the following develops: fingers develop from the hands, primitive facial features, sexual differentiation. By end of week 8, testes & ovaries become evident, embryo begins straighten & assume more recognizable human appearance (Sigelman & Rider, 2004)  2. EMBRYONIC STAGE CONT… Because the embryonic period is the time when the body parts of the embryo are formed, the embryonic period is very critical during pregnancy. Pregnant women should ensure that optimal prenatal care is given to the developing embryo so that it does not suffer any complications (Munsaka and matafwali 2013).  3. FOETAL STAGE  This is the period from week nine after conception until the baby is born. Here there is an increasing number of neurons in the developing foetus. During the fourth, fifth, and sixth month of pregnancy. The sensory organs of the foetus begin to function and the foetus begins to have the ability to respond to loud noise and bright light.  3. FOETAL STAGE CONT… It is possible for babies born slightly before the end of the second trimester to survive outside the uterus. However research has shown that most of these children do not survive.  During the third trimester which comprises the seventh, eighth and ninth month. There is rapid weight gain of the foetus. It is during this same time that there is further development of the brain (Matafwali and Munsaka 2013).  SOME FACTORS WHICH CAN LEAD TO ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS DURING PRENATAL STAGE The physical & social factors that influence foetal development are collectively called Teratogenic (Berk, 2008) Teratogenic factors can lead to abnormal development of the foetus during prenatal stage. Pregnant women should take precautions to protect the foetal during prenatal stage.  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 1. DRUGS: This category constitutes the highest contributor of harmful Teratogenic effects which include both illegal and or some medically prescribed drugs e.g antibiotics such as streptomycin & tetracycline have been discovered to have some Teratogenic effects on the embryo (Kallen, 2004; Rodier, 2004).  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 2. ALCOHOL: Excessive alcohol intake by pregnant women often leads to a child being born with a condition called Foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Effects of Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Facial deformities, defective limbs & heart, Damage of central nervous system, Low intelligent quotient (IQ) Irritability, Hyperactivity and seizures. (Bookstain, straight, Conner et al, 2002; O’ Leary, 2004; Cornelius et al, 2002)  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 3. TOBACCO: A substance called Nicotine found in Tobacco has harmful effect on the developing embryo. Effects of Tobacco: studies have found that Tobacco leads to a condition called Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). SIDS is a situation where a seemingly healthy baby dies suddenly (Gressens, Lauden-Bach &Marren, 2003). Other effects include miscarriage, low birth weight, low rate of development, Neurological problems (Habek et al, 2003; Sagall, 2003)  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 4. Marijuana: Some studies have found that children born from marijuana smoking mothers have Neurological development disorders, slow prenatal and postnatal development (Fried, 2002), memory & learning difficulties(Richardson et al, 2002)  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 5. SYPHILLIS: Syphilis causes Miscarriage, Still births, blindness, deafness, heart problems, brain damage (Santrock, 1999) 6. HIV/AIDS: If precautions are not taken by a pregnant woman, the foetus can be infected with HIV.  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 7. Malnutrition: Pregnant women should eat balanced diet in order for the unborn baby grow properly. Effects of malnutrition: Slow foetal development, low birth weight, Malnutrition in the 1st trimester can lead to disruption in the formation of spinal cord, inhibit development of brain cells & still births (Susser & Stein, 1994).  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 8. Pollutants: Toxic wastes can cause abnormalities in developing embryos. Some studies have found that Mercury, lead & mercury cause mental retardation physical deformities, language & speech delays, brain damage (Berk, 2008)  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 9. Pregnant Mother’s Emotional State: Emotional state has an impact on the foetus. Just like Food, water and oxygen passes from the mother to the foetus, the mother’s both positive & negative emotions access the foetus as well. Some studies have linked maternal stress to motor delays in newly born babies (Lundy et al, 1999)  TERATOGENIC FACTORS CONT… 10. Maternal Age: Women should bear children within optimal period e.g 18 to 35 years (Santrock, 1999; Orvus et al, 1999) Research indicate that early teen pregnancy is associated to a lot of complication during delivery while older women on the other hand have higher chances of bearing children with down syndrome (Fretts & Usher, 1997; Santrock, 1999)  PERINATAL STAGE: DURING BIRTH There are 3 stages of labour Stage 1: Dilation of the cervix Longest stage of labour Lasts 12-14hrs and 4-6 for later births Uterus begins to contract Contractions increase in frequency and strength. This causes the cervix (uterus opening) to widen This forms a channel from the uterus to the vagina (birth canal)  PERINATAL STAGE: DURING BIRTH CONT… Stage 2: Delivery of the baby Lasts about 50 minutes and 20 in later births. Strong contractions continue Urge to push with abdominal muscles develops Baby pushes through the cervix and into the vagina. Top of the baby’s head appears (known as crowning) Mother pushes baby down and comes out in the process.  PERINATAL STAGE: DURING BIRTH CONT… Stage 3: Birth of the placenta Labour ends with final contractions and pushes This allows placenta to separate from wall of uterus and be delivered (5-10 minutes). Called afterbirth PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS 1. Anoxia: Oxygen deprivation/ inadequate oxygen supply Delayed regular breathing for 10 minutes can cause brain damage. PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS CONT… Anoxia may occur in the following cases: I. Babies in breech position during labour II. Squeezing of the umbilical cord occurs - Rh Factor – protein which when in contact with the mother’s blood can produce antibodies which may be harmful by destroying the baby’s red blood cells thereby reducing oxygen supply to organs and tissues. Mothers usually given a vaccine to prevent the buildup of antibodies  PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS CONT… 2. Hypoxia: a birth condition in which the umbilical blood flow is disrupted and the infant does not receive adequate oxygen. - To guard against this condition, the foetal heart rate is monitored & Caesarean section (c-section) may be opted. PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS CONT… 3. Preterm and low birth weight infants Premature babies – born 3 weeks or more before the EDD. Birth weight is the best indicator of infant survival and healthy development Low birth weight can lead to Frequent illnesses, inattention, overactivity, language delays, low intelligence, delayed motor development, poor emotional adjustments.  PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS CONT… 4. Placenta Previa A condition in which the placenta partially or completely blocks the neck of the uterus & interferes with the normal delivery/passage of the baby. This condition causes bleeding on the mother and oxygen deprivation  PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS CONT… Cephalopelvic disproportion: This is when the baby’s head is larger than the pelvis making it impossible for the baby to pass through the birth canal. Irregular position – in shoulder presentation, the baby is laying crosswise in the uterus, the shoulders appear first. In breech position, the buttocks appear first.  PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS CONT… Pre-eclampsia: high blood pressure, protein in the urine and extreme swelling (due to fluid retention). This can cause neurological or cardiovascular problems Prolapsed umbilical cord: This is when the umbilical cord proceeds the baby through the birth canal and is squeezed, in the process cutting off oxygen supply to the baby. This can lead to brain damage PERINATAL STAGE: Mechanisms which help the baby during birth… During birth the baby’s oxygen supply is increasing reduced. However, the contractions cause the baby to produce high levels of stress hormones. This is an adaptive process which helps the baby adjust to reduced oxygen by sending a rich supply of oxygen to the brain and heart. PERINATAL STAGE: Mechanisms which help the baby during birth CONT… Lungs absorb any remaining fluid, bronchial tubes expand This prepares baby to survive after birth. The Stress hormones arouse the baby so that it is born awake.  PERINATAL STAGE: BIRTH COMPLICATIONS CONT… Birth complications are not good for both the mother and the baby Birth complications may lead to aggression, schizophrenia and many other problems which can affect the baby’s behaviour during the postnatal stage. Great care should be exercised during perinatal to prevent negative consequences for both mothers & babies.  PERINATAL STAGE: BABY’S PHYSICAL FEATURES AT BIRTH Average new born is 50.8 cm long and 2.5- 3kg. Boys tend to be heavier and longer than girls Largest part of the body is the head in relation to the trunk and the legs, this helps infants learn very quickly in the first few months. POSTNATAL STAGE: after birth to a point of death BABY REFLEXES Babinski: Baby’s toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked from the heel to toe. Disappears between 8-12 months. POSTNATAL STAGE: BABY REFLEXES CONT… Blink: Eyes close in response to bright light or loud noises, this is permanent. Blinking protects the eyes. Moro: Baby throws arms out and inward in response to loud noise or when its head falls, this disappears at 6 months. Helps baby cling to the mother. POSTNATAL STAGE: BABY REFLEXES CONT… Palmar: Grasps on objects placed in its palm. Rooting: When cheek is stroked, baby turns head towards the stroking and opens its mouth. Helps baby find the nipple. Stepping: When held upright baby begins to step rhythematically. It is a precursor to voluntary walking POSTNATAL STAGE: BABY REFLEXES CONT… Sucking: Baby sucks when object is placed in the mouth. This permits feeding. It lasts till 4 months& is replaced by voluntary sucking. Crying: Vigorous crying accompanied by agitated and uncoordinated movements.  POSTNATAL STAGE: INFANCY: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Child grows faster in infancy than any other time. Physical size increases and body proportions change. Changes in body proportion help to account for significant improvements in motor co-ordination, balance and physical dexterity. POSTNATAL STAGE: INFANCY: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT CONT… By age 2 children can run, walk, jump, pick up small objects and build towers with blocks. Increased sensory abilities also contribute to the above accomplishments POSTNATAL STAGE: INFANCY: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT CONT… Changes in eye, ear and other sense organs together with developments in brain organization help infants respond with greater discrimination. Brain size grows significantly in size and complexity. POSTNATAL STAGE: INFANCY: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT CONT… Most of the brain neurons development, organizations & interconnection of these neurons depends significantly on experiences after birth. Normal visual stimulation organizes the infants’ visual brain pathways to facilitate proper sight and perception.  POSTNATAL STAGE: INFANCY: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT CONT… Hearing everyday sounds and speeches organizes the brain regions related to sound and language. Therefore ordinary experiences over a period of time naturally provoke the developing brain to organize itself. Impaired brain development may occur if infants are deprived of stimulation and care.  POSTNATAL STAGE: INFANCY: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT CONT… Physical development requires a nutritionally adequate diet, immunizations to guard against infectious diseases and protections from environmental hazards and from dangerous drugs. Infants also need attention of caregivers to prevent them from accidents. Early vision ad hearing screenings can help identify any deficiencies that could deprive the developing brain from essential stimulation.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE What is the Nature versus Nurture debate?  For many years scientists debated whether heredity or environment was more important in a child’s development. This is called as the Nature versus Nurture debate The word Nature represents heredity or genes which are carried from parent to child and Nurture represents Environment the child is exposed to. It is believed that it is both Heredity and Environment together influence the development in children.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… What is the Nature versus Nurture debate? The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which particular aspects of human behavior are a product of either inherited (i.e genetic) or acquired from the environment (i.e., learned) influences.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… What is the Nature versus Nurture debate? Nurture is the influence of external factors after birth e.g. the product of exposure, life experiences and learning on of an individual. While Nature represents genetic make up an individual inherits from both parents and dictates how he/she may behaves and responds to environmental factors.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nurture on human Behaviour The forces and elements that bring changes on human behavior mostly belong to one’s environment. These environmental determinants of one’s behavior are divided into two parts, namely: physical determinants like food, water, climate and socio-cultural determinants like interactions/socialization with parents, the family, the school environment, peer group, gang influence, the community, religious institutions, clubs & the media.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nurture on human Behaviour Socialization is a process that brings desirable changes in the behavior of an individual to convert to humanistic social nature for enabling him/her to adjust the environment. These environmental determinants are responsible, to a great extent for shaping and molding the behavior of an individual.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nurture on human Behaviour If one does not get adequate facilities to satisfy the basic needs for growth and social development then he/she is said to be deprived. His/her behaviour may be limited. On the other hand, a fortunate individual who is provided with a stimulating environment where encouragements, incentives, motivation and social opportunities for satisfying basic needs & growth will behave in a different way.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nurture on human Behaviour A deprived environment has proved to be an obstacle & blocks the path of an individual. The denial of the satisfaction of the basic needs in an environment makes one maladjusted and develop abnormal behavior patterns.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nurture on human Behaviour On the other hand, stimulating environment has proved as a potential for helping in the balancing of growth and development of the individual’s personality and general behaviour. A stimulating environment sets the individual to adequately adopt behavior patterns in society.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nature on human Behaviour The word Nature represents heredity or genes which are carried from parents to the child during conception & have influence on the individual’s behaviour. Nature (genetic inheritance) is a strong determinant of human behaviour. Nature refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are, from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics.  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nature on human Behaviour Behavioral genetics has demonstrated that multiple genes, often thousands, collectively contribute to specific behaviors (Plomin, 2018). Genetic influence has been found for most behavioural disorders (Plomin et al., 2001).  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Kay issues on the influence of Nature on human Behaviour Genetic influences are not only limited to disorders, but also contribute to normal variations in personality (Loehlin, 1992) & in cognitive abilities (Plomin & DeFries, 1998) Genetic factors even appear to be involved in social and political attitudes and occupational interests (Plomin et al., 2001).  POSTNATAL STAGE: NATURE Versus NURTURE CONT… Overall conclusion on influence of Nature versus Nurture on behaviour It is important to note that both genetic inheritance and environmental influence play a crucial role on human behaviour and human development. The interaction between genetic inheritance and environmental influence exert a debatable amount of force on human behaviour.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) Piaget’s ideas about cognitive change Schemata: These are cognitive structures on which information is stored. They can be created so that you can store new information. These schemata are organised. Equilibrium: This is the process by which existing information is balanced with new information/experiences.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) –CONT… Piaget’s ideas about cognitive change Adaptation: These are changes/ adjustments in an organism due to environmental demands. Two processes are involved during adaptation namely assimilation and accommodation. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) –CONT… Piaget’s ideas about cognitive change Assimilation: The process of making/fitting new information to the existing schemas. Accommodation: Process by which existing cognitive structures (schemas) are modified / altered/ reorganised to deal with new information. In the process of assimilation the individual may not adapt to the environment and this leads to disequilibrium.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… Piaget’s cognitive development theory postulates that Children undergo four stages namely: 1. Sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… Assumptions of the four stages: The four stages are sequential & all Children pass through each stage before progressing to the next stage. The experiences in one stage form the foundation for the next stage.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… Assumptions of the four stages: Cognitive development occurs at different rates from birth to the end of adolescence depending on maturity, experience, culture & ability of the child. Behavior during cognitive development reflect the emergence of various psychological structures, organized units or patterns of thinking which influence how they interpret information during interaction with the environment. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 1. The sensorimotor stage (0- 2years) The infants construct understanding through manipulating the world using the senses and motor activities. In the first 8 months of this stage, infants exhibit lack of object permanence; which means that they cannot understand hidden objects as they deal with objects physically. Children assume that if they do not see an object then it does not exist and no attempt made to find it. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 1. The sensorimotor stage (0- 2years) Infants possess innate reflexes, such as sucking, crying, or grasping & these reflexes serve as a basis for motor schemata.. The motor schemata permit interaction with the environment which eventually lead to the development of object permanence at 9 months. Object permanence imply understanding that objects continues to exist despite not being seen or touched.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 2. Preoperational stage (2-6 years) Children develop mental representation of objects around them as well as those that are not currently present. Children are able to make symbolic presentations of language & gestures. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 2. Preoperational stage (2-6 years) Language at this stage is expanded and used for exploring the world/environment. The first evidence of this presentational ability is often the display of deferred imitation where children imitate behaviour long after witnessing it.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… Limitations during Preoperational stage Egocentrism: The tendency to view things from one’s view point and ignore others perspectives. Inability to solve conservation tasks. Conservation is the ability to recognise that important properties of a substance remain constant despite changes in shape length or position. Irreversibility: Children cannot reverse the situation mentally to the point of origin. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 3. Concrete Operational stage (7-11years) The Children at this stage are able to think logically. Children become less egocentric & realize that people view the world in different ways other than their own point of view.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 3. Concrete Operational stage (7-11years) Another milestone achieved in this stage is that Children begin to understand the concept of conservation and realize that although objects/materials change in appearance, their properties remain the same. Children in this stage can reverse situations mentally to the point of origin.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… Limitations during Concrete Operational stage Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems because they can only manage to think logically about concrete objects.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 4. Formal Operational stage (From 12 years- adulthood) This is the fourth & final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.  Adolescents develop the ability to deal with abstracts reasoning and engage in scientific logic.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN PIAGET) – CONT… 4. Formal Operational stage (From 12 years- adulthood) They develop hypothetical reasoning. When faced with a problem they start with a general theory (Deductive reasoning) of all possible factors that might affect an outcome and deduce specific hypothesis about what might happen. Then they test hypothesis in an orderly fashion to see what can works in the real world and disqualify what can not work.  SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Lev Semonovich Vygotsky) Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process. Social world mediates the child's cognitive development.  SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Vygotsky’s theory focuses on the role of culture in the development of mental abilities e.g., speech and reasoning in children. Adults convey to children how their culture interprets and responds to the world. Different cultures stress different things as a result, People's thinking differ.  SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Vygotsky’s theory stress the fundamental role of social interactions in the development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community/society plays a central role in the process of cognitive development. Social interactions increase access to information & acquisition of skills which result into development of higher-order mental functions such as formal reasoning.  SOCIOCULTURALTHEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Adults show the meaning they attach to objects, events, and experiences. They provide the child with what to think (the knowledge) and how to think (the processes, the tools to think with). According to Vygotsky, adults in society foster children’s cognitive development by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities.  SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Sociocultural theory stress that language plays a central role in mental development. Language is the most significant sociocultural tool, as it is used during social interactions & teaching hence, it is vital in the process of developing higher psychological functions. Vygotsky holds that language has two functions: I. Inner speech: is used for mental reasoning II. External speech: is used to talk to others  SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Cognitive development occurs at two levels: 1. FIRST: Social Level (between the child and society: Interpsychology) Vygotsky’s theory took into consideration the influence of ethnicity, life style, culture & socialization process on cognitive development.  SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Cognitive development occurs at two levels: 2. SECOND: Individual Level (inside the child: Intrapsychology). Vygotsky proposed that children are born with elementary mental abilities such as memory, attention, sensation & perception and that higher mental functions develop from these through the influence of social interactions. SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) & Zone of Achieved Development (ZAD) The Zone of Proximal Development is the gap between the level of actual development, what the child can do on his own, and the level of potential development, what a child can do with the assistance from a more advanced and competent individuals/more knowledgeable other (MKO). Children’s cognition develop more when they perform challenging tasks while being assisted by more knowledgeable other (MKO).  Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth  SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… Zone of Achieved Development (ZAD): This is what the child can achieve on their own without help from anyone. Whatever the child can achieve without any assistance falls under Zone of Achieved Development (ZAD) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) & Zone of Achieved Development (ZAD) ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD): THE CHILD’S MAXIMUM COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IS REALIZED WHEN THEY PERFORM CHALLENGING TASKS WHILE BEING ASSISTED BY MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO) ZONE OF ACHIEVED DEVELOPMENT (ZAD): THIS IS WHERE THE CHILD IS RIGHT NOW. THE CHILD CAN DO ALL TASKS IN THIS ZONE WITHOUT HELP FROM ANYONE SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (LEV SEMONOVICH VYGOTSKY) CONT… ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) It is generally believed that social dialogue in the ZPD has two important features: I. The first is intersubjectivity: where two individuals who might have different understanding of a task arrive at a shared understanding by adjusting to the perspective of the other. II. The second feature is scaffolding: Peer/Adults/ knowledgeable person may begin with direct instructions, but as children’s mastery of a task increases, the peer/adult/knowledgeable person tends to withdraw their own contributions in recognition of the child’s increasing success.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) Psychosocial theory focuses on human development from birth to death & holds that human development depends on the social relations established at various stages in life. The theory proposed eight distinct psychosocial stages humans pass through from birth to death. However, after Erikson died, his wife Joan Erikson published the ninth stage and it officially became part of Erikson’s earlier work  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… According to the theory, successful completion & interactions with others at each stage results in a healthy personality. On the other hand, failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore leading to unhealthy personality and weird sense of self.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST (birth to 18 months). The psychosocial task for the infant during this stage is to seek a level of trust from the primary caregiver(s) as well as to depend on the caregiver(s) to provide a sense of security.  A favorable outcome is for the infant to establish a sense of security and a positive approach to the world, which is seen as a healthy attachment to care providers leading to the foundation of a healthy personality.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST (birth to 18 months). Trust: If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and good nurturing, the child develops a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate. This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential threats.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST (birth to 18 months). Mistrust: on the other hand, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity. This leads to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable world, fostering a sense of mistrust, suspicion & anxiety. Under such circumstances, the child may lack confidence in their ability to influence events & thereby viewing the world with apprehension.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST (birth to 18 months). Birth is one of the first traumas that a human experiences, and infants use the caregiver as their barometer regarding the environment. Failure to create positive bonds between infants and primary care givers leads the infant to develop mistrust. The mistrust further leads to isolation, withdrawal & a negative attitude about life.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & Doubt (18 months to three years) This is the second stage and children focus on developing a greater sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. If children are encouraged to do what they are able to do on their own and at their own pace but with judicious supervision by parents & caregivers they develop a sense of autonomy, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & Doubt (18 months to three years) Autonomy: If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive. They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and have a sense of self- control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives. Shame and Doubt: On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities. This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, become dependent upon others, lack self-esteem and develop a sense of inadequacy about their abilities  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 3 INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (4–5 years) During this stage, children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities. Initiative: Primary care providers should encourage and support children to initiate activities. This allows children to learn how to take initiative and assert control over their environment. Children will further be encouraged to formulate plans, execute them and develop a sense of purpose.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 3 INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (4–5 years) Parents/care givers should provide an enabling environment to foster development of various initiatives and activities done by children. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. GUILT: : If Parents/care givers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or criticize the efforts of children, they may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives. Children will be left with a sense of guilty. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking self-initiative.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 4 INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (6–12 years) At this stage children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. They initiate projects, see them through to completion, and feel good about what they have achieved. If children are encouraged during this time to make, do things, allowed to finish tasks and praised for their effort, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged or restricted by parents/care givers, then children begin to feel inferior, doubting their own abilities and therefore may not reach their potential. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION (12-20 years) During this stage, young adults are approaching independence from parents and achieve physical maturity, it’s at this stage that young adults are concerned about what kind of person they are becoming. Growing and developing youths face physiological revolution within them and with tangible adult tasks ahead of them are now primarily concerned with what they feel they are. The goal is development of ego identity.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION (12-20 years) The danger of this stage is role confusion, doubt about sexual and occupational identity. If adolescents succeed in integrating roles in different situations to the point of experiencing contiguity in their perception of self, identity develops. If they are unable to establish a sense of stability in various aspects of their lives, role confusion arise.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years) Occurring in Young adulthood, people begin to share more intimate relationship with others. They explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member. Successful completion can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness & sometimes depression.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60 years)  During this stage, people establish careers, settle down within a relationship, begin own families & develop a sense of being part of the community. People give back to society through raising children, being productive at work, becoming involved in community activities & organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, people become stagnant and victims of self- absorption.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (60 - 80 Years )  It is the stage of reflection. People may ask a question such as “Has my life been worthwhile?” Erickson states that, if your life has been successful, meaningful generous, empowering, you have the sense of integrity. On the other hand, if you have lived a life of mistrust, guilt, inferiority, when you die, you will be filled with a big sense of despair.  PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (Erik Erikson) CONT… STAGE 9: DESPAIR VS. FAITH & HOPE (80 Years and above) After Erikson died, his wife Joan Erikson published the 9th stage. The stage is about coming to terms with the fact that one has grown old. During this stage, elderly people move beyond materialistic concerns but transcend about spiritual requirements of the soul and their sickling health. Elderly people’s foremost concern is about a sense of failing body and need for care. They experience closeness of their soul to the loved dead ones. They have decreased fear of death and look forward to it.  REFERENCES  Gerrig, R.J., Zombardo, P.G., Svardal, F., Brennen, T., Donaldson, R., & Archer, T. (2012). Psychology and Life. Essex: Pearson International Ltd.  Eysenck, W.E. (2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. Hove: Psychology Press Ltd.  Myers, D.G. (1995). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.  Zimbardo, P. et al. (2011). Psychology: Core Concepts with DSM-5 Update (7th Edition). New York: Yale University.  Seifert, K.L. (1997). Child and Adolescent Development. New York: Houghton Mifflin.  Munsaka, E., & Matafwali, B. (2013). Human development from conception to adolescence: Typical and a typical trends. Lusaka: University of Zambia Press.  Mullins L.J. (2007). Management and Organizational Behaviour. London: Pitman:  Robbins, S. P. (2015). Organizational behaviour, concepts, controversies and Application. New York: Pearson Ltd.  Arnold, J et al. (2016). Work Psychology (5th Edition). London: Pearson Ltd.  END OF UNIT TWO!! Thanks for your participation