People, Development and Environment Chapter 9.1 PDF

People, Development and Environment 9.1 CHAPTER People, Development and Environment 9 leArning obJe...

People, Development and Environment 9.1 CHAPTER People, Development and Environment 9 leArning obJectives After completing the chapter, you will be able to: The concept of people. Impacts of pollutants on human health. Development and environment: Millennium Natural and energy resources: Solar, Wind, Soil, development and Sustainable development goals. Hydro, Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear and Forests. Human and environment interaction: Natural hazards and disasters: Mitigation Anthropogenic activities and their impacts on strategies. environment. Environmental Protection Act (1986), National Environmental issues: Local, Regional and Global; Action Plan on Climate Change, International Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution, agreements/efforts -Montreal Protocol, Rio Noise pollution, Waste (solid, liquid, biomedical, Summit, Convention on Biodiversity, Kyoto hazardous, electronic), Climate change and its Protocol, Paris Agreement, International Solar Socio-Economic and Political dimensions. Alliance. the concept of people includes all the physical and biological surroundings of an organism and their interactions. Environment This unit deals with people, development and envi- is defined as the sum of water, air and land, and the ronment. Thus, the foremost thing is to get familiar- interrelationships that exist among them and with the ized with the basic definitions. Population is a near human beings, other living organisms and materials. permanent group of interbreeding individuals of a The flora, fauna, microorganisms and the man- species found in a space or geographical area at a made structures in our surroundings have a bidirec- particular point. It is called local population or deme. tional interaction with us, either directly or indirectly. Metapopulation is a complex of local populations con- The totality of all these components and their interac- nected by dispersing individuals. tions constitute the environment. Air, water and land The main factors affecting population are as follows. constitute our environment and influence us directly. 1. Natality (birth rate) We too exert an influence on our environment due to 2. Mortality (death rate) overuse or over exploitation of resources or due to dis- 3. Population dispersal (emigration, immigration charge of pollutants in air, water and land. and migration) In context of relation between people and environ- 4. Age distribution (pre-reproductive, reproductive ment, the following concepts developed: and post-reproductive) 1. Environmental determinism: It developed in 5. Population growth rate 19th century Europe, a belief that environment 6. Carrying resources mainly food, water, space and determines how a culture develops. For example, there are limited resources to support all life forms. white European nations believed that people from Population density is the number of individuals divided warmer climates were lazier because they did not by space (such as per square km). have to work as hard to survive. The term environment is derived from the French 2. Environmental possibilism: It developed in the word environner. It means ‘to surround’. According to first half of the 20th century. It is the belief that the the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, environment environment puts limits on people, but it does not determine how they will behave.  9.2 CHAPTER 9 ecology critical link species These are the species that play an important role in The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1869. supporting network species as pollinators, disper- Ecology deals with the study of organisms in their sal agents, absorption or circulation of nutrients, natural home. etc. Mycorrhizal fungi help the vascular plants in Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that obtaining inorganic nutrients from soil and organic living organisms have with respect to each other, their residues. natural environments and ecosystems. It is present at three levels, which are as follows: community 1. The individual organism (how individuals are A community is an assemblage of all the interacting affected by the environment and how they, in turn, populations of different species in a geographical area. affect the environment) It is a complex interacting network of plants, animals, 2. The population and microorganisms. Each population has a defined 3. The community role in the community. Ecology is defined as the study of ecosystems. ecosystem Ecological Footprint: The ecological footprint The term ecosystem was defined by Arthur Tansley measures human consumption of natural resources in 1935. Ecosystem is a self-regulating community of in comparison to Earth’s ecological capacity to living organisms (populations of species), interacting regenerate them. Calculation of the footprint with each other and their non-living, physical environ- takes into account our consumption habits both at ment, for example, forest ecosystem and ocean ecosys- (i) micro (individual) level and (ii) macro (area or tem. Even a clump of bushes can be an ecosystem. All nation) level. The objective of its calculation is also ecosystems on the planet are interconnected and inter- to educate people about the need to change our con- dependent, and together, they make up the biosphere. sumption behaviour to make it more sustainable. There is also exchange of matter and energy with Ecological footprint is measured in global hectares physical environment. In an open ecosystem, there is (gha). free exchange of energy and matter with the outside world. In a closed ecosystem, there is no or very limited species, population and community exchange. The organisms in this world can be divided into differ- ent species, just as human beings are a species, so are Ecotone the roses and neem trees. An ecotone is the transitional area of vegetation A species is a set of organisms that resemble each between two different plant communities, such other in certain features. The members of a species liv- as forest and grassland. The influence of the two ing together and interacting with each other are called bordering communities on each other is known a population. The members of a population live within as the edge effect. a given area. species diversity Ecosystems show large variations in their size, struc- It is an important attribute of biotic community, ture, composition and so on. However, all the ecosys- which is determined by the total number of species tems are characterized by certain basic structural and and their relative abundance. functional features which are common. There can be Greater species diversity indicates higher number different types of ecosystems, such as forest ecosystem, of niches and greater stability of the community. marine ecosystem and desert ecosystem. The composition and organization of communities keystone species and physical components decide the structure of an It is a species that has a significant and dispropor- ecosystem. Thus, ecosystems have basically two types tionately large influence on the community struc- of components, namely biotic and abiotic. ture and characteristics. It has often considerably low abundance and biotic components (living components) biomass as compared to dominant species. Living components in an ecosystem are either pro- ducers or consumers and they are also called biotic  People, Development and Environment 9.3 components. Producers produce organic components, Plants Detritivores for example, plants produce starch, carbohydrates and cellulose by a process called photosynthesis. Eaten by Eaten by Different living organisms constitute the biotic com- ponent of an ecosystem and it belongs to the following categories. 1. Producers (or Autotrophs): These components Herbivores Eaten by Carnivores produce their own food. Green plants produce food through photosynthesis by combining carbon figure 9.1 dioxide and water with the help of energy in the form of sunlight. They also help determine the types and number of 2. Consumers: Consumers depend upon produc- organisms able to exist in an environment. ers for their food, for example, human beings and other animals. These organisms get their food by functions of ecosystem feeding on other organisms and they are of the fol- Every ecosystem performs the following important lowing types. functions. (a) Herbivores feed on plants, for example, rabbit and insects. 1. It has different food chains and food webs. Food (b) Carnivores are those animals that eat other chain is the sequence of eating and being eaten. animals and they are of two types. Grass Hawk (i) Secondary carnivores feed on herbivores, for example, a frog and a small fish. (ii) Tertiary carnivores feed on other carni- vores, for example, a snake and a big fish. Grasshopper Frog Snake (c) Omnivores feed both on plants and animals, figure 9.2 for example, humans, rats and many species of birds. Food chains are generally found to be interlinked (d) Detritivores feed on dead organisms, for and interwoven as a network and hence, known as example, earthworms, crabs and ants. The a food web. There are several options of eating and living beings that feed on dead or decayed being eaten in a food web. Hence, these are more organic matter are also called saprophytes. stable. They are fungi and bacteria, which does not 2. There is unidirectional flow of energy. It flows contain any chlorophyll and they are depen- from sun and then after capture by primary pro- dent on dead organisms for their food. ducers (green plants), it flows through the food The parasites depend on living organisms chain or the food web. for food. They can be (i) endoparasites, which 3. Materials (nutrients) in an ecosystem move in a live inside the body, such as liver flukes and cyclic manner. The cycling of nutrients takes place tapeworms and (ii) ectoparasites, which live between biotic and abiotic components. on the exterior, such as fleas and lice. 4. Every ecosystem functions to produce and sustain 3. Decomposers: These are microorganisms that some primary production (plant biomass) and sec- break down organic matter into inorganic com- ondary production (animal biomass). pounds and in this process, derive their nutrition. 5. Every ecosystem regulates and maintains itself. They play a very important role in converting the This self-regulation or control system is known as essential nutrients from unavailable organic form cybernetic system. to free inorganic form which is available for use by plants, for example, bacteria, fungi and so on. trophic levels and ecological pyramids The trophic levels form a pyramid with producers at the Abiotic components bottom, then primary consumers (herbivores), second- In ecology, abiotic components are non-living chemical ary consumers (carnivores) and tertiary carnivores. and physical factors in the environment that affect the ecosystems. ecological pyramids - trophic levels Some of the real time examples are water, light, The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by wind, soil, humidity, minerals and gases. They affect Charles Elton. All ecological pyramids begin with pro- the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. ducers like plants at the bottom and proceed through  9.4 CHAPTER 9 various trophic levels, such as herbivores (consume 2. Pyramid of Numbers plants), carnivores (prey on herbivores) and so on. The The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in highest level is at the top of the food chain. terms of the number of producers, herbivores and the carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There is a decrease in the number of individuals from the lower to the higher trophic levels. The number pyramid var- Increasing levels Tertiary ies from ecosystem to ecosystem. There are three types of food chain consumer of pyramid of numbers and they are as follows. Secondary Upright pyramid of number consumer Partly upright pyramid of number Primary consumer Inverted pyramid of number Producers Upright Pyramid of Number This type of pyramid number is found in the aquatic figure 9.3 Ecological Pyramid and grassland ecosystems. In these ecosystems, there are numerous small autotrophs that support lesser There are three types of ecological pyramids and they herbivores, which in turn support smaller number of are as follows. carnivores, and hence, this pyramid is upright. Pyramid of energy Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass Upright pyramid 1. Pyramid of Energy Tertiary consumer The pyramid of energy or the energy pyramid describes the overall nature of the ecosystem. During the flow of Secondary energy from one organism to other, there is consider- consumer able loss of energy in the form of heat. In primary pro- Primary consumer ducers, like the autotrophs, large amount of energy is available. The least energy is available in the tertiary Producers consumers. Therefore, shorter food chain has more amount of energy available even at the highest trophic figure 9.5 Pyramid of Number level. The energy pyramid is always upright and vertical. This pyramid shows the flow of energy at different Partly Upright Pyramid of Number trophic levels. It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the number of It depicts that the energy is minimum at the high- producers are lesser in number and support a greater est trophic level and is maximum at the lowest number of herbivores which in turn support a fewer trophic level. number of carnivores. At each trophic level, there is successive loss of energy in the form of heat, respiration, etc. Inverted Pyramid of Number This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain where one primary producer supports numerous parasites, which in turn supports more hyperparasites. Tertiary Decreasing rate of consumer 3. Pyramid of Biomass energy flow 10 kcal The pyramid of biomass is more fundamental. They Secondary represent the quantitative relationships of the stand- consumer 100 kcal ing crops. In this pyramid, there is a gradual decrease Primary consumer 1000 kcal in the biomass from the producers to the higher trophic Producers levels. In simple terms, biomass here represents the net 10,000 kcal aggregate weight of dried organisms collected from each feeding level. This dry weight is the biomass and it figure 9.4 Pyramid of Energy represents the amount of energy available in the form  People, Development and Environment 9.5 Carnivore Top carnivore 1 kg Primary 10 carnivore kg Herbivores kg Herbivores 100 g Producers 0k 100 figure 9.8 Upright Pyramid of Biomass in a Terrestrial Ecosystem Producers Carnivore 12gm/m2 figure 9.6 Partly Upright Pyramid of Number 8gm/ Herbivores m2 Hyperparasites 4gm /m 2 Parasites Producers Herbivores figure 9.9 Inverted Pyramid in an Aquatic Ecosystem Producers The trophic levels are linked through food chains and these food chains form interlocking patterns called figure 9.7 Inverted Pyramid of Number food webs. Related to Ecological Pyramids: of organic matter of the organisms. In this pyramid, Trophic Levels the net dry weight is plotted to that of the producers, herbivores, carnivores, etc. Eutrophic: Water bodies having good quantity There are two types of pyramid of biomass and they of minerals and hence supra optimum growth of are as follows. plants. Upright pyramid of biomass Oligotrophic: Water bodies deficient in minerals Inverted pyramid of biomass and organic growth. Upright Pyramid of Biomass Dystrophic: Water bodies rich in undecomposed organic matter, for example, bogs and marshy This occurs when the larger net biomass of producers lakes. support a smaller weight of consumers, for example, forest ecosystem. biosphere Inverted Pyramid of Biomass There are different types of ecosystems around us, This happens when the smaller weight of produc- which involve living organisms and non-living things. ers support consumers of larger weight, for example, If we combine all the ecosystems present on earth, aquatic ecosystem. then it is called biosphere.  9.6 CHAPTER 9 biomes Atmosphere The terrestrial portion of biosphere is divided into We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the biomes. They usually have distinct climates and life atmosphere, which is a layer of gases surrounding our forms adapted to that climate. Deserts, grasslands, planet. Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99 per cent tropical forests and rain forests are the main examples of the gases in dry air, with argon, carbon dioxide, of biomes. helium, neon and other gases making up minute por- tions. Water vapour and dust are also part of earth’s habitat atmosphere. Other planets and moons have very dif- The area or natural environment in which an organism ferent atmospheres and some have no atmospheres at or population normally lives is called habitat. A habitat all. The different layers of atmosphere are discussed is made up of physical factors, such as soil, moisture, below. range of temperature and availability of light as well as biotic factors, such as availability of food and the pres- Temperature ence of predators. When organisms of different species live together, Exosphere 400 km then it is called cohabitat. Meteors Meteors Temperature A habitat is not necessarily a geographic area. If par- above (1000°C) ticular organism(s) live in a small and specific part(s) Lonosphere Temperature of a habitat, then it is known as microhabitat. For −63°C increases with example, within the forest habitat, certain organisms Reflect height live beneath the bark of a tree and a parasite may live Radiowaves 80 km in the body of the host. Meteors Meteors Temperature Mesosphere decreases with four spheres of earth height (−100°C) The area near the surface of the earth can be divided −80°C Radiowaves 50 km into four interconnected geospheres, namely the lith- osphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere. Temperature Stratosphere increases with Scientists can classify life and material on or near the −63°C height (0°C) surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres. Aeroplane The names of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho), air (atmo), water −45°C (hydro) and life (bio). Ozone sphere 18 km lithosphere Cloud Temperature The lithosphere is a solid, rocky crust covering the 8 km Troposphere decreases with entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed Mountains height (−80°C) of minerals. It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. Earth's surface hydrosphere The hydrosphere is composed of all the water on or near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes and figure 9.10 Layers of Atmosphere even the moisture in air. Evidently, 97 per cent of the earth’s water is present in the oceans. The remaining Troposphere 3 per cent is freshwater. Furthermore, three quarters of freshwater is in the form of ice sheets and glaciers, It is the lowest layer of atmosphere and contains about hardly one per cent is left for human consumption. four-fifths of the earth’s air, but extends only to a height of 18 km at equator and 8 km at poles during biosphere winter. Almost all weather developments occur in the The biosphere is composed of all the living organisms. troposphere. Air in the troposphere thins as altitude Plants, animals and one-celled organisms are all part increases and the temperature also decreases. The rate of the biosphere. Most of the planet’s life is found from at which temperature decreases is known as lapse rate 3 metres below the ground to 30 metres above it and in and it is 6.4° per km. Fast-moving, high-altitude winds the top 200 metres of oceans and seas. called jet streams occur at the top level of the tropo- sphere that helps aeroplanes to fly at high speeds.  People, Development and Environment 9.7 This layer also absorbs heat that is reflected back carbon dioxide, oxygen and other gases are present. from the ground in a process called the greenhouse Many weather satellites orbit earth in the exosphere. effect. Stratosphere DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT: The stratosphere extends from the tropopause, the MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT AND upper boundary of the troposphere to about 50 km above the earth’s surface. It is characterized by the fol- SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS lowing properties. Development or say human development refers to the 1. Strong horizontal winds blowing in the strato- biological and psychological changes that occur in sphere that is ideal for planes that can fly in this human beings between birth and the end of adolescent part of the atmosphere. period as the individual progresses from dependency 2. The stratosphere is crucial to life on earth because to increasing autonomy. These developmental changes it contains small amounts of ozone, a form of may be strongly influenced by the genetic and environ- oxygen that prevents harmful UV rays from reach- mental factors during prenatal life, these are part of ing the earth. the study of child development. Growth refers to the development of children from birth to adolescence. Mesosphere There are four areas in which children grow, such as The mesosphere extends up to 80 km above the surface physical, psychological and cognitive, social and emo- of the earth. This layer is characterized by the follow- tional and finally, it is sexuality and gender identity. ing properties. According to Educational Foundation (2001), lifespan development is a process beginning at concep- 1. It has the coldest temperatures in the atmosphere, tion that continues until death. The progression initi- dipping as low as −100°C. ates with the emergence of a fetus from a one-celled 2. The phenomenon of ‘shooting stars’ also occur in organism. As the unborn child enters the world, the this layer. environment in which the child exists begins to influ- ence the child’s development. Ionosphere There are four interactive forces that combine to It extends to about 690 kilometres and is extremely shape human development thin. It is generally considered as a part of outer space. This atmospheric layer conducts electricity. It is char- 1. biological forces acterized by the following properties. 2. psychological forces 3. socio-cultural forces and 1. The ionosphere is a layer of free electrons and ions, 4. life cycle forces. reflecting radio waves. 2. It is broken into distinct layers, called the D, E, F1 To understand the pattern of development, certain and F2 layers. The lower D layer absorbs high fre- fundamental facts must be taken into consideration. quency radio waves. Each of these has important implications. 3. It also reflects particles from solar wind, which is To know the developmental techniques we need a stream of highly charged particles called aurora to use some research methods, such as longitudinal ejected by sun in the polar regions. method, cross-sectional method, sequential and time lag method. There are always some obstacles to apply Thermosphere the research methods as human beings as samples are Temperatures in the thermosphere can rise well above not perfect representatives. There are many variations 1000°C up to 1500°C. This layer is characterized by the within human beings. following properties. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the 1. It is the thickest (most vertical expansion) layer in ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It the atmosphere. contains two key concepts within it and it is as follows. 2. Hubble Space Telescope and the International Space Station (ISS) orbits the earth in the thermosphere. 1. The concept of needs. 2. The idea of limitations imposed by the state of Exosphere technology and social organization. The exosphere expands and contracts as it comes into Sustainable development presupposes the exist- contact with solar storms (solar flares and coronal mass ence of space and time. Human development is being ejections). Hydrogen and trace amounts of helium, incorporated in the development strategy of the  9.8 CHAPTER 9 world. Now it is in the core of the UN’s International not reflect on inequalities, poverty, human security, Development Strategy. Apart from income, health and empowerment, etc. education, a good physical environment and freedom are important. inequality-adjusted human development The concept of human development was largely index (ihdi) developed by UNDP since 1990s. The National Human The difference between the IHDI and HDI is the human Development Report, 2001 was prepared by Planning development cost of inequality, also termed as the loss Commission of India and many states follow them. to human development due to inequality. The IHDI Human development is defined as a process of allows a direct link to inequalities in dimensions, it enlarging people’s choices. If these choices are avail- can inform policies towards inequality reduction and able, other opportunities will become accessible. it leads to better understanding of inequalities across The term ‘human development’ refers to the process population and their contribution to the overall human of widening people’s choices and ensuring well-being. development cost. Thus, human development has two sides as listed below. 1. Formation of human capabilities, such as improved gender development index (gdi) health, knowledge and skill. The GDI measures gender gaps in human development 2. To make use the acquired capabilities for pro- achievements by accounting for disparities between ductive purposes, leisure, and for being active in women and men in three basic dimensions of human cultural, social and political affairs. development, such as health, knowledge and living The major elements in concept of human development standards using the same component indicators as in are as follows. the HDI. The GDI is the ratio of the HDIs calculated separately for females and males using the same meth- 1. Productivity: People must be able to increase odology as in the HDI. their productivity and they must be able to partici- pate fully in the process of income generation and gender inequality index (gii) remunerative employment The GII is an inequality index. It shows the loss in poten- 2. Equity: People must have access to equal tial human development due to disparity between opportunities. female and male achievements in three dimensions: 3. Sustainability: All forms of capital, such as physi- cal, human and environmental should be replen- 1. reproductive health ished, including future generations. 2. empowerment and 4. Empowerment: People must participate fully in 3. economic status. the decisions and processes that shape their lives. Overall, the GII reflects how women are disadvantaged in these dimensions. un concepts of human development The GII ranges between 0 and 1. Higher GII values HDI is a summary measure of average achievement indicate higher inequalities and thus higher loss to in key dimensions of human development, where it human development. There is no country with per- emphasizes a long and healthy life, being knowledge- fect gender equality. All countries suffer some loss in able and have a decent standard of living. The HDI is achievements in key aspects of human development the geometric mean of normalized indices for each of when gender inequality is taken into account. The GII the three dimensions. The HDI simplifies and captures is similar in method to the Inequality-adjusted Human only part of what human development entails. It does Development Index (IHDI). DIMENSIONS Long and healthy life Knowledge A decent standard of living INDICATORS Life expectancy at birth Expected years Mean years GNI per capita (PPP $) of schooling of schooling DIMENSION Life expectancy index Education index GNI index INDEX Human development index (HDI) figure 9.11 Human Development Index  People, Development and Environment 9.9 multidimensional poverty index (mpi) 1. In June 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de The MPI is a very versatile methodology that can be Janeiro, Brazil, Agenda 21 was adopted, a compre- readily adjusted to incorporate alternative indicators, hensive plan of action to build a global partnership cut-offs and weights that might be appropriate in for sustainable development to improve human regional national or subnational contexts. There are lives and protect the environment. currently two broad categories of MPI measures, such 2. Member States unanimously adopted the as multidimensional poverty index and regional or Millennium Declaration at the Millennium Summit national MPIs. in September 2000 at UN Headquarters in New Today, people, nations and economies are more con- York. The Millennium Summit at UN Headquarters nected than ever, and so are the global development issues in New York led to eight Millennium Development we are facing. These issues span borders, straddle social, Goals (MDGs) to reduce extreme poverty by 2015. economic and environmental realms. 3. The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Plan of Implementation, Six Key Findings from the 2018 Analysis adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable 1. The world has made impressive progress in human Development in South Africa in 2002, reaffirmed development. the global community’s commitments. 2. Quality, not just quantity of human development is 4. At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable important and it reveals large deficits. Development (Rio+20) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3. Progress is not linear or guaranteed, and crises and in June 2012, the member states adopted the out- challenges can reverse gains. Countries experienc- come document ‘The Future We Want’. ing conflict show HDI losses, which can be felt for 5. In 2013, the General Assembly set up a 30-member generations. open working group to develop a proposal on the 4. Disparities between and within countries continue SDGs that led to UN’s General Assembly’s post-2015 to stifle progress. development agenda. The process culminated in 5. Gender gaps in early years are closing, but inequal- the subsequent adoption of the 2030 agenda for ities persist in adulthood. sustainable dDevelopment, with 17 SDGs at its 6. Environmental degradation puts human develop- core, at the UN Sustainable Development Summit ment gains at risk. in September 2015. 6. 2015 was a landmark year for multilateralism and MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT AND international policy shaping, with the adoption of SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS several major agreements. (a) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (March 2015) are eight goals that all 191 UN member states have (b) Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015. The United Development (July 2015) Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September (c) Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for 2000 commits world leaders to combat poverty, Sustainable Development with its 17 SDGs was hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degrada- adopted at the UN Sustainable Development tion, and discrimination against women. The MDGs Summit in New York on September 2015. are derived from this declaration, and all have specific (d) Paris Agreement on Climate Change targets and indicators. (December 2015) 7. Now, the annual High-level Political Forum on Key Achievements Sustainable Development serves as the central UN The legacy and achievements of the MDGs provide us platform for the follow-up and review of the SDGs. with valuable lessons and experience to begin work on the new goals. But for millions of people around Today, the Division for Sustainable Development the world, the job remains unfinished. We need to go Goals (DSDG) in the United Nations Department the last mile on ending hunger, achieving full gender of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) provides equality, improving health services and getting every substantive support and capacity-building for the child into school beyond primary. The SDGs are also SDGs and their related thematic issues, including an urgent call to shift the world onto a more sustain- water, energy, climate, oceans, urbanization, trans- able path. port, science and technology, the Global Sustainable The SDGs build on decades of work by countries and Development Report (GSDR), partnerships and Small the UN, including the UN Department of Economic Island Developing States. DSDG plays a key role in the and Social Affairs evaluation of UN systemwide implementation of the  9.10 CHAPTER 9 2030 Agenda and on advocacy and outreach activi- excessive use of natural resources in order to pre- ties relating to the SDGs. In order to make the 2030 serve it from getting extinct forever. Agenda a reality, broad ownership of the SDGs must 2. It is a must to conserve the national, cultural and translate into a strong commitment by all stakehold- traditional heritages for its self dignity. ers to implement the global goals. DSDG aims to help 3. There must be an effective and strict governing sys- facilitate this engagement. tem for smooth development and administration. The idea of UN sustainable development goals has 4. There must be almost zero corruption governing mainly started by the UN. It needs support of nations, bodies for sustainable development. businesses, civil society and NGOs for its funding and 5. Awareness programs must be conducted for the implementation. importance of sustainable development. Sustainable development can be achieved through 6. Having mutual and cooperative understanding some of the following effective ways: among various people. 7. Providing formal as well as informal education to 1. In present context, the use of natural resources is the illiterate people for better knowledge on sus- excessive. So, we must take a step to minimize the tainable development. The Eight Millennium Development Goals (2000–2015) vs. The Seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030) Millennium Development Goals Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030) (2000–2015) Reduce extreme hunger and poverty End poverty End hunger Achieve universal primary education Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education. Promote gender equality and Achieve gender equality. empower women Reduce inequality within and among countries. Reduce child mortality Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being Improve maternal health Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Ensure environmental sustainability Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (taking note of agreements made by the UNFCCC forum). Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. Promote global partnership Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize global partnership for sustainable development. Source: Yojna, December 2015  People, Development and Environment 9.11 Here, as per comparison, we can see that maximum imbalance (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium), focus has been on the environmental issues. nitrate pollution (leaching deep into the soil and contaminating ground water, when the concentra- Human and Environment Interaction: tion exceeds 25 mg/L, they cause blue baby syndrome Anthropogenic Activities and their or methaemoglobinemia), eutrophication (excessive use of N and P fertilizers in agriculture and leading to Impacts on Environment. algal blooms). There can be pesticide related problems There are basically two types of activities, namely that includes herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, bioc- natural and man-made. Natural activities mean occur- ides, etc. Pesticides can also be classified as inorganic, ring in a natural manner. Man-made activities are also synthetic, or biological (biopesticides), although the termed as anthropogenic activities. Their meaning distinction can sometimes blur. Pesticides are usually is to improve human living conditions with human classed as inorganic, synthetic or biological (biopesti- efforts. Once they reach a point, they can cause harm cides), although the distinction can sometimes blur. to the human life as well. Anthropogenic activities are Water logging (over irrigation of croplands) and opposed to those occurring in natural environments salinity (increased concentration of soluble salts in the without human influences. The energy consumption soil) are other major issues. and technical evolution related to these sources is one main cause of the man made pollution. For instance, it Impact of Housing Related is widely believed that the production of carbon diox- Anthropogenic Activities on ide is the primary factor driving anthropogenic climate change. Environment When single celled life emerged 3000 million years The poor housing cause directly measurable impact on ago, for which tiny oxygen concentration was an essen- physical and mental health of the citizens. tial prerequisite. Then there was gradual increase in The high-tech modern buildings reduce spiralling atmospheric oxygen concentration. Then O3 (ozone) energy costs but it may cause health problems due to also developed as a necessary shield against Solar indoor air pollution. ultraviolet rays. There was sort of play between carbon Several building materials, such as solvents, fin- dioxide and oxygen for millions of years. ishes and cleansers for maintenance and protection of Now the anthropogenic (man-induced) pollutants building materials can cause ‘sick building syndrome’. have overloaded the system, and the natural equilib- Production of plastics causes generation of green- rium is disturbed. house gas, such as carbon dioxide, volatile organic Perpetually aims to achieve better standard of liv- compounds and polyvinyl chloride. Disposal of polyvi- ing for all, it leads to certain problems such as climate nyl chloride is a major problem. change, loss of biodiversity, exploitation of resources Manufacturing of metals from their ores has several etc. Despite technological constraints, there were environmental impacts some of which may be carcino- issues relating to social sciences. Looking at environ- genic (cancer causing). mental, economic and social aspects, interdisciplinary Some insulating materials are made from chloro- approaches were adopted that were spatial (local to fluorocarbons (CFCs), and their safe recovery is dif- global) and temporal (short term to long term). ficult. Their release of CFCs in the atmosphere would Thus, the impact of anthropogenic activities on enhance the global warming problem. human health is very significant. Asbestos, which has been quite useful in buildings is Industrialization is the period of social and eco- now known to be very harmful for our health and not nomic change that transforms a human group from recommended now. an agrarian society into an industrial society, involv- The indoor air pollution is a major source of pub- ing the extensive reorganization of an economy for the lic exposure to air pollutants having potential to cause purpose of manufacturing. chronic health problems. The fumes, vapours or gases of indoor air pollutants The Main Impacts on Traditional Type cause the following issues: of Agriculture 1. Formaldehyde, (specifically in modern build- The major impacts on agriculture are deforesta- ings): Pressed wood products use adhesives that tion, soil erosion, depletion of nutrients, etc. There contain urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins. Formalde- have been both positive and negative effects on envi- hyde is also present in tobacco smoke, natural gas ronment in order to increase production. Among fer- and kerosene. tilizers related problems, it is mostly micronutrient  9.12 CHAPTER 9 2. Benzene is a solvent used in petrol, ink, oil, paint, Effects of Transportation Activities on plastic and rubber. Trichloroethylene is used in metal degreasers, dry cleaning solvents, inks, Environment paints, lacquers, varnishes and adhesives. Ozone is The activities of the transport industry release several produced from copying machines. Fumes are pro- million tons of gases each year into the atmosphere. duced from cleaning solvents. These include lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), 3. Air conditioning equipment harbours the disease- carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides causing bacteria in air ducts and filters. (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons 4. Some varieties of asbestos can cause a particular (CFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), heavy metals (zinc, type of lung cancer. chrome, copper and cadmium) and particulate matters 5. Cockroach droppings trigger allergic asthma. (ash, dust). Effects of Anthropogenic Mining 1. Nitrous oxide participate in depleting the strato- spheric ozone (O3) layer which naturally screens Activities on Environment the earth’s surface from ultraviolet radiation. Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and 2. CO, CO2 and CH4 participate in green house effect, metals from earth for better life. For example, tantalum etc. is needed to make cell phones, pagers and laptops, copper and tin are required for pipes, cookware etc. Carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sul- The environmental effects of mining depends phur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) and upon factors such as ore quality, mining procedures, ultimately it is the chemical causing acid rain. Acid local hydrological conditions, development stage of precipitation affects construction, reduces agricultural resource etc. crop yields and causes forest decline. The small scale mining is also devastating to the Long term exposure to noise levels above 75 dB environment. It is mainly of two types – land dredging seriously hampers human hearing and affects both (doing a hole in land) and river dredging. physical and psychological well-being. River dredging involves moving along a river on a The main effects of marine transport operations platform or boat. The miners use a hydraulic suction on water quality predominantly arise from dredging, hose and suction the gravel and mud as they move waste, ballast waters and oil spills. Dredging is the pro- along the river. cess of deepening harbour channels by removing sedi- Mining is one of the main causes of deforestation. ments from the bed of a body of water. In order to amalgamate (cluster) the extractions, they The environmental impact of transportation on soil use chemicals, such as cyanide, mercury or methyl consists of soil erosion and soil contamination that mercury. occurs through the use of toxic materials by the trans- The following can be defined as the major environ- port industry. mental damage caused by mining activities: Devegetation and defacing of landscape ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Subsidence of land-tilting of buildings, cracks Earlier we discussed about ‘sustainable development’ in houses, etc. that can be best realized by ‘A Common Future’ or Groundwater contamination: With sulphur as ‘Global Sharing’ concept. The structural inequalities in the main element that gets converted into sulph- the global economic system are also responsible for the uric acid, which makes the water acidic. Some hindrance in realizing the issue of sustainable develop- heavy metals also get leached into the ground- ment in totality. So we need to develop the concept of water and contaminate it by posing health hazards. common focus as well, that can integrate the outlook Surface water pollution: The acidic water is det- and efforts of various participants in development, rimental to many forms of aquatic life. Sometimes worldwide, realizing the diversity, in terms of geog- radioactive substances like uranium also contami- raphy, society, economics, level of science and tech- nate the water bodies. nology (S&T) capabilities and capacities, education Air pollution: It has been discussed separately in standards/levels. the chapter. In case, we look at the aspects of developing and Occupational health hazards: Miners working developed nations, the following situation may emerge. in different types of mines suffer from asbestosis, The issues may emanate from local level, regional silicosis, black lung disease, etc. level and global level. The 1972 UN World Conference  People, Development and Environment 9.13 Tornadoes, hurricanes type storms will increase in intensity and damage More clashing of warm The severe cold and cold fronts to cause regions such as more violent weather Arctic Ocean areas warms up to become more habitable Shifting of Climatic patterns change the wind directions and patterns Retention of more heat in atmosphere resulting in more winds More warmed water circulation to result in more rains - rainfall patterns also change Global warming- The ultimate impact of anthropogenic activities Melting of Ice glaciers Higher sea levels The intensity of flash floods will The high temperature regions increase. lose soil moisture, it may cause decrease in agricultural productivity Low regions of the earth eg, India, Indonesia, Florida in USA, Belgium get more and more rains. figure 9.12 Impact of Anthropogenic Activities 9.14 CHAPTER 9 Anthropogenic activities and their impact on India The average earth temperature is expected to rise by 2–4°C by end of century IMPACTS Food insecurity Extreme heat Energy The increase in rising Increased demand temperature to cause heat More energy will be wave conditions - it may required to meet cause several deaths. rising population Due to erratic monsoon, needs and for India will see significant Temperatures rose to irrigation decrease in crop yield. 48.6°C (116°F) and killed Reduced supply 63 million 1344 people Severe impact on Climate change to Citizens may not be able to will become more common impact energy most their daily needs. production such as hydropower and thermal power Extreme weather Sea level rise Public health events Rising sea levels have already Public health is displaced millions of people effected more due from low lying surface areas to the following India can expect vector born and water born diseases By 2030, India is to expect severe drought 1. Malaria 2. Dengue conditions - it could Mumbai could have 3. Cholera lessen overall impact Millions of lives in of floods, water and Mumbai and Trillions of our energy security. assets at risk if sea level rises by 0.5 m by 2070 COSTS The economic cost of climate change is high India may lose With less focus on $7 Billion in carbon-intensive path of agriculture sector in the development, we may year 2030. It will severely lose 1.8% of our GDP by affect income of 10% 2050, and 8.7% by 2100 of the population figure 9.13 on the Human Environment held at Stockholm also (c) Rise in sea level, beach erosion, saltwater highlighted the differences in the points of view of intrusion resulting in increased salinity, floods the developed and the developing countries regard- and flood damages, threats to coastal wet- ing development and environment. The same kind of lands and threats to agriculture. issues emerged in Rio summit as well. The issues can (d) Deforestation be divided into three levels as listed below. 3. Global issues: The global issues that has to be addressed are as follows. 1. Local issues: These relate to issues, such as water (a) Climate change and global warming: shortage in certain areas, soil erosion of some local Increasing drought and desertification, crop forest, different pollution level in the same city, failures, melting of the polar ice caps, coastal landslides, etc. They need to be tackled at the local flooding, displacement of major vegetation level. regimes, coral mortality, change in ocean 2. Regional issues: Some regional issues have been behavior, natural disasters, infectious dis- mentioned below. eases, degradation of ecosystems, scarcity of (a) Desertification and droughts food supply and rise in sea level. (b) Floods and soil erosion  People, Development and Environment 9.15 table 9.1 Environmental Concerns of the Developed and 3. Under Compensatory Afforestation Fund Developing Countries Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) – Environmental Developing Developed there allocation of 6 billion dollars to states. countries countries aspect 4. Then there are provisions under REDD-Plus, National Agro-forestry Policy (NAP), Joint Forest Air Air pollution in Air pollution, Management etc. major cities. global warming, 5. Under Finance Commission incentives for creation ozone depletion. of carbon sinks – centre attaches 7.5% weightage Land and soil Soil erosion, Soil loss, solid to ‘area under forests’ to states. desertification waster disposal These topics have been dealt separately as per NTA- and loss of arable and changing land NET syllabus. land. use. Water Fresh water Inland and marine shortage. water pollution pollution And its types Flora and fauna Deforestation Loss of genetic Pollution is a negative/undesirable change in the envi- and fuel wood diversity and loss ronment, which is usually the addition of something shortage. of cropland. hazardous or detrimental. Generally, degradable or non-persistent pollutants, such as domestic sewage, discarded vegetables are broken down by natural pro- cesses. Some persistent or non-biodegradable pollut- (b) North-South divide: This ‘North’ world has ants do not get destroyed and are our source of worry. just over 20% of the world population but con- The different types of pollution, such as air pollution, sumes 80% of the world’s energy. On the other water pollution, noise pollution and radiation pollu- hand, the ‘South’ comprising of the develop- tion have been discussed in the ensuing paragraphs. ing nations of the world is still struggling to provide the basic needs, such as food, water, Air pollution shelter, clothing, basic education and health Clean, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen by volume for its population. and 20.94% oxygen. The remaining 0.97% is made of (c) Biodiversity: Loss of diversity of life including gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide, helium, krypton, both flora and fauna. argon, xenon, nitrous oxide and very small amounts of other organic and inorganic gases. geopolitics of climate change It is also known as atmospheric pollution. The deg- radation of air quality of natural atmospheric condi- developed nations tions due to pollutants is known as air pollution. World Industrially and historically, they are the biggest Health Organization defined it as the presence of mate- emitters of CO2. They are also part of ‘Common But rials in the air, which are harmful to the living beings Differentiated Principle’ (CBDP), they need to provide once they cross their threshold concentration levels. technological access to developing for their economic The foreign bodies, gases and so on act as air pollutants. development in a sustainable manner. It is the most extensive and worst form of pollution. Developing Nations: These nations are develop- ing economically and technologically but still burn types of Air pollution fuel inefficiently. Countries such as China, India, There are two types of air pollutants, namely primary Brazil have developed during recent times, and so and secondary. their contribution to emission levels is also very high. They are also accused for the same. UN Environment Primary Pollutants Programme in 2002 highlighted Asian Brown Cloud Primary pollutants enter the atmosphere directly from (later as Atmospheric Brown Cloud due to shift pat- the source. Some important primary pollutants are as terns), it has many smog like features. There has been follows. increase in population, shifts in rainfall patterns etc. Specifically Green India mission has the following 1. Suspended particulate matter (SPM) projects: 2. Oxides of carbon 3. Hydrocarbons (Methane) 1. Green Highway Policy – 1,40,000 km long ‘Tree 4. Sulphur oxides (SOx) Line’ along both sides of national highways – 1% of 5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) the project cost to be earmarked for plantations. 6. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 2. Namami Gange – Plantation along rivers. 7. Lead 9.16 CHAPTER 9 Secondary Pollutants Air Pollution and Aerosols Secondary pollutants are not directly emitted from sources. These pollutants are formed as a result of Aerosols: They are stable suspensions of chemical reactions between the primary pollutants solid or liquid particles in air. Aerosols affect and certain atmospheric constituents, in the presence the weather conditions by blocking solar of sunlight. Sulphates, nitrates and organic particles radiations. Deposition of aerosols on leaves can be transported over large distances, such as hun- affects the process of photosynthesis. dreds and even thousands of kilometres. Some impor- Mist: Aerosols consisting of liquid droplets. tant secondary pollutants are as follows. Dust: Aerosols consisting of solid particles. 1. Sulphur trioxide: It is a compound formed when Fume: Aerosols consisting of hot vapours of sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen. It combines metals. with water to form sulphuric acid. Smoke is also an aerosol, which is a mixture 2. Smog formation: Smog is an odd combination of of liquid and solid particles as a result of smoke and fog. The effect of smog is maximum just burning. before sunrise as smog particles that are entrapped Plume: It is a geometrical form of smoke. between cold air are unable to rise. Two types of Smog is the mixture of smoke and fog smog are prevalent as per records. (discussed separately) (a) Sulphurous or London smog: It affected London for a very long time and hence, its Effects name. It is also termed as ‘reducing smog’ as 1. Acid rain has many ecological effects, but none is its mixture of components is chemically reduc- greater than its impact on lakes, streams, wetlands ing in nature. This is due to the presence of and other aquatic environments. Acid rain makes sulphur dioxide in air. It is more prevalent dur- water acidic and causes them to absorb aluminium. ing the morning hours of winter season when 2. Acid rain also damages forests, especially those the relative humidity is high and air near the at higher elevations. It erodes the soil of essen- ground is also cooler. London smog causes tial nutrients and releases aluminium in the soil, throat irritation and difficulty in breathing. which makes it hard for trees to take up water. (b) Photochemical or Los Angeles smog: This 3. The effects of acid rain combined with other envi- type of smog is due to the presence of oxides of ronmental stressors, such as leaves, trees and nitrogen in the atmosphere, formed as a result plants are less able to withstand cold tempera- of vehicular exhaust. It is formed due to chem- tures, insects and disease. The pollutants may also ical reactions involving ozone, nitrogen oxide, inhibit the trees’ ability to reproduce. hydrocarbons and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) in the presence of sunlight. This phenomenon The following are the major government initiatives to mainly occurs during warm sunny days as monitor air pollution. sunlight is required to carry out photochemi- cal reaction in seasons when the sky is clear. 1. National Air Quality Monitoring Programme Photochemical smog consists of brown hazy 2. National Ambient Air Quality Standards fumes. It irritates the eyes and lungs, causes 3. System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting cracking of rubber and extensive damage to 1. National Air Quality Monitoring Programme: plant life. The Central Pollution Control Board is executing (c) Ground level ozone: Tropospheric or ground- a nation-wide programme of ambient air quality level ozone is formed from photochemical monitoring known as National Air Quality Moni- reaction between two major classes of air pol- toring Programme (NAMP). lutants, such as volatile organic compounds National Air Quality Index (NAQI) was launched (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides. on 17 October 2014 to disseminate information on 3. Acid rain: Acid rain is caused by a chemical reac- air quality in an easily understandable form for the tion that begins when compounds like sulphur general public. The measurement of air quality is dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the based on the pollutants mentioned below: air. These substances can rise very high into the (a) PM10 – Particulate matter (Size less than atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, 10 µm) oxygen and other chemicals to form more acidic (b) PM2.5 – Particulate matter (Size less than pollutants known as acid rain. 2.5 μm)  People, Development and Environment 9.17 (c) NO2 2. National Ambient Air Quality Standards: It may (d) SO2 be noted that ambient air quality standards are (e) CO specified separately in India for around 12 pollut- (f) Ozone ants including the 8 that constitute the NAQI. The (g) Ammonia additional four pollutants are arsenic, nickel, ben- (h) Lead zene and benzopyrene. PM2.5 is particularly dan- The unit of measurements in case of pollutants gerous and can cause adverse health effects owing to mentioned above is microgram per cubic metre its greater penetrability into the human respiratory except in the case of CO where it is milligram. system and eventual accumulation in human organs The AQI is classified along one of the six and blood. PM concentrations are higher in winter categories. season and are lower during monsoon months. (a) Good (0–50) SO2 levels are within the prescribed National (b) Satisfactory (51–100) Ambient Air Quality Standards in residential areas (c) Moderately polluted (101–200) of all the cities. Decreasing trend may be due to var- (d) Poor (201–300) ious interventions that have taken place in recent (e) Very Poor (301–400) years, such as reduction of sulphur in diesel, use of (f) Severe (401–500) cleaner fuel such as CNG in Delhi, implementation The formulation of the index was an initia- of Bharat Stage-III emission norms. In addition, tive under Swachh Bharat Mission (Cleanliness there has been a change in the use of domestic fuel Mission) based on the recommendations of IIT from coal to LPG, which may have contributed to Kanpur and the expert group formed in this regard. reduction in ambient levels of SO2. table 9.2 Major Air Pollution-Related Chemical Substances Pollutants Source Pathological effect on human beings Ozone (Ground Vehicular exhaust Lung function – aggravation of asthma, level) emphysema, and chronic bronchitis Lead Leaded petrol (used as anti-knocking agent) Central Nervous System, interference with development of RBCs Sulphur dioxide Thermal power plant and industries Severe respiratory problem, reduces exchange of gases from lung surface Nitrogen oxides Thermal power plant Heart and lung problems, Bronchitis, asthma, and also carcinogenic issues Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, wood Reduces oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, stoves and cigarette smoking. breathing problems Hydrogen sulphide Oil refineries and chemical industries. Nausea, irritation of eyes and throat Hydrogen cyanide Blast furnace, fumigation and chemical Headache, dry throat, indistinct vision, and industry. dysfunction of nerve cells Ammonia Fertilizer industry, dye making, bleaching and Acidification of water bodies at high level explosives. Phosgene Chemical and dye-making industry. Pulmonary oedema Volatile organic Vaporize easily and some examples are Smog formation compounds gasoline, benzene, etc. Arsenic Arsenic soldering Damage red blood cells, kidneys, and cause jaundice SPM* Incinerators and basically manufacturing Emphysema, respiratory system problems- processes. asthma, chronic bronchitis *Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) or Particulate Matter (PM) includes soot, smoke, dust, fibres, pesticides, metals (such as mercury, lead, and copper), dust mites, and pollen. Some of the pollutants fall under categories of both air and water pollutants, such as heavy metal cadmium. 9.18 CHAPTER 9 NO2 levels are within the prescribed National WHO has its own standards. Across the globe, most of Ambient Air Quality Standards in residential areas the emissions that reach the atmosphere come from of most of the cities. The reasons for low levels of coal (43%) followed by oil (33%). NO2 may be various measures taken, such as ban- ning of old vehicles, better traffic management, indoor Air pollution etc. Despite an increase in the number of vehicles, The major reasons for indoor air pollution are ineffi- CO levels have reduced during last few years. The cient burning of inferior fuels during cooking or heat- decrease may be attributed to measures, such as ing, such as cow dung, agricultural residue, and coal conversion of three-wheelers of CNG. and fuel wood, along with poor ventilation systems 3. System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting: inside the house. The problem aggravates during The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), the Gov- winters when the doors and windows of the houses, ernment of India has introduced a major national especially in rural areas are kept shut. The smokeless initiative, ‘System of Air Quality and Weather Fore- chulhas were introduced as a solution to the problem casting and Research’ known as ‘SAFAR’ for greater of indoor air pollution. However, they could not make metropolitan cities of India to provide location- much impact. specific information on air quality in near real- time and its forecast 1–3 days in advance for the water pollution and its causes first time in India. It has been combined with the Water covers about 70% of earth’s surface. Water is an early warning system on weather parameters. The important resource for the people and the environment. SAFAR system is developed by Indian Institute of Water is the basis of life and it makes up to 60–95% of Tropical Meteorology, Pune. the total weight of any functioning living cell. Dust, Trucks, Two-Wheelers Beat Cars as Delhi Air Killers Road dust is the top contibutor to the high level of participate matter, also called particle pollution or PM in Delhi followed by vehicular emissions cooking and industry or power plants, finds a study by IIT-Kanpur. Trucks are the worst polluters among vehicles. Here’s a snapshot... WHAT’S PUSHING VEHICLES POLLUTING* THE MOST... UP DELHI’S PM 2.5 LEVELS.... 18% Two-wheelers 22% ¤ Power plant/large Industry 14-15% Passenger Cars 22% ¨ Domestic cooking 24-25% 25-36%* Trucks Vehicles *PM 2.5 35% POLLUTING CAUSED Road dust BY SECONDARY PARTICULATE MATTER... ¤ Excluding road dust Figures may not add up to 100% as they are average of range estimates 60% 40% ¨ 5-10% through wood/biomass- Power plants, Vehicular based cooking excluding road dust cooking all emissions * Average 25% 35-36% in peak other sources time and in certain areas figure 9.14 Urban Pollution Origins  People, Development and Environment 9.19 Point Source Solution Odd Even Formula in Delhi The discharge of harmful substances by specific sources Pollution situation became so alarming in Delhi into a water body leads to point source pollution. that it was declared as a ‘gas chamber’ by the Industrial wastewater and hot water from thermal Delhi High Court in 2015. The Delhi government power plants cause point source pollution. The dis- started a pilot project ‘Odd Even Formula’ on charge of pollutants into a water body from large areas 1 January 2016 to bring down the air pollution leads to non-point source pollution. Construction run- levels amidst reports that Delhi is the most pol- off and acid rain cause non-point source pollution. luted city in the world. Accordingly, odd number The major sources of this type of water pollution are cars were to ply on city roads on odd dates and as follows: even numbered cars on even days for 15 days. 1. Industrial wastewater: Both small and large Similar schemes have been tried at Mexico City, industrial units produce wastewater, which has a Bogota (Capital of Columbia) and Beijing. variety of organic and inorganic pollutants. This is The odd even scheme showed mixed results. the major reason for river pollution in India. Although the percentage effect could be small, 2. Hot water: Industries such as thermal power but given the concentrations as high as in Delhi, plants and oil refineries use water as coolant. the absolute reductions in PM 2.5 concentra- When this water discharged into the water body, tions are ‘significant’ as it can help reduce health its temperature is higher by 15°C. The warmer impacts. The scheme brought ‘considerable’ addi- temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and tional benefits including reduction on road con- increases the metabolism of fish. This changes the gestion, increase of average car speeds, reduced ecological balance of the river. fuel usage and made significant impact on public awareness levels on air pollution and its impacts Non-point Source Pollution on human health. Non-point source pollution is caused by the following pollutants. Although 70% of earth’s surface is covered with 1. Municipal wastewater: Wastewaters from domes- water, only 0.00192% of the water is available for tic sources, such as kitchen and toilet are some- human consumption. Less than 3% of the world’s times discharged into a river or large water body water is fresh, where the rest is seawater and undrink- nearby. This is the major reason for river pollution able. Of this 3%, over 2.5% is frozen as glaciers, which in India and across the globe. are locked up in the Arctic and Antarctica regions and 2. Surface run-off: The practices followed in agri- they are not available to man. Thus, humanity must culture affect the groundwater quality. Intensive rely on the remaining 0.5% for all of man’s and ecosys- cultivation causes fertilizers and pesticides to seep tem’s fresh water needs. into the groundwater, where this process is known The sector-wise breakup of water withdrawal in as leaching. Irrigation run-off from agricultural India is fields causes high nitrate content in groundwater. The problem is aggravated if industries are located 1. Agriculture and livestock—91%, in that area. 2. Municipalities—7%, and 3. Oil spills: An oil spill is the accidental discharge 3. Industry—2%. of petroleum into oceans or estuaries, leading to the pollution of marine ecosystem. Oil spills are Pollution of water affects drinking water, lakes, river caused due to capsized oil tankers or offshore oil and oceans all over the world. mining and oil explorations. Water pollution is the presence of harmful sub- stances in a