Rapid Fire Revision Paper 1 UGC NET PDF

1 2 Copyright © All rights reserved worldwide. YOUR RIGHTS: This book is restricted to your personal use only. It doesnot come with any other rights. LEGAL DISCLAIMER: This book is protected by international copyright law and may not be copied, reproduced, given away, or used t...

1 2 Copyright © All rights reserved worldwide. YOUR RIGHTS: This book is restricted to your personal use only. It doesnot come with any other rights. LEGAL DISCLAIMER: This book is protected by international copyright law and may not be copied, reproduced, given away, or used to create derivative works without the publisher’s expressed permission. The publisher retains full copyrights to this book. The author has made every reasonable effort to be as accurate and complete as possible in the creation of this book and to ensure that the information provided is free from errors; however, the author/publisher/ reseller assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or contrary interpretation of the subject matter herein and does not warrant or represent at any time that the contents within are accurate due to the rapidly changing nature of the researched information. Any perceived slights of specific persons, peoples, or organizations are unintentional. 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Nor does the referred product, website, and company names sponsor, endorse, or approve this product. 3 RAPID FIRE REVISION PAPER 1 Contents UNIT 1 – TEACHING APTITUDE ……………………….............6 Concept of Teaching , Objectives of Teaching, Levels of Teaching , Characteristic of Effective Teaching , Basic Requirements for Effective Teaching , Maxims of Teaching , Important Theories of Teaching , Bloom’s Taxonomy , Edgar’s Dale Cone of Experience , Learner’s characteristics , Learning Disorder , UNESCO Four Pillars of Education , Characteristics of adolescent and adult learners (Academic, Social, Emotional and Cognitive) , Factors affecting teaching , Methods of teaching , SWAYAM , NATIONAL COORDINATORS , SWAYAMPRABHA , MOOCs, Teaching Support System , Evaluation Systems , Formative , Summative , Norm-Referenced , Criterion-Referenced , Choice-Based Credit System (CBCS) , List of Important Days , BONUS FACTS. UNIT 2 – RESEARCH APTITUDE ……………………………..47 Meaning of Research , Why Research? , Objectives of Research , Characteristics of Research , Types of Research , Positivism and Post-positivistic approach in Research , Steps of Research , Thesis and Article writing , Formats and Styles of Referencing , Academic Events , Application of ICT in research , Important Government Schemes Related to Research , Research Ethics , BONUS FACTS. UNIT 3 – READING COMPREHENSION ……………………..73 Reading Comprehension, EXAM TIPS and SUGGESTIONS FOR RC. Reading Comprehensions Set – I , Set – II , Set – III , Set – IV , Set – V , Set – VI , Set – VII , Set – VIII , Set – IX. UNIT 4 – COMMUNICATION …………………………………..98 Meaning of Communication , Elements of Communication process , Models of Communication , The 7 Cs of Communication , Characteristics of Communication , Barrier to Effective Communication , Mass-Media and Society , BONUS FACTS. 4 UNIT 5 – MATHEMATICAL REASONING ……………….....122 NUMBER SERIES , Arithmetic Series questions , Geometric Series questions , Fibonacci Series , Squares/Cubes Series questions , Prime Numbers Series , Letter series , Missing Letter Series , Repeated Letter Series , Vowel-Consonant Alternation Series , Reverse Alphabetical Series , Coding and Decoding , Blood Relations , Time and Distance , Ratio and Proportion , Percentage , Profit and Loss , Interest and Discounting. UNIT 6 – LOGICAL REASONING...………………………..…160 Categorical Propositions , Arguments , Mood and Figures , Classical Square of Opposition, Distinction between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning , Venn Diagram , Formal and Informal fallacies. Indian Logic: Means of knowledge , Pratyakṣa , Anumāna , Upamāna , Śabda , Arthāpatti, Anupalabdhi , Structure of Anumana (inference) , Vyapti (invariable relation), Hetvabhasas (fallacies of inference). UNIT 7 – DATA INTERPRETATION …………………………192 Graphical representation - Bar-chart, Histograms, Pie-chart, Table-chart , Line-chart , Some tips to solve Data Interpretation questions , Basic Formulas commonly used in Data Interpretation, Q&A DATA INTERPRETATION QUESTIONS WITH EXPLANATION. UNIT 8 – ICT …………………………………………………….216 What is ICT? , ICT in Education , General abbreviations and terminology of ICT , Computer - Generations , Functionality , Size , Basic components of a Computer , Memory Devices - Primary Memory Devices , Secondary Memory Devices , Memory Hierarchy in a Computer , Input Devices , Output Devices , Hardware , Software , Malware (Malicious software) and it types , Internet , Intranet , Types of Computer Networks , Email , What is IP Address ? , Different types of search engines , Synchronous Messaging , Asynchronous Messaging , Digital Initiatives in Higher Education, E-Governance, Digital India Initiative. UNIT 9 – PEOPLE, DEVELOPMENT & ENVIRONMENT …275 Development and Environment , MDGs - Millennium Development Goals , SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals , Anthropogenic Activities , Air Pollution , Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants , Impacts of Air Pollution , Ways to prevent Air Pollution , 5 National Green Tribunal (NGT) , Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) , National Air Quality Monitoring Programme , National Air Quality Index , National Clean Air Program (NCAP) , Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards , Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) , National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) , Water Pollution , Point Source vs Non-Point Source of Water Pollution , Main Types of Water Pollutants, Ways to prevent Water Pollution , Initiatives to curb water Pollution , National Water Mission (NWM) , National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) , Namami Gange Programme , Clean Ganga Fund (CGF) , Jal Shakti Abhiyan , Soil Pollution , Sources of Soil Pollution , Types of Soil Pollutants, Impact of Soil Pollution , Noise Pollution , Sources of Noise Pollution , Effects of Noise Pollution on Human Health , Environmental Impacts of Noise Pollution , CPCP Noise Standard in India , Solid Waste Management , Liquid Waste Management , Biomedical Waste Management , Hazardous Waste Management , Electronic Waste Management , Ozone Depletion , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Acid Rain , Renewable Energy Resources , Non-Renewable Energy Resources, Solar Energy , Wind Energy , Hydropower , Geothermal Energy , Biomass Energy , Nuclear Energy , International Solar Alliance (ISA) , Natural hazards and disasters , Environment Protection Act (1986) , Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) , Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974) , Wildlife Protection Act (1972) , Forest Conservation Act (1980) , National Action Plan on Climate Change , International Treaties/ summits/ agreements on Environment Protection. UNIT 10 – HIGHER EDUCATION ………………………….…331 Higher Education During Ancient India - Salient Features , Sources of Education , Ancient Education System in India , Ancient Universities , Major Institutions of Ancient India , Decline of Ancient Education. Higher Learning and research in Post Independence India - Pre-Independence era. List of Important Commissions/Committees in Higher education Pre-Independence India , List of Important Commissions/Committees in Higher education Post-independence India. National Education Policy 2020 , NEP 2020 on School Education , NEP 2020 on Higher Education , Objectives of NEP 2020. Oriental Learning in India , Conventional Learning in India , Non – Conventional Learning in India , Professional Education , Technical Education , Skill-based Education , Value education and Environmental education , Types of universities in India , Important Bodies in Higher Education, National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF), Important Schemes and Policies in Higher Education (Including latest schemes). 6 UNIT 1 – TEACHING APTITUDE Teaching: Concept, Objectives, Levels of teaching (Memory level, Understanding level and Reflective level), Characteristics and basic requirements. CONCEPT OF TEACHING Teaching aptitude evaluates candidates for the teaching profession based on their knowledge and skills. It encompasses the essential qualities required to be a successful teacher, including qualification, intelligence, and attitude. [December-2014] It is an activity that influences students to learn, acquire knowledge and skills, and develop desired ways of living in society. [June-2011] Teaching is the purposeful direction and management of the learning process. November-2017] It involves providing opportunities for students to learn and acquire knowledge and skills. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING July-2018] Therefore, the general objectives of teaching are: 1. To develop all round personality of the learner through the curriculum. 2. To shape the behaviour of the learner in a desired direction. 3. To help the student to adjust and live harmoniously in the new situation environment. 4. To encourage the student to learn and think for themselves to solve the problems. [26th June 2019- IInd Shift] 5. To acquaint the student with the content of the subject to be taught. The specific objectives of teaching are as follows: 1. To Develop Critical and Logical Thinking 2. To Create Interest in the Study 3. To Develop Understanding 4. To Develop of Knowledge 7 Levels of Teaching The teacher has to choose the level of teaching based on the concepts and the intensity of the subject matter. LEVELS OF TEACHING A teacher takes different roles in a classroom based on the situation. 1. Memory Level 2. Understanding Level 3. Reflective Level 1. Memory Level Memory level of teaching, as the name suggests, is a level of teaching where the objective is just to impart the textbook knowledge and make the students memorize it rather than going to the roots of it. December-2014] Herbart is the main proponent of the memory level of teaching. It is the initial stage of teaching. It induces the habit of rote memorization of facts and bits of information. It enables the learner to retain and also to reproduce the learned material whenever required. Good memory includes rapidity in learning, the stability of retention, rapidity in recalling, and ability to bring only desirable contents to the conscious level. [21st June 2019-Ist Shift Its emphasis on presentation of fact and information and it‘s all about cramming. Knowledge is gained by the learner through the memorization. It is the initial stage of teaching to induce the habit of rote learning of 8 facts and subject matters. Students learns to identify, recall or remembers the objects, events, ideas and retain them in memory. The role of teacher is active and primary and that of the students is secondary. 21st June 2019- IInd Shift] It does not improve intelligence and increase students ‘capability but this is required for others types of teaching levels. 2. Understanding Level Understanding level of teaching is a more thoughtful teaching process wherein the students connect with the concepts and as the name suggests, understand the subject matter. [2nd Dec. 2019-IInd Shift. Morrison is the main proponent of an understanding level of teaching. It is memory plus insight ‘as it goes beyond just memorizing of facts. It focuses on mastery of the subject. [21st June 2019-Ist Shift It makes pupils understand generalizations, principles, and facts. It provides more and more opportunities for the students to develop intellectual behaviour. "Seeing of relationship" involves understanding the relationships between concepts, it aligns with the objectives promoted at the understanding level. 2021 shift-2 It provides an active role for both the pupil and the teacher for the assimilation of facts. It talks about generalization of principles, theory and other key important fact This helps to build the thinking level of students to make use of their acquired knowledge on the basis of previously known facts and subjects. It provides more and more opportunity for the students to develop skills of memory and insight. 3. Reflective Level The Reflective Level of teaching is also called the introspective level of teaching. This is considered the highest form of the teaching-learning process. This is primarily because the teaching does not stop after making the students understand the concept. Hunt is the main proponent of reflective level of teaching. It is the highest level of teaching and includes both ULT and MLT. 9 It is problem-centric approach of teaching. [21st June 2019-Ist Shift The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research approach to solve the problem. The classroom environment is to be sufficiently ‗open and independent‘. The learners are motivated and active. The aim is to develop the reflective power of learners so that they can solve problems of their lives by reasoning, logic, and imagination, and lead successful and happy lives. The pupil occupies the primary place and teacher assumes the secondary place. It talks about both understanding level and memory level. Its main objective is to develop problem solving. [2nd Dec. 2019-IInd Shift The emphasis is laid on problem identifying, defining it and finding the solution. The teaching at this level is not teacher cantered or subject centred, its learner centred. The classroom environment should be sufficiently open and independent. The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research approach to solve the problem Characteristic of Effective Teaching 1. Clear objectives: Effective teaching sets clear and specific learning objectives, outlining what students are expected to achieve. 2023 June shift-2 2. Knowledge of subject matter: Effective teachers have a deep and comprehensive understanding of the subject matter they are teaching. 3. Engaging instructional strategies: Effective teaching employs a variety of engaging instructional strategies to cater to different learning styles and needs. 2023 June shift 2 4. Effective communication: Effective teachers possess strong communication skills. They can articulate ideas clearly, listen actively to students, and encourage open dialogue. 5. Adaptability: Effective teaching is adaptable to the diverse needs and abilities of students. Teachers are flexible in their instructional approach, recognizing that students learn in different ways and at different paces. Appropriateness for the learner’s age and level. 2023 June shift-2 6. Classroom management: Effective teachers create a well-managed and organized classroom environment. 7. Assessment and feedback: Effective teaching includes ongoing assessment and feedback to monitor student progress and provide guidance for improvement. 10 8. Differentiated instruction: Effective teachers differentiate their instruction to meet the individual needs and learning styles of students. 9. Passion and enthusiasm: Effective teachers demonstrate a genuine passion for their subject matter and for teaching. 10. Continuous professional development: Effective teachers are committed to their own professional growth. They stay updated with the latest research, instructional strategies, and educational technologies. Basic Requirements for Effective Teaching 1. Subject Knowledge 2. Pedagogical Skills 3. Communication Skills 4. Adaptability 5. Classroom Management 6. Student Engagement 7. Differentiation 8. Assessment and Feedback 9. Relationship 10. Continuous Professional Development Maxims of Teaching 1. Simple to complex: Start with simple concepts and gradually progress to more complex ideas. 2. Known to unknown: Connect new knowledge to what students already know. 3. Seen to unseen: Teach about the present before exploring the past and future. 4. Concrete to abstract: Begin with concrete objects and gradually introduce abstract concepts. 5. Particular to general: Use examples and specific cases to introduce general laws and principles. 6. Whole to part: Present an overview of the topic before delving into its individual components. 7. Indefinite to definite: Help students clarify their understanding and transform vague knowledge into clear understanding. 8. Psychological to logical: Consider the psychological development of learners, emphasizing logical order for older students. 11 9. Analysis to synthesis: Analyse complex problems by breaking them down into parts, then synthesize the knowledge to understand the whole picture. Important Theories of Teaching Behaviorism Focuses on observable behaviors and stimulus- response associations. Emphasizes reinforcement and rewards to shape desired behaviors. Key theorists: B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov. Constructivism Learners construct knowledge through active engagement and interaction with their environment. Emphasizes hands-on, inquiry- based learning and problem- solving. Key theorists: Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky. 12 Cognitive Load Theory Focuses on the cognitive limitations of learners' working memory. Emphasizes managing the complexity of instructional materials to optimize learning. Key theorist: John Sweller. Social Learning Theory Learning occurs through observation, modeling, and imitation of others' behaviors. Experiential Learning Learning is based on personal experience and reflection. Emphasizes active involvement, reflection, and application of knowledge. Key theorist: David Kolb. Multiple Intelligences Theory Defines intelligence as a range of different abilities and talents. Emphasizes the importance of addressing diverse learning styles and strengths. Key theorist: Howard Gardner. Sociocultural Theory Learning is influenced by cultural and social factors. Emphasizes the role of language, interaction, and cultural tools in learning. Key theorist: Lev Vygotsky. Andragogy Focuses on adult learning principles and characteristics. Emphasizes self-directed learning, practical relevance, and learners' experiences. Key theorist: Malcolm Knowles 13 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Learning occurs within the range between a learner's current ability and their potential with guidance. Emphasizes scaffolding and providing appropriate support to facilitate learning. Key theorist: Lev Vygotsky. Humanism Focuses on individual learners' needs, motivations, and self- actualization. Emphasizes learner-centered approaches, personal growth, and holistic education. Key theorists: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow. 14 Bloom’s Taxonomy Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical framework that classifies educational objectives and cognitive processes. It was developed by Benjamin Bloom. Three Broad categories- 1. Cognitive domain 2019 DEC 2. Affective domain 2019 DEC 3. Psychomotor domain Cognitive Domain- It includes the following level June-2015] EVALUATION SYNTHESIS ANALYSIS APPLICATION COMPREHENSION KNOWLEDGE 15 Affective Domain- It includes the following level December-2014] CHARACTERIZATION ORGANISING VALUING RESPONDING RECIEVING Psychomotor Domain- It includes the following level NATURALIZATION ARTICULATION PRECISION MANIPULATION IMITATION 16 Edgar’s Dale Cone of Experience The Edgar Dale Cone of Experience, also known as the Cone of Learning, is a visual model that illustrates different levels of learning experiences. It was developed by Edgar Dale, an American educationist. 20th June 2019-Ist Shift 17 Learner’s characteristics Learner Characteristic Learner characteristics refer to the individual traits and qualities that influence how learners acquire, process, and retain information. Understanding these characteristics is essential for effective teaching. Here are some key learner characteristics in teaching aptitude: 25th June 2019- IInd Shift] 1. Curiosity: Good learners have a natural curiosity and a desire to explore and understand new concepts. [21st June 2019-IInd Shift , 2023 June shift-1 2. Motivation: They are intrinsically motivated to learn, driven by personal interest and a genuine desire for knowledge. 2023 June shift-1 3. Self-discipline: Good learners have the ability to set goals, manage their time effectively, and stay focused on their learning tasks. 4. Adaptability: They are flexible and open-minded, willing to adapt their strategies and approaches based on feedback and new information. 5. Persistence: Good learners are determined and resilient, willing to overcome challenges and setbacks in their learning journey. 6. Critical thinking: They possess strong analytical and problem-solving skills, enabling them to evaluate information critically and make reasoned judgments. [20th June 2019- Ist Shift 7. Active engagement: They actively participate in the learning process, asking questions, seeking clarification, and actively seeking opportunities for hands-on learning. 8. Self-reflection: Good learners engage in self-reflection, assessing their own progress, strengths, and weaknesses, and actively seeking ways to improve. 9. Collaboration: They recognize the value of collaboration and are willing to work effectively with others, engaging in discussions, sharing ideas, and learning from peers. 10. Resilience: Good learners embrace challenges and setbacks as learning opportunities, bouncing back from failures and setbacks with a positive mindset 2023 June shift-1 18 Learning Disorder Learning disorders, also known as learning disabilities, refer to a group of neurological conditions that affect an individual's ability to acquire, process, or express information effectively. Here are the types of learning disorders: 1. Dyslexia: Dyslexia primarily affects reading and language skills. People with dyslexia may have difficulty decoding words, reading fluently, and comprehending written material. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift 2. Dysgraphia: Dysgraphia affects a person's ability to write coherently and express their thoughts in writing. It can involve difficulties with handwriting, spelling, and organizing ideas on paper. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift 3. Dyscalculia: Dyscalculia is a learning disorder related to mathematical abilities. Individuals with dyscalculia may struggle with understanding and manipulating numbers, memorizing arithmetic facts, and grasping mathematical concepts. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift 4. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): While not solely a learning disorder, ADHD can significantly impact learning. It involves difficulties with attention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which can interfere with concentration and focus on academic tasks. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift 5. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD): APD affects the processing and interpretation of auditory information. Individuals may have difficulty distinguishing between sounds, following verbal instructions, and comprehending spoken language. 6. Visual Processing Disorder (VPD): VPD affects the interpretation and understanding of visual information. It can lead to difficulties with visual- spatial skills, recognizing shapes and symbols, and visual memory. 7. Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD): NVLD is characterized by weaknesses in non- verbal skills, such as visual-spatial abilities, understanding body language, and social interactions. People with NVLD may have difficulty with tasks requiring visual-motor coordination and abstract reasoning. 19 UNESCO (1984) classified the following types of learning settings: Formal Learning Settings: Schools: Traditional educational institutions where structured learning takes place, following a prescribed curriculum. Universities and Colleges: Higher education institutions offering specialized academic and professional courses, Vocational Training Centres and Adult Education Centres. Non-formal Learning Settings: Community Centres: Local centres that offer educational and skill- building programs outside of traditional school settings. Workplaces: Learning that takes place on the job or through workplace training programs. Voluntary Organizations, Non-profit organizations and Libraries and Museums 20 Informal Learning Settings: Family and Home: Learning that occurs within the family and home environment, often through daily activities, conversations, and experiences. 22nd September 2022 shif t 1 Peer Groups, and Online Platforms and Digital Spaces. 21 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) identified four pillars of learning in its report titled "Learning: The Treasure Within" in 1996. These four pillars serve as a comprehensive framework for lifelong learning. Here are the UNESCO's four pillars of learning: December 2018, 2019 june LEARNNG TO KNOW LEARNING PILLARS OF LEARNING TO BE EDUCATION TO DO LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER 1. Learning to Know: This pillar emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies. 2. Learning to Do: This pillar highlights the importance of developing practical skills and competencies necessary for productive work, employment, and active participation in society. 3. Learning to Live Together: This pillar emphasizes the development of social skills, values, and attitudes that foster peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and understanding among individuals from diverse backgrounds 4. Learning to Be: This pillar focuses on holistic development, nurturing 22 individuals personal and emotional well-being, and fostering a sense of identity, self-esteem, and autonomy. Characteristics of adolescent and adult learners (Academic, Social, Emotional and Cognitive) Adolescent Learners (10-19 years) 6th Adult Learners (20+ years) Dec. 2019-Ist Shift Academic Aspect: Academic Aspect: Still in formal education: Diverse motivations: Adults Adolescents are typically engaged in formal engage in learning for various education, attending schools or educational reasons, such as career institutions. advancement, personal Varied academic interests. growth, or pursuing new Active learning interests. Life experience integration Goal-oriented learning Social Aspect: Social Aspect: Peer influence Networking opportunities: Developing social skills Adults may engage in Exploring independence professional networking within their learning. Collaborative learning Emotional Aspect: Emotional Aspect: Emotional volatility: Adolescents Emotional maturity: Adults often experience emotional ups generally have greater and downs due to hormonal emotional stability and self- changes and the challenges of awareness compared to adolescence. adolescents. Identity formation: They undergo a process Balancing multiple roles: They often of self-discovery and self- definition. juggle multiple responsibilities, such as work, family, and personal commitments, which can impact their emotional well-being. Cognitive Aspect: Cognitive Aspect: Abstract thinking: Drawing from experience: Adolescents develop the Adults apply their existing ability to think abstractly, knowledge and experience to understand complex new learning situations, concepts, and engage in making connections and hypothetical reasoning. integrating new information 23 Developing critical thinking: They refine into their existing their analytical and problem- solving skills, frameworks. becoming more capable of independent Self-directed learning thinking and decision- making. Practical relevance Factors affecting teaching Factors affecting teaching related to Teacher Several factors can significantly influence teaching and impact the effectiveness of educators. Here are some key factors related to teachers that can affect the teaching process: 1. Methods of Teaching Used: Proficiency in various teaching methods keeps classes engaging. Examples include teacher-centered, student-centered, content-focused, and interactive methods. 2. Classroom Environment: Physical factors include infrastructure, furniture, library facilities, etc. Social factors involve relationships between teachers, students, parents, and among students. 3. Skills of a Teacher: Effective communication, interpersonal skills, and continuous learning contribute to effective teaching. Teachers' subject matter expertise and pedagogical skills are vital. 4. Institutional Policies: Institutional policies can limit creativity and impose specific curricula and teaching methods. The scope for innovative teaching may be restricted. 5. Rewards: Adequate remuneration motivates teachers and improves teaching methods. Competitive salaries based on qualifications and performance enhance learning outcomes. 6. Knowledge and Expertise: Subject matter knowledge enables accurate information conveyance and meaningful discussions. 7. Pedagogical Skills: Effective planning, organization, and delivery of instruction. 24 Differentiation to meet diverse student needs. 8. Reflective Practice: Regular assessment, evaluation, and adjustment of teaching methods. Seeking professional development and feedback. 9. Communication and Interpersonal Skills: Clear communication, active listening, and fostering open dialogue. 10. Motivation and Enthusiasm: Passion for teaching and subject matter inspires student engagement and motivation. Factors Affecting Teaching Related to Learners: 1. Prior knowledge and background 2. Learning styles and preferences 3. Motivation and engagement 4. Individual differences 5. Cultural and linguistic diversity 6. Developmental stage 7. Learning needs and goals 8. Personal factors 9. Peer interactions 10. External influences Instructional Facilities Instructional facilities refer to physical spaces, equipment, and resources specifically designed and utilized for educational purposes. These facilities provide a conducive environment for teaching and learning. Here are the main benefits of using instructional facilities: 2021 shift-2 Teaching instructional facilities capture learners' attention and make classroom teaching more effective. The use of instructional facilities is based on teaching principles. Learners retain information better when multiple sensory channels are engaged through instructional facilities. The main benefits of using instructional facilities: 1. Enhanced Learning Environment 2. Hands-on Learning Opportunities 3. Access to Specialized Resources 4. Active and Collaborative Learning 25 5. Technology Integration 6. Simulations and Virtual Learning 7. Specialized Training and Practice 8. Professional Development for Educators 9. Increased Student Engagement 10. Real-World Application Types of Instructional Facilitiess They are broadly categorised into two types 1. Projected instructional facilities are visual instructional devices that are shown with a projector, such as slides, filmstrips, silent films, and cartoons. They are typically projected using an opaque projector (epidiascope) or an overhead projector. 2. Non-projected instructional facilities are visual instructional devices that are presented without any projection equipment. Examples of non-projected instructional facilities include the blackboard and charts. Projected Instructional Facilities 1. Films 2. Slides 3. Overhead projectors 4. Epidiascope 5. Video projectors 6. Film strips 26 Non Projected Instructional Facilities Graphic 1. Charts 2. Flash cards 3. Posters 4. Pictures and photographs 5. Graphs 6. Map diagrams Display Boards 1. Blackboard 2. Whiteboard 3. Bulletin Board 4. Flannel Board 5. Magnetic Board 6. Peg Board 3-D 1. Models 2. Mockups 3. Objects and specimens 4. Puppets Audio 1. Radio 2. Recordings 3. Digital Audio Player 4. Television 5. Telephone and Mobiles Activity 1. Filed Trips 2. Experimentation 3. Dramatics 4. Teaching Machines 5. Programmed Instructions 27 Methods of teaching : Difference between Teacher centred and Learner centred Teaching Methods Teacher-Centred Methods of Teaching: Learner-Centred Methods of Teaching: Focus: Teacher-centred methods place Focus: Learner-centred methods the teacher at the centre of the prioritize the active involvement and instructional process, with the primary engagement of students in the learning focus on the teacher delivering process. The focus is on the needs, information and students receiving it. interests, and individuality of the learners. Knowledge Transfer: The teacher Active Learning: Students are acts as the primary source of actively engaged in constructing their knowledge and expertise, while knowledge, participating in students are passive recipients of discussions, problem- solving, and information. hands-on activities. 28 Teacher's Role: The teacher has a more Teacher's Role: The teacher serves as a authoritative role, leading and directing facilitator, guiding and supporting the learning process. students' learning journey rather than being the primary source of information. Instructional Approach: Instruction is Instructional Approach: Instruction typically delivered through lectures, is designed to be interactive, presentations, and demonstrations, with collaborative, and inquiry-based, limited student participation. encouraging critical thinking, problem- solving, and self-directed learning. Assessment: Assessment is often Assessment: Assessment includes based on teacher evaluation, such as various forms, such as projects, tests or assignments that measure portfolios, presentations, and group students' activities, to understanding of the content evaluate students' understanding, delivered by the teacher. skills, and abilities beyond traditional tests. Methods of Teaching Teacher - centred Lecture Method: Delivery of Information: The lecture method involves the teacher delivering information or a presentation to the students, typically in a one-way communication format. Teacher's Role: The teacher takes on a central role as the primary speaker and knowledge provider. Passive Learning: Students are passive recipients of information, listening and taking notes during the lecture. 29 Content Focus: The lecture method is suitable for conveying a large amount of content or complex concepts within a limited time frame. Limited Student Interaction: Interaction between the teacher and students is usually limited, with minimal opportunity for student engagement or participation. Assessment: Assessment is often conducted through tests or assignments to evaluate students' understanding of the lecture content. Team Teaching: Collaboration: Team teaching involves two or more teachers working together to plan, deliver, and evaluate instruction. Shared Expertise: Each teacher brings their unique knowledge and skills to the teaching process, creating a dynamic and diverse learning experience. Active Learning: Students have increased opportunities for active learning through discussions, group work, and different perspectives presented by the team of teachers. Differentiated Instruction: Team teaching allows for differentiated instruction, catering to the diverse learning needs of students. Collaboration Skills: Students observe collaboration among teachers, promoting teamwork, communication skills, and respect for different viewpoints. Assessment: Assessment methods can vary, including individual and group assessments to gauge student understanding and collaboration skills. TV or Video Presentation: Visual Learning: TV or video presentations utilize visual and audio media to deliver 30 instructional content, enhancing the learning experience through visual aids and multimedia. Engaging and Stimulating: The use of videos can capture students' attention, make abstract concepts more tangible, and stimulate interest in the subject matter. Assessment: Assessment methods can include quizzes or assignments based on the content presented in the videos, evaluating students' comprehension and application of the material. Both Teacher and Learner centred Group Discussion It involves a small group of students discussing a topic or problem under the guidance of a facilitator. Encourages active participation, critical thinking, and the exchange of ideas among group members. Promotes collaboration, communication skills, and the ability to consider different perspectives. Enhances understanding of the topic through shared insights, debates, and analysis. Seminars: Typically led by an expert or knowledgeable individual who presents a topic to a larger audience. Provides an opportunity for in-depth exploration of a specific subject matter. Encourages active listening, note-taking, and interaction with the presenter through questions and discussions. 31 Facilitates the dissemination of specialized knowledge, research findings, and emerging trends. Panel Discussion: Involves a group of experts or individuals with diverse perspectives discussing a topic in front of an audience. Provides multiple viewpoints and insights on the subject matter. Encourages debate, critical thinking, and the ability to present arguments or counterarguments. Brainstorming: A creative problem-solving technique that involves generating a large number of ideas or solutions in a short period. 2019 June Encourages free thinking, open discussion, and the suspension of judgment. Facilitates creativity, innovation, and the exploration of different possibilities. Fosters collaboration and the synergy of ideas among group members. 32 Tutorials: Involves individual or small-group sessions led by a tutor or teacher. Provides personalized instruction, guidance, and feedback to address specific learning needs. 2021 shift- 2 Allows for interactive discussions, clarifications, and in-depth exploration of topics. Enhances understanding, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills through focused attention and individualized support. Case Study: Involves the analysis of a real or hypothetical situation to understand and apply theoretical concepts. Promotes critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills. Enhances the ability to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios. 33 Role Play: Involves students assuming specific roles and acting out a scenario or situation. 2021 shift-2 Facilitates experiential learning, empathy, and understanding of different perspectives. Develops communication, negotiation, and interpersonal skills. Allows students to explore and practice behaviors and responses in a simulated context. Simulation: Provides a realistic and interactive representation of a real-life situation or process. Enables students to actively engage in decision-making, problem-solving, and critical thinking. Allows for experimentation, exploration of consequences, and learning from mistakes in a safe environment. 2021 shift-2 Enhances understanding and application of knowledge in complex or practical contexts. 34 Demonstration: Involves the teacher showcasing a process, experiment, or technique to students. Allows students to observe and learn through visual or hands-on demonstration. Provides a clear understanding of concepts, procedures, or skills. Can be followed by practice or application by students to reinforce learning. Learner Centred Assignments: Assignments are tasks or projects given to students to assess their understanding and application of knowledge. They can be in the form of written assignments, research papers, problem-solving exercises, or creative projects. Assignments help students deepen their understanding of the content, develop research and writing skills, and demonstrate their mastery of the topic. 35 Project Work: Project work involves students engaging in a comprehensive task that requires research, investigation, planning, and presentation of findings. It allows students to explore a specific topic or problem in depth, applying their knowledge and skills in a practical and meaningful way. Project work promotes independent learning, critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration among students. Programmed Instruction: Programmed instruction involves presenting instructional material in a sequenced and structured manner, allowing students to learn at their own pace. It typically uses instructional materials, such as textbooks or online modules, that provide information followed by questions or exercises to assess understanding. It promotes self-directed learning, individualized instruction, and mastery of content. Computer-Assisted Learning: Computer-assisted learning (CAL) involves the use of computers and educational software to enhance the learning experience. 2021 shift-2 CAL programs provide interactive and multimedia resources, including simulations, virtual experiments, quizzes, and tutorials. It allows students to learn at their own pace, receive immediate feedback, and engage in interactive and personalized learning activities. It offers flexibility in terms of time, location, and access to a wide range of educational resources and materials. 36 Open Learning: Open learning refers to a flexible and learner-centered approach to education, allowing students to choose their learning path and pace. It emphasizes self-directed learning, collaboration, and personalized learning experiences. Open learning offers a wide range of resources, including online courses, open educational resources, and learning communities. It promotes lifelong learning, critical thinking, and the development of independent learning skills. Heuristic Methods of Teaching: Heuristic methods of teaching focus on inquiry-based learning and problem- solving. 30th September 2022 They encourage students to actively explore, discover, and construct knowledge through hands-on activities and investigation. Heuristic methods foster critical thinking, Difference between Online and Offline Teaching Online and offline teaching refer to different modes of delivering educational instruction. Here are some key points highlighting the differences between online and offline teaching: Online Teaching: Mode of Instruction: Online teaching utilizes digital platforms, such as learning management systems, video conferencing, and online 37 collaboration tools, to deliver educational content and facilitate interactions between educators and learners. 2020 October Flexibility and Convenience: Online teaching allows for flexible scheduling and location- independent learning. Learners can access course materials and participate in activities at their own pace and from any location with internet access. Resources and Multimedia: Online teaching often incorporates multimedia resources, including videos, interactive modules, and online simulations, to enhance learning experiences and engage learners through various modalities. Communication and Collaboration: Online teaching relies on digital communication tools, such as discussion boards, chat features, and video conferencing, to facilitate interactions and collaboration among learners and educators, regardless of geographical distances. Self-Directed Learning Offline Teaching: Physical Classroom Setting: Offline teaching typically occurs in a traditional classroom setting, where learners and educators physically gather for face-to-face instruction. Direct Interaction: In offline teaching, educators and learners have direct, immediate, and personal interactions. Educators can observe learners' body language, provide real- time feedback, and engage in discussions and group activities. Tangible Learning Resources: Offline teaching often utilizes physical textbooks, worksheets, manipulatives, and other tangible learning resources to support instruction and hands-on learning experiences Peer Interaction and Social Skills: Offline teaching provides opportunities for learners to interact and collaborate with their peers, fostering the development of social skills, teamwork, and communication abilities. Structured Timetable 38 SWAYAM 2021 shift-1 Indigenous (Made in India) IT MOOCs Platform Provide Quality Education 2021 shift-1 3 Principles- Access, Equity and Quality 9th July 2022 shift 1 Class 9th to Post Graduation Launched by Government of India to promote online learning SWAYAM stands for Study Webs of Active learning for Young Aspiring Minds Tagline- Sikshit Bharat, Unnat Bharat Launched on 9th July 2017 Developed by MHRD and AICTE along with the help of Microsoft 3 Principles- Access, Equity and Quality Class 9th to Post Graduation Launched by Government of India to promote online learning The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in 4 quadrants: 22nd September 2022 shif t 1 Quadrant-1. Video tutorials covering a whole course – normally of 20 hours, each lecture not exceeding 30 minutes. Quadrant-2. E-Content: added to the learning imparted through the video tutorials. Quadrant-3. Self-Assessment: Quizzes/assignments that intersperse the course Quadrat- 4. Discussion forum for posting queries NATIONAL COORDINATORS 1. AICTE- All India Council for Technical Education 2. CEC- Consortium for Educational Communication 2022 shift-2 3. IGNOU- Indira Gandhi National Open University 4. IIMB- IIM Bangalore 5. NCERT- National Council for Educational Research and Training 6. NIOS- National Institute of Open Schooling 2022 shift-2 7. NITTTR- National Institute for Technical Teacher Training and Research 2022 shift- 2 8. NPTEL- National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning 2022 shift-2 9. UGC- University Grants Commission 39 SWAYAMPRABHA 2021 shift-1 It was launched in 2017. SWAYAM Prabha is an initiative of the Ministry of Human Resources Development to provide 34 High Quality Educational Channels through DTH (Direct to Home) across the length and breadth of the country on 24X7 basis. 2021 shift-1 The DTH channels are using the GSAT-15 satellite for programme telecasts The SWAYAM PRABHA has new content everyday for at least (4) hours which would be repeated 5 more times in a day, allowing the students to choose the time of their convenience. The channels are uplinked from BISAG, Gandhinagar. The contents are provided by NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT and NIOS. The INFLIBNET Centre maintains the web portal. The channels broadcast educational programs 24x7, covering subjects from school level (Class 9 to 12). MOOCS MOOCs, or Massive Open Online Courses, are online educational courses that are designed to be accessible to a large number of learners emerged in the late 2000s as a result of advancements in technology and the growing demand for accessible education. The term "MOOC" was coined in 2008 by Dave Cormier and Bryan Alexander during a course at the University of Manitoba. Later in 2011, two organizations, Coursera and edX, were founded with the goal of providing high-quality MOOCs from prestigious universities. MOOCs gained global attention in 2012 when a course offered by Stanford professor Sebastian Thrun, titled "Introduction to Artificial Intelligence," attracted over 160,000 students from around the world. Over the years, MOOCs have evolved to offer a diverse range of content, including lectures, quizzes, assignments, interactive discussions, and certifications / degrees. Features of MOOCs 1. Open and Massive 2. Online Learning 3. Diverse Course Offerings 4. Flexibility and Self-Paced Learning 40 5. Interactive Multimedia Content 6. Global Learning Communities 7. Assessment and Certificates 8. Cost-Effective Learning 9. Lifelong Learning and Skill Development 10. Continuous Improvement and Iteration Teaching Support System Traditional Teaching Support System: Textbooks and Printed Materials: Traditional teaching relies on textbooks and printed materials as primary resources for delivering content and information to students. 22nd September 2021 shif t 1 Chalkboard/Whiteboard: Chalkboards or whiteboards are commonly used tools for visualizing and explaining concepts, illustrating diagrams, and solving problems in real- time during classroom instruction. December 2022 Handouts and Worksheets: Teachers prepare handouts and worksheets to supplement classroom instruction and provide additional practice exercises for students. 2021 shift-1 Library Resources: Traditional teaching support includes access to physical libraries, where students can find books, journals, reference materials, and other resources to enhance their learning. Modern Teaching Support System: Multimedia Presentations: Modern teaching utilizes multimedia presentations, such as slideshows, videos, animations, and interactive multimedia content, to engage students and enhance understanding. 22nd September 2022 shift 1 Visual Aids: Visual aids, including charts, graphs, diagrams, and models, are used to represent information visually and make abstract concepts more tangible and comprehensible. 2021 shift-1 Audiovisual Resources, Educational Software, etc are used 41 ICT-Based Teaching Support System: Learning Management Systems (LMS): LMS platforms provide a centralized hub for managing course materials, assignments, assessments, communication, and tracking student progress. 22nd September 2022 shif t 2. Web Conferencing Tools: Web conferencing tools enable real-time virtual classrooms, allowing teachers and students to interact remotely through video conferencing, chat features, and screen sharing. Online Collaboration Tools and Online Assessment Tools and Mobile applications offer access to educational resources, interactive. Evaluation Systems Evaluation Systems 2023 June shift-1 Evaluation in teaching aptitude refers to the process of assessing and measuring the effectiveness of teaching and learning. It involves gathering information and making judgments about the performance, progress, and achievements of students, as well as the instructional strategies and methods used by teachers. Difference between Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation Measurement: Measurement focuses on assigning numerical values or scores to quantify specific attributes or characteristics of students' performance or outcomes. 2020 October Measurement provides objective data and is often used for comparisons, ranking, or identifying levels of achievement. Assessment: Assessment is a broader term that encompasses various methods and strategies to gather information about students' learning progress, skills, knowledge, and understanding. 9th July 2022 shift 1 It involves gathering evidence through multiple sources, such as observations, projects, presentations, performances, portfolios, and tests. Assessment aims to provide a comprehensive view of student learning and includes both quantitative and qualitative data. 42 Evaluation: Evaluation involves making judgments or interpretations based on the collected assessment data to determine the quality, effectiveness, or value of students' performance, teaching methods, or educational programs. It focuses on analyzing and interpreting the assessment results to draw conclusions, make decisions, and provide feedback. Evaluation is often used to assess the attainment of learning outcomes, inform instructional improvements, and guide decision-making processes. Types of Evaluation 1. Formative Evaluation: Takes place during the instructional process to provide ongoing feedback and support for both teachers and students. 9th July 2022 shift 1 Focuses on identifying areas of strengths and weaknesses to guide instructional decisions and improvements. Involves continuous assessments, classroom observations, and feedback mechanisms. Emphasizes the developmental aspect of learning and helps students monitor their progress. 2022 shift- 1 2. Summative Evaluation: Occurs at the end of a teaching unit or course to assess student learning outcomes. Provides an overall measure of achievement and determines the effectiveness of instruction. December 2022 Utilizes traditional assessments such as exams, quizzes, projects, or presentations. Offers a final judgment or evaluation of students' performance and learning. The goal is to evaluate the overall outcome or impact of the program and assess whether it achieved its intended goals. 2022 shift-1 3. Norm-Referenced Evaluation: Compares a student's performance to the performance of a group or population (norm group). Focuses on ranking or comparing students' performance relative to their peers. Typically involves standardized tests where students' scores are compared to a predetermined average or percentile. June 2020 Provides information on how well students perform in relation to others in the same group. 43 4. Criterion-Referenced Evaluation: Measures student performance against a predetermined set of criteria or standards. Emphasizes mastery of specific knowledge, skills, or competencies. 22 November 2021 shift-1 Determines whether students have met the defined criteria or benchmarks. Focuses on individual achievement and provides detailed feedback on strengths and weaknesses. Choice Based Credit System The Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) of evaluation is an approach used in higher education to assess and evaluate student performance based on credits earned. 2021 shift-1 The CBCS provides choice for students to select from the prescribed courses (core, elective or foundation skill courses). 1. Core Course There may be a Core Course in every semester. This is the course which is to be compulsorily studied by a student as a core requirement to complete the requirement of a programme in a said discipline of study. 2. Elective Course Elective course is a course which can be chosen from a pool of papers. It may be: Supportive to the discipline of study Providing an expanded scope Enabling an exposure to some other discipline/domain Nurturing student’s proficiency/skill. An elective may be “Generic Elective” focusing on those courses which add generic proficiency to the students. An elective may be “Discipline centric”or may be chosen from an unrelated discipline. It may be called an “Open Elective.” 3. Foundation Course The Foundation Courses may be of two kinds: Compulsory Foundation and Elective foundation. “Compulsory Foundation” courses are the courses based upon the content that leads to Knowledge enhancement. They are mandatory for all disciplines. Elective Foundation courses are value-based and are aimed at man- making education. 44 CBCS Grading system CBCS (Choice Based Credit System) adopts a standardized approach to assessment and examination management, surpassing traditional percentage and grading methods for evaluating academic skills. 20th September 2022 shif t 1 The CBCS software grading system ensures uniformity across all educational institutions. CBCS follows a semester pattern rather than an annual examination pattern, with two semesters in each academic year - odd and even. Evaluation and grading are conducted at the end of each semester. The University Grants Commission (UGC) has introduced a 10-point grading system, with 0 representing absent/fail and 10 indicating outstanding performance List of Important Days- 1. World Teachers' Day - October 5th: Celebrated globally to appreciate and honour the contributions of teachers and educators. 2. International Literacy Day - September 8th: A Day to raise awareness about the importance of literacy and promote efforts to improve literacy rates worldwide. 3. International Day of Education - January 24th: A Day proclaimed by the United Nations to highlight the role of education in promoting peace, sustainable development, and global citizenship. 4. World Student Day - October 15th: A Day to recognize and celebrate students worldwide, their achievements, and their role in 45 shaping the future. 5. Global Day of Parents - June 1st: While not specifically focused on education, it acknowledges the vital role of parents in their children's education and overall development. 6. National Science Day - February 28th: Celebrated in India to commemorate the discovery of the Raman effect by Sir C.V. Raman and promote scientific temper and research. 7. International Day of Women and Girls in Science - February 11th: A Day dedicated to promoting gender equality and encouraging the participation of women and girls in science-related fields. 8. World Book Day - April 23rd (or the nearest Thursday): A Day celebrated globally to promote reading, publishing, and copyright protection. It encourages people, especially children, to discover the joy of reading. 9. World Youth Skills Day - July 15th: A Day designated by the United Nations to raise awareness about the importance of acquiring skills and providing opportunities for youth to develop their potential. 10. Children's Day - November 20th (or various dates in different countries): While not exclusively focused on education, it emphasizes the rights and well-being of children, including their access to education and quality learning opportunities BONUS FACTS - 2023 June shift-1 The Cognitive Apprenticeship Model is an instructional approach that draws inspiration from the traditional concept of apprenticeship, where a novice learns from an expert through hands-on experience and guidance. It is designed to facilitate effective learning by providing structured support and guidance to learners as they acquire new skills or knowledge. 2023 June shift-1 The model incorporates several key steps to help learners progress in their understanding and competence: 1. Modelling: This initial step involves exposing learners to the expertise of a skilled practitioner or expert. Learners observe and analyze the expert's performance, gaining insight into how the task or skill is executed effectively. This serves as a foundation for understanding the desired outcome. 2022 shift-1 2. Coaching: After observing the expert, learners receive external support and guidance from a more experienced individual or teacher. This support can come in various forms, such as hints, feedback, reminders, or additional instruction. Coaching helps learners bridge the gap between theory and practice and provides 46 them with valuable insights to improve their performance. 2022 shift-1 3. Scaffolding: Scaffolding is a crucial aspect of the cognitive apprenticeship model. It involves providing learners with the necessary support to perform the task, gradually reducing that support as their competence increases. Think of it as building a scaffold around a structure; initially, it offers substantial support, but as the structure becomes more stable, the scaffold is removed piece by piece. 2023 June shift-1 4. Articulation: Articulation focuses on encouraging learners to verbalize their understanding of the process or content. By explaining what they've learned or how they're approaching a task in their own words, learners deepen their understanding and consolidate their knowledge. It also allows instructors to gauge the extent of a learner's comprehension. 2022 shift-1 5. Reflection: Reflection is a critical component of the model, as it encourages learners to think critically about their experiences and learning process. They consider what worked, what didn't, and how they can improve. Reflection helps learners become more self-aware and metacognitive, enhancing their ability to adapt and learn independently. 6. Exploration: The final step involves giving learners opportunities to explore and apply what they've learned independently. They can experiment with the skill or knowledge in different contexts, which promotes a deeper and more flexible understanding. This step allows learners to become more autonomous and adaptable in their learning. 47 UNIT 2 – RESEARCH APTITUDE Research: Meaning, Types, and Characteristics, Positivism and Post-positivistic approach to research. Meaning of Research Research is a systematic and scientific search for knowledge on a specific topic. It involves careful investigation and inquiry to discover new facts or information in any field of knowledge. Research includes defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and evaluating data, making deductions, and testing conclusions. Overall, research is a rigorous and objective process that expands our understanding and contributes to the growth of knowledge in various disciplines. Why Research? What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiate’s research 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work 4. Desire to be of service to society 5. Desire to get respectability Objectives of Research 1. Reviewing existing knowledge or phenomenon. 2. Exploring and analysing a problem, question, issue, or cause. 3. Gaining new insights into existing knowledge or phenomena. 4. Investigating and understanding a new phenomenon. 5. Suggesting solutions or answers to research problems or questions. 48 6. Producing, constructing, or generating new knowledge or findings These general objectives provide a broad framework for research studies and serve as guiding principles for conducting research and contributing to the existing body of knowledge. Characteristics of Research Systematic It involves clearly defined steps, procedures, and methodologies. Objective Research aims to be unbiased and impartial, focusing on facts, evidence, and logical reasoning. Empirical Research relies on empirical evidence obtained through observation, experimentation, or data collection. Rigorous and Valid Research maintains a high standard of rigor to ensure the reliability and validity of its findings. [2nd Dec. 2019- Ist Shift] It employs rigorous methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation to ensure accuracy and minimize errors. 49 Replicable Research should be replicable, meaning that the study's methods and procedures can be replicated by other researchers to validate or reproduce the findings. [25th June 2019-IInd Shift] Replicability enhances the credibility and robustness of research. Generalizable Research aims to generate knowledge and findings that can be applied beyond the specific study context. Ethical Research follows ethical principles and guidelines, ensuring the protection of human subjects, respecting privacy and confidentiality, and maintaining integrity in reporting findings. Cumulative Research builds upon existing knowledge and contributes to the accumulation of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. Iterative Research often involves an iterative process, where initial findings or conclusions may lead to further refinement, exploration, or new research questions.. Problem-oriented Research is driven by the need to solve problems, address gaps in knowledge, or explore unanswered questions. 50 Types of Research Descriptive Research [June-2015] Focuses on describing and documenting characteristics, behaviours, or phenomena. Seeks to provide an accurate portrayal or snapshot of the subject of study. Often involves surveys, observations, or case studies. Analytical Research Aims to understand the underlying causes, relationships, or patterns in a given phenomenon. Involves analysing data or information to draw conclusions and make interpretations. Often used in social sciences or market research to understand trends and behaviours. Applied Research [June-2010] Focuses on addressing specific practical problems or issues. Aims to provide practical solutions or applications to real- world problems. Often conducted in collaboration with organizations or industries 51 Fundamental Research Also known as basic or pure research. [24th June 2019-Ist Shift] Driven by curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge. Aims to expand theoretical understanding without immediate practical application. Quantitative Research Involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. Emphasizes objective measurements and statistical analysis. Aims to establish statistical relationships, patterns, or trends. Qualitative Research Focuses on understanding and interpreting subjective experiences, meanings, or social phenomena. [20th June 2019-Ist Shift Utilizes methods such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis. Aims to gain in-depth insights and explore complex phenomena. Conceptual Research Involves the exploration and analysis of concepts, theories, or frameworks. Aims to develop or refine theoretical frameworks and conceptual understanding. Often used in philosophy, social sciences, or theoretical research. 52 Empirical Research Relies on direct observation or experience. Involves collecting and analysing data to test hypotheses or validate theories. Aims to provide evidence-based conclusions and support or refute existing knowledge. Ex-Post Facto Research [21st June Ex-post facto research, also 2019- IInd Shift known as causal-comparative research, examines cause-and- effect [2nd Dec. 2019-Ist Shift] relationships by studying variables after they have occurred naturally. It explores the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable without direct manipulation by the researcher. Action Research Action research is conducted in real- life settings and aims to address practical problems or improve practices. It involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners to identify and implement solutions, often in educational or organizational contexts. The cycle of Plan, Act, Observe, and Reflect (also known as the PAOR cycle) 20th June 2019-Ist Shift] is a fundamental framework in action research. 6th Dec. 2019-IInd Shift] It represents the iterative and cyclical nature of the research 53 process. [January-2017] Historical Research Historical research involves the study of past events, situations, or phenomena to understand their significance, context, and influence on the present. It relies on historical documents, records, and artifacts to reconstruct and analyse past events. [24th June 2019-Ist Shift] Clinical Research Clinical research focuses on investigating health-related questions and evaluating medical interventions, treatments, or therapies. It involves studying patients or human subjects to gather data and analyse the efficacy and safety of medical interventions. Phenomenology Phenomenology is a qualitative research approach that seeks to understand individuals' subjective experiences and perceptions of a phenomenon. It explores the essence of human experiences and aims to uncover the underlying meanings and structures of lived experiences. 54 Ethnography Ethnography involves immersing oneself in a specific social or cultural setting to observe and document the behaviours, beliefs, and practices of a particular group or community. [25th June 2019- Ist Shift] It typically involves prolonged engagement, participant observation, and interviews to gain a deep understanding of the culture being studied. December 2022 Grounded Theory Grounded theory is a qualitative research method focused on developing theories or explanations that emerge from the data itself. It involves iterative data collection and analysis to identify patterns, categories, and themes that form the basis of a theoretical framework. [5th Dec. 2019-Ist Shift] Exploratory Research Exploratory research is conducted when a topic is relatively new, unexplored, or lacks sufficient existing information. It aims to gain insights, identify research questions, and provide a foundation for further investigation. Exploratory research often utilizes qualitative methods. 55 Positivism and Post-positivistic approach in Research Positivism and post-positivism are two distinct philosophical approaches to research. While positivism emphasizes objectivity, empirical evidence, and quantitative analysis, post-positivism acknowledges the limitations of complete objectivity and incorporates subjective meaning, context, and mixed methods approaches. POSITIVISM POST-POSITIVISM Objective Reality: Critique of Objectivity: It believes that this reality can be Post-positivism recognizes that studied and understood through complete objectivity is not empirical observation and attainable. measurement [December-2014] Empirical Observation: Subjective Meaning: It relies on objective and measurable It acknowledges the influence of social data obtained through controlled and cultural contexts on knowledge experiments, surveys, or quantitative production. measurements Quantitative Analysis: Mixed Methods: Positivism favours quantitative analysis, Post-positivism allows for the use of statistical methods, and deductive both quantitative and qualitative reasoning to draw methods, recognizing the value of Generalizations. both types of data. Value Neutrality: Theory Revision: Positivism strives for value neutrality Post-positivism acknowledges that and objectivity in research. scientific theories are subject to revision and refinement based on new evidence. Hypothesis Testing: Contextual Understanding: Positivist research typically involves Post-positivist research pays attention formulating hypotheses and testing to the context and seeks to understand them through systematic data the unique complexities of specific collection and analysis. situations. 56 Steps of Research Steps of Research [5th Dec. 2019-IInd Shift] STEP-1 STEP-2 STEP-3 STEP-4 STEP-5 STEP-6 STEP-7 DEFINE REVIEW FORMULATI DESIGN COLLECT ANALYSES INTERPRET RESEARCH THE NG RESEARCJ DATA DATA (TEST AND PROBLEM LITERATURE HYPOTHESI (SAMPLE HYPOTHESI REPORT S DESIGN, S) ETC) Formulating the research problem Extensive literature survey [6th Dec. 2019-IInd Shift Development of working hypotheses Preparing the research design Determining sample design Collecting the data Analyse Data y [5th Dec. 2019-IInd Shift] Interpret and Report Formulating the research problem Research problems can be categorized into two types: those related to states of nature and those related to relationships between variables. An empirical counterpart of a concept is called a "variable." In research and statistics, a variable represents a measurable or observable attribute or characteristic that can vary or take on different values. 2022 shift-2 The first step in formulating a research problem is to identify the general area of interest or aspect of the subject that the researcher wants to investigate. The problem initially stated in a broad manner needs to be clarified and any ambiguities resolved. Seek guidance and discuss the problem with colleagues, experts, or a research guide to narrow down and operationalize the problem. Extensive literature survey The researcher should conduct a comprehensive literature survey related to the research problem. This involves exploring abstracting and indexing journals, bibliographies, academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, and 57 books. Multiple sources should be explored, and previous studies similar to the current research should be carefully studied. 2023 june shift-1 Development of working hypotheses Definition of Hypothesis: After conducting an extensive literature survey, researchers should state the working hypothesis or hypotheses. 20th June 2019-Ist Shift] A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It is a speculation or theory formulated on insufficient evidence that is tested through experimentation or verification to determine its truth or falsity. 20th June 2019-IInd Shift Purpose of a Hypothesis: The purpose of a hypothesis is to define the relationship between the independent variable (the cause) and the dependent variable (the measurable outcome). July-2016] Characteristics of a Hypothesis: A. Specificity: A hypothesis should be specific, with explicitly defined concepts and no ambiguity about the empirical evidence or the concept's manifestation in reality. B. Relevance to Theory: It should be relevant and related to a body of theory that can be verified, supported, corrected, or refuted by the research. It should explain the theoretical rationale for testing the hypothesis. C. Empirical Testability: A hypothesis should be empirically testable, allowing for logical deduction or inference that can be tested through observation in the field. D. Predictive Power: It should have the ability to predict an outcome based on the proposed relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Preparing the research design Definition of Research Design: Once the research problem is formulated, the researcher needs to prepare a research design, which outlines the conceptual structure within which the research will be conducted. The research design ensures efficient data collection and maximum information with minimal effort, time, and cost. [24th June 2019-Ist Shift] Research Purposes: Research purposes can be categorized into four groups: exploration, description, diagnosis, and experimentation. The choice of research 58 design depends on the specific purpose of the study. Types of Research Designs: There are several research designs available, including experimental and non-experimental designs for hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be informal (e.g., before- and-after without control) or formal (e.g., completely randomized design, factorial designs). Selection of Research Design: The researcher must select a research design that aligns with their project and research objectives. The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following: [26th June 2019-IInd Shift] 1. the means of obtaining the information 2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any) 3. explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection 4. the time available for research Determining sample design [June-2018] Determining the sample design involves making important decisions regarding the selection of a representative subset of the population for a research study. Here are the key points to consider: 1. Define the Population 2. Specify the Sampling Frame 3. Choose the sample size 4. Select the Sampling Method: There are various sampling methods, including probability sampling and non-probability sampling. 5. Probability Sampling Methods: If using probability sampling, consider techniques such as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, or cluster sampling. Each method has specific procedures for selecting elements from the population based on known probabilities. Non-Probability Sampling Methods: If using non-probability sampling, consider techniques such as convenience sampling, judgment sampling, or quota sampling. Non-probability sampling methods do not rely on known probabilities but offer convenience and practicality. [June-2018] 7. Assess Sampling Bias 8. Plan for Data Collection: Determine the data collection methods and tools that will be used to gather information from the selected sample. 59 This i