HP 252 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

Exam 1 Study Guide Sunday, February 16, 2025 9:05 PM Exam 1 Study Guide HP 252 Spring 2025 Exam Information Date: 2/20/25 Time: During HP 252 class. You have 75 minutes to complete the exam. Questions: 50 multiple choice; 1 open answer for extra cred...

Exam 1 Study Guide Sunday, February 16, 2025 9:05 PM Exam 1 Study Guide HP 252 Spring 2025 Exam Information Date: 2/20/25 Time: During HP 252 class. You have 75 minutes to complete the exam. Questions: 50 multiple choice; 1 open answer for extra credit Lectures Covered: 1/21/25-2/18/25 Breakdown of Exam Questions: Developmental Theories (13 questions) Disability Justice (5 questions) Prenatal Development (9 questions) Infancy and Toddlerhood Development (16 questions) Early Childhood Development: Physical and Socioemotional (7 questions) Bonus open ended question The following is a guide to the topics covered on the exam. Content will be drawn from lectures, Kuther text, and other assigned readings. Study the themes, trends, and timelines. I will not pick out an obscure detail in the text that was not referenced in class, but you are expected to know content from the text that overlaps with the topics below: Class 1 (Tues, Jan 21): Overview of Course & Developmental Concepts Continuity vs Discontinuity Continuous change: when development occurs gradually over time. ○ Children gain experience and learn strategies to become quicker at problem solving, older adults start to lose muscle and strength Discontinuous change: Abrupt change with individuals of various ages dramatically different for one another ○ Puberty transform kid to adult adolescent bodies ○ Infant understanding and capacity for language is much different than school age. Make jumps in reasoning abilities Nature vs Nurture ○ Genetic Ex: Down Syndrome, Club Foot ○ Environmental Ex: Tuberculosis, Scurvy Enviromental changes can speed up or slow down the process of walking. Infants with malnutrition will walk later than well-nourished infants ○ Potentially Both Ex: Heart disease, Diabetes New Section 1 Page 1  Ex: Heart disease, Diabetes To what extent do you think our development is shaped by nature vs nurture? ○ Potential extra credit question ○ Not a debate anymore but certain aspects are more heavily influenced by nature than nurture such as disability while environments that the baby is in can heavily influence the babies life. Life-Span Perspective ○ Development is… Lifelong Multidimensional Multidirectional Plastic Contextual Multidisciplinary Class 2 (Thurs, Jan 23): Developmental Theories Stability and Change Stability: traits and characteristics that are more dominant throughout life ○ Tempermant: whether they are more easy going irritatble, generally stays throughout the life ○ Personality traits: being more introverted or extroverted Change: way people evolve over time ○ Cognitive development: cognitive abilities of problem solving, abstract thinking ○ Social and emotional development, physical development Processes Involved in Developmental Changes ○ Biological: body maturation and growth such as body size, proportion, appearance, health, and perceptual abilities ○ Cognitive: maturation of thought processes and the tools that we use to obtain knowledge, become aware of the world around us, and solve problems ○ Socioemotional: changes in personality, emotions, views of oneself, social skills, an interpersonal relationships with friends and family Theories of Development ○ Psychoanalytic theory states that our childhood experiences and unconscious desires shape our behavior. Childhood experiences and unconscious desires shape behavior Freud Much of our behavior is driven by unconscious impulses that are outside our awareness There are different psychosexual stages (periods where unconscious drive are focused on different parts of the body, making stimulation of those parts a source of pleasure). Unresolved conflicts lead to problems 5 stages: □ Birth-1.5 years: Oral stage-infants pleasure centers on the mouth □ 1.5-3 years: anal stage: child's pleasure focuses on the anus □ 3-6 years: Phallic stage: Child's pleasure focuses on the genitals □ 6-puberty: latency stage: child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills □ Puberty onward: Genital Stage: a time of sexual reawakening, source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family New Section 1 Page 2  source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family Erikson + 8 stages ** Focuses more on the role of social world, society, and culture\ Ages 0-18 months: Trust vs Mistrust □ Infants learn to trust that others will fufill their basic needs or lack confidence that they will 18 months-3 years: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt □ Toddlers learn to be self-sufficent and independent through toilet training, feeding, walking, and exploring or lack confidence in their own ability and doubt themselves 3-6 years □ Initiative vs guilt Young children become inquisitive, ambitious, and eager for responsibility or experience overwhelming guilt for their curiosity and overstepping boundaries 6 years to puberty □ Industry versus Inferiority: Children learn to be hardworking, competent, and productive by mastering new skills in school, friendships and home life or experience difficulty, leading to feels on inadequacy and incompetence ○ Behaviorist and Social Learning Behaviorism: behaviors are constantly changing in response to stimuli Examine only behavior that can be observed and believe that behavior is influenced by the physical and social environment Social Learning: recognizes that behaviors can become fixed if they have been initiated and repeated enough. Social Learning Theory recognizes that behaviors can become fixed (if they have been imitated and reinforced enough). Behaviorism [assumes] behavior [to be] constantly change[able] in response to new reinforcement. Bandura's social learning theory: people actively process information, they think and feel emotion, and their thoughts and feelings influence their behavior The social learning theory overlaps with the behaviorist approach because it uses scientifically controlled lab experiments with humans to observe behavior. Pavlov (Classical Conditioning) Associations created between environmental stimuli and physiological responses Russian physiologist who studied dogs salivation in response to different stimuli Skinner (Operant Conditioning) Development consists of pattern of behavioral changes brought about by rewards and punishments Behaviors become more or less likely depending on their consequences Behavior followed by a rewarding or pleasant outcome=reinforcement Behavior followed by an aversive or unpleasant outcome=punishment Bandura (Observational Learning + Reciprocal Determinism) Observational learning: people learn through observing and imitating others New Section 1 Page 3  others Reciprocal determinism: individuals and the environment interact and influence each other-development is a result of interactions between the individuals characteristics, his or her behavior, and the physical and social environment This is the baby doll experiment where they beat up doll after watching adult do it. ○ Cognitive theories explain how behavior changes as a result of people's perception, transformation, processing, storage, and retrieval of information in contrast to behaviorist theories that put emphasis only on the observable behavior of individuals. Explains how behavior changes as a result of people’s perception Piaget Adaptation, Assimilation, Accommodation and Organization 4 stages Four stages of cognitive development □ Sensorimotor stage: birth-2 years. Infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical action. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage □ Preoperational Stage: 2-7 years old Child begins to represent the world with words and images Words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action □ Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 years old Child can now reason logically about concreate events and classify objects into different sets □ Formal Operational Stage: Age 11-adulthood Adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways Two major processes that underlie a child's cognitive construction of the world □ Organization and adaptation □ Adaptation includes assimilation and accomadationn Assimilation: processes of taking new information from the environment and fitting it into preexisting cognitive schemas ◊ Fitting new information into old existing buckets ◊ When kid sees a sheep for the first time, says it’s a cat Accommodation: process of taking new information from the environment and altering one's pre-existing schemas to fit in the new information ◊ Making new buckets and altering old ones to incorporate new information ◊ Accommodation: mom says that’s not a cat that is a sheep, start to now that it is a new bucket Organization: child uses internal information that a 4 legged animal could be a sheep or a cat Information-Processing Theory New Section 1 Page 4  Information-Processing Theory Mind work in similar ways to a computer in that the information enters and is then manipulated, stored, recalled, and used to solve problems Permits schientist to make specific predication about behavior Human: input--> brain, mind, cognition, (memory, problem solving, reasoning, consciousness) --> output ○ Contextual perspectives consider the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, and social worlds. They also examine socio-cultural and environmental influences on development. Considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, and social environments Vygotsky’s Social Cultural Cognitive Theory (Zone of Proximal Development) How culture is transmitted from one generation to the next through social interaction Emphasizes how culture and social interaction are inseparable from cognitive development Zone of proximal development: band in development where you are challenging someone just enough □ Example: if you told a 2 year old to tie a shoe (this would be too hard) but if you told them to pick up a shoe (this would be too easy) instead you ask them to put the shoe on (this is in the ZPD) Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory** Very widely accepted theory Development is a result of ongoing interactions between biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes within individuals and their changing context Individuals are surrounded by a series of contexts: home, school, neighborhood, culture, and society Macrosystem: the government, the laws, US customs, cultural values, is very big socially Exosystem: local government, school board, parent's workplace, religious settings, mass media Mesosystem: neighborhood, floor in dorm, community that you are with everyday, guardians, teachers Microsystems: parts of you-learning disabilities, anxiety Realizes that changes over time and recognizes that there is a lot going on in the world that isn't just about you, lots that is impacting development Thelen's dynamic systems theory: children's developmental domains, maturation, and environment form an integrated systems that is constantly changing, resulting in developmental change and the emergence of new abilities Many childhood milestones develop systemically and are the result of skill-building Reflects goal-oriented behavior ○ Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Ethology: the scientific study of the evolutionary basis of behavior Humans display preprogrammed biological behaviors that promote development Evolutionary developmental theory: Applies principles of evolution and scientific knowledge about the interactive influence of genetic and environmental mechanism to understand the changes people undergo New Section 1 Page 5  environmental mechanism to understand the changes people undergo throughout their lives Genetic factors interact with the physical/social environment to influence development. Konrad Lorenz (Imprinting, Critical Period) Zoologist who studied geese and the process of imprinting Critical period: imprinting needs to occur at a certain, very early time in life John Bowlby (Attachment, Sensitive Period) Attachment to a caregiver in the first year of life has important consequences throughout the lifespan Sensitive period: time during infancy where attachment should occur to promote optimal development of social relationships □ Positive and secure attachments= develop optimally in childhood and adulthood □ Negative and insecure attachment=development will not be optimal Class 3 (Tues, Jan 28): Prenatal Developmental Stages of Prenatal Development (characteristics at each stage) ○ Germinal Period 0-2 weeks after conception, it last until the zygote attaches to the uterine lining Includes: creation of zygote, continued cell division, attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall marks the end of the period ○ Embryonic Period Embryo Life Support Systems (Amniotic Sac, Placenta, Umbilical Cord) Three to 8 weeks after conception. Mass of cells is called embryo Includes: rate of cell differentiation intensifies, life support system for the embryo form, all major organs form, neural tube: basis of CNS, external features start to form: head, mouth, limbs Life support systems=systems that support growth of the embyro in the womb Amnion: a sac that contains clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats and is insulation Placenta: a disck shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the pregnant person and the fetus intertwine but do not join Umbilical cord: contains two arteries and one vein and connects the baby to the placenta ○ Fetal Period Rapid growth of fetus, bone formation, and brain development Age of viability: about 22 weeks (when fetus can live on its own) From 8 weeks (two months) until birth Includes: organ growth and complexity, hormones play role in differentiation, fetus becomes active, accumulation of body fat Trimesters (3-3 ½ month periods) ○ Know the difference between periods and trimesters** ○ Prenatal development is commonly divided into 3 equal periods of time of 3 months (trimesters) Both germinal and embryonic development occurs in the 1st trimester Teratogens and Hazards to Prenatal Development New Section 1 Page 6  Teratogens and Hazards to Prenatal Development ○ Severity of damage and type of defect depends on: dose, individual differences, and time of exposure ○ Teratogens: an agent such as a disease, drug, or other environmental factor that disrupts prenatal development ○ Exposed to harmful substances in gestation can impact the severity of damage and the type of defect ○ Types of Teratogens Prescription and nonprescription drugs Caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, marijuana, and heroin Ex. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders □ Cluster of abnormalities that appear in the offspring of someone who drinks heavily during the pregnancy □ Effects include: facial deformities, limb and heart defects, learning problems, and many other issues Viruses Environmental hazards: radiation, toxic waste, other chemical pollutants ○ Age of person carrying baby also impacts prenatal development Under 18 Above 35 Carry higher risk ○ Other parental factors Diet and nutrition Diseases during pregnancy(rubella, syphillis, genital herpes, HIV/AIDS, diabetes) Sperm abnormalities Prenatal Care ○ Starts at screening: for manageable conditions and screening for treatable diseases ○ Includes educational, social, and nutrition services ○ Varies enormously Reasons for delayed prenatal care among women varies ○ Racial disparities ○ Lack of acsesss to prenatal care is a big problem ○ Lacked money or insurance for visits was top, then couldn't get appointment when desired and didn't know they were pregnant were next followed closely by didn't have a Medicaid card ○ US is the worst by a lot to other westernized countries 17.4 out of every 100,000 births there is a maternal death Stages of Birth (characteristics at each stage) ○ First stage, second stage, and third stage ○ First Stage: Uterine contractions are 10-15 minutes apart and last 1 minute This is the longest stage 8-14 hours Second Stage: ○ Baby's head starts to move through the cervix and birth canal ○ Takes about 30-90 minutes and ends when baby completely emerges from the birthing parent's body Third Stage ○ Afterbirth New Section 1 Page 7  ○ Afterbirth ○ When placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled ○ Last about 5-15 minutes Childbirth Setting and Attendants ○ Home vs Hospital In US 98.5% of births take place in hospitals 1.5% are at home ○ Midwives Provide health care during pregnancy, birth, and the postpartum period ~9% of births in the US are attended by a midwife ○ Doula Caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support before, during, and after childbirth Childbirth Methods ○ Medication Used for pain management (analgesia and anesthesia) and speeding up delivery (oxytocin/Pitocin) ○ natural childbirth: Uses natural/non-pharmacological approaches to pain medication, deep breaths ○ cesarean delivery Surgically removing the baby from the uterus through an abdominal incision Benefits and risks of C section continue to be debated Reproductive Justice & Disability Justice (Guest Speaker: Bria Dunham) Person first vs. Identity first ○ Generally use person first language but can ask individuals what they prefer Person first: person with autism Identity first: autistic person Disability rights vs. disability justice ○ Disability justice: framework recognizes ableism is interconnected with other forms of oppression that fully embraces disability in all its forms, and that centers the voices of those most affected and those who have been historically been left out ○ Disability rights movement secured important rights for disabled people but was based around legal struggles, led predominantly by white disabled people, and centered people with mobility impairments Principles of Disability Justice ○ Centers the voices of those most affected and those who have historically been left out ○ “Second wave” of disability rights movement Medical Model of Disability vs. Social Model of Disability ○ Medical model: views disability as a defect within the individual Believes that in order to have a good quality of life, the disabled person must have the defect cured, fixed, or completely eliminated Can convey messages of pity and shame Can also feature inspirational stories of disabled people performing ordinary, everyday tasks, or of non-disabled people performing basic acts of decency towards disabled people ○ Social Model New Section 1 Page 8  ○ Social Model Centers disability in society, not as a defect within the individual Disability=restrictions imposed by society Impairments=effects of any given condition Solution lies not in the fixing the person but instead fixing society Calls for an end to discrimination via, education, accommodation, and universal design 10 Principles of Disability Justice ○ Intersectionality, leadership of those most affected, anti-capitalist politics, cross-movement solidarity, recognizing wholeness, sustainability, commitment to cross-disability solidarity, interdependence, collective access, collective liberation Definition of Reproductive Justice ○ The human right to maintain personal bodily autonomy, have children, not have children, and parent the children we have in safe and sustainable communities ○ Reproductive justice is about access (and not just to abortions) Acsess to contraception, sex education, STI prevention and care, alternative birth options, adequate prenatal and pregnancy care, domestic violence assistance, adequate wages to support our families, safe homes, and so much more ○ Reproductive justice: term coined in 1994 by a group of Black women who met in a conference that affirmed that the individual right for people everywhere to plan their own families was central to global development Believed that women's rights movement centered the experiences of middle class and wealthy white women and focused on abortion rights to the exclusion of other crucial needs Focuses on oppression and resistance Steps to Achieve Reproductive Justice ○ Analyze power systems: reproductive politics in US is based on gendered, sexualized, and radicalized acts of dominance that occur on a daily basis, RJ works to eradicate these nuanced dynamics ○ Address intersecting oppressions: marginalized women face multiple oppressions and can only win freedom by addressing how they impact one another ○ Center the most marginalized: our society will not be free until the most vulnerable people are able to access the resources and full human rights to live self-determine lives without fear, discrimination, or retaliation ○ Join together across issues and identities: intersectionality of RJ is both an opportunity and a call to come together as one movement with the power to win freedom for all oppressed people Convergence of Disability and Reproductive Justice ○ Involuntary sterilization: Buck v Bell(1927) : ruled that sterilization of an institutionalized person was not a violation of the US constitution ○ Selective abortion due to fetal abnormalities ○ Supports for disabled parents to raise children Class 4 (Thurs, Jan 30): Disability Justice Framework Revisiting Prenatal Developmental & Birth Slides (1/30) Assessing the Newborn ○ Apgar Scale: Method for assessing the health of newborns at one and five minutes after New Section 1 Page 9  Method for assessing the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth including Infants heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, reflex irritability ○ What does a low Apgar scale indicate as potential risks later on?** Low Apgar scores are associated with long-term educational support, ADHD, and developmental risks Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants** ○ Low Birth Weight: infants weigh less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces Very low birth weight: less than 3 pounds 8 ounces Extremely low birth weight: less than 1 pound 10 ounces ○ Preterm infants: born before the full term is completed-35 or fewer weeks after conception In 2020, 10.1% of US infants were born preterm ○ Small for date infants: infants with birth weights below normal (