MScPM Cognitive Psychology Lecture Notes WiSe 2024/2025 PDF

Master of Science Psychology & Management Cognitive Psychology - Perception, Cognitive Processes, Motivation and Emotion Lecture notes winter semester 2024/2025 Subject responsibility: Prof. Dr. Daniel Thiemann ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psycholo...

Master of Science Psychology & Management Cognitive Psychology - Perception, Cognitive Processes, Motivation and Emotion Lecture notes winter semester 2024/2025 Subject responsibility: Prof. Dr. Daniel Thiemann ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 1 Imprint Use of the script, even in part, is prohibited outside ISM and the events it organizes without prior approval by the university. The author(s) is/are responsible for the content of this script. Scripts are not citable in scientific papers. ISM International School of Management GmbH Otto-Hahn-Str. 19 44227 Dortmund www.ism.de ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 2 Please note! The scope of the course is 24 teaching units (12 x 2 SWS). In addition, you must - in accordance with the study regulations - expect to spend time outside of lecture times in order to work on the requirements for the examination: – General Psychology = 2 Credits (ECTS) = 60 h time commitment – In addition to the contact hours, there are approx. 42 hours of self-study! The examination consists of a written module exam (total time 120 minutes) together with the subjects "Social, Cultural and Personality Psychology" and "Business Psychology as an Empirical Science". Slides marked with EXCURSE are not relevant for the exam. Image source: Pixabay.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 3 Literature Required reading: Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2020). Cognitive psychology. A student’s hand-book. Taylor & Francis. Gerrig, R. J. (2012). Psychology and Live (20th ed.). Pearson. Hall, C. N. (Ed). (2023). Introduction to Biological Psychology. Open Textbook Li-brary. Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding Motivation and Emotion (7th ed.). Wiley. ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 4 Literature Supplementary literature: Betsch, T., Funke, J., & Plessner, H. (2011). Denken – Urteilen, Entscheiden, Problemlösen. Springer. Brandstätter, V., Schüler, J., Puca, R. M. & Lozo, J. (2018). Motivation und Emotion. Allgemeine Psychologie für Bachelor (2nd ed.). Springer. Edelmann, W. & Wittmann, S. (2019). Lernpsychologie. Beltz. Gerrig, R. J. & Zimbardo, P. (2018). Psychologie (21st ed.). Pearson. Gerrig, R. J. & Zimbardo, P. (2018). Psychologie. Das Übungsbuch. Pearson. Hagendorf, H., Krummenacher, J., Müller, H. J., & Schubert, T. (2011). Allgemeine Psychologie für Bachelor: Wahrnehmung und Aufmerksamkeit. Springer. Pfister, H.-R., Jungermann, H., & Fischer, K. (2017). Die Psychologie der Entscheidung (4th ed.). Springer. Pinel , J. P., Barnes, S. J., & Pauli, P. (2018). Biopsychologie (10th ed.). Pearson. Rademacher, U. (2014). Leichter führen und besser entscheiden. Psychologie für Manager. Springer Gabler. Rothermund, K. & Eder, A. (2012). Motivation und Emotion. Basiswissen Psychologie. VS Verlag. ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 5 Cognitive Psychology Table of Contents 04 Judging and Deciding 01 Introduction and Basics 4.1 Forming a judgment 4.2 Deciding 1.1 Cognitive Psychology 4.3 Influencing Factors 1.2 Biological Principles 4.4 Application 02 Perception 05 Motivation 2.1 Principles of Human Perception 5.1 Theories of Motivation 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization 5.2 Selected motives 03 Learning and Memory 06 Emotion 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of 6.1 Theories of emotion Learning 6.2 Functions of Emotions 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning 6.3 Applications 3.3 Social Learning 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory 07 Suggestions for self-study ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 6 Cognitive Psychology 01 Introduction and Basics 1.1 Cognitive Psychology 1.2 Biological Principles ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 7 Introduction and Basics What is cognitive psychology about? → Universalist approach: what is common to people rather than what makes them different → Focus on the HOW and not the WHAT: it is about processes and mechanisms of how mental processes take place and not about their content ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 8 Introduction and Basics The Four Goals of Psychology, using eLearning as an example Explain Predictions the causes of eLearning behavior and experience of future eLearning behavior and experience Improve Describe With regard to the target 'Objective' mapping of criterion, bring about an eLearning behavior and improvement in the experience conditions or handling (= coping) Psychology ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 9 Cognitve Psychology 01 Introduction and Basics 1.1 Cognitive Psychology 1.2 Biological Principles ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 10 1.2 Biological Principles Our ervous system Life means taking in information, making Central Nervous decisions and sending the information and System commands back to the body tissue. All this is made possible by our nervous system with its billions of neurons: Peripheral – Central nervous system (CNS): All neurons of Nervous System the brain and spinal cord. – Peripheral nervous system (PNS): All neurons that form the nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the body. – The spinal cord connects the brain and PNS. © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 11 1.2 Biological Principles Structure of the Nervous System Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System (neuronal tissue outside the (Brain and spinal cord) brain and spinal cord) Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System (sensory and motor nerves, (internal system, involuntary) voluntary) Sympathetic Part Parasympathetic ("emergency") Part ("all good“) Source: own representation according to Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 12 1.2 Biological Principles Structure of the Nervous System Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System (neuronal tissue outside the (Brain and spinal cord) brain and spinal cord) Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System (sensory and motor nerves, (internal system, involuntary) voluntary) Sympathetic Part Parasympathetic ("emergency") Part ("all good“) Source: own representation according to Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 13 1.2 Biological Principles Brain as the most important component of the CNS Structure of the brain Cerebrum Cerebral cortex (cortex) (neocortex) Corpus Callosum Basal Ganglia Limbic system Diencephalon Thalamus Hypothalamus Hypophysis Brain stem Midbrain (mesencephalon) Pons Medulla Oblongata Cerebellum https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Basic_structur es_of_the_brain_highlighted.png © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 14 1.2 Biological Principles EXCURSE Fascinating Cases and Phenomena Phineas Gage Accident as a railroad worker, 1848: Iron bar (3.2 cm diameter) "shoots through" skull in an explosion Phineas Gage (25) "survived, but is no longer the same person" Doctor John Halow describes the case ("lesion study" = investigation of behavior of brain injured persons as an indication to locate specific processes in the brain) Phineas Gage was incredibly unlucky. An iron bar pierced his left cheek and exited through the top of his skull. Gage survived - but his personality changed completely. (GEO) https://www.geo.de/wissen/23805-rtkl-neurowissenschaft-eine-stange-durchschlug-seinen-schaedel-warum-der-fall-von ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 15 1.2 Biological Principles EXCURSE Fascinating cases and phenomena Phineas Gage Change in personality – Before: exemplary, responsible, quiet – After the accident: » rude, moody, disrespectful behavior » Inability to make consistent plans » Considered decisions no longer possible "[...] to be the perfect case for localizing decision- making abilities, morality and character traits in the brain - the idea that certain regions in the brain are responsible for certain functions is given an empirical basis." https://www.geo.de/wissen/23805-rtkl-neurowissenschaft-eine-stange-durchschlug-seinen-schaedel-warum-der-fall-von ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 16 1.2 Biological Principles The Brain Stem Structures that regulate the body's internal (autonomic) processes (e.g. pulse rate, respiration, digestion) Cerebellum coordinates body movements, controls posture and maintains balance (uncontrolled movements when the cerebellum is impaired or damaged, e.g. alcohol) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo ns/e/e0/Blausen_0114_BrainstemAnatomy.png Diencephalon Thalamus (= "gateway to consciousness") channels incoming sensory information and forwards it to the cortex. Node for sensory information and the switching center in the brain (very strongly networked) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ c/cc/Basic_structures_of_the_brain_highlighted.pn g ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 17 1.2 Biological Principles The Limbic System Mediates between motivated behavior, emotional states and memory processes Also regulates aspects of physiological balance (e.g. temperature, salt concentration) Consists of three main structures: – Hippocampus (context memory) – Amygdala (emotional memory, fear and aggression, emotional control) – Hypothalamus (regulates hunger and thirst, body temperature and sexual behavior; homeostasis) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi Includes the pituitary gland as a control a/commons/0/00/Limbic_System.png organ of the hormonal system © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018; Schandry (2011) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 18 1.2 Biological Principles The Cerebrum (Cortex) Makes up about 2/3 of the brain mass Regulation of higher cognitive and emotional functions in the form of specialized working groups Cerebral cortex = outer surface of the cerebrum (billions of cells in a layer about 3mm thick) Two almost symmetrical halves (hemispheres) connected to each other via corpus callosum https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Brain_Lateralization.png © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 19 1.2 Biological Principles The Four Lobes of the Cerebrum Frontal lobe: motor control and higher cognitive abilities Parietal lobe: Sensations such as touch, pain and temperature, as well as spatial perception Occipital lobe: visual processing Temporal lobe: auditory processing and speech comprehension https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Cerebrum_lobes.svg © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 20 1.2 Biological Principles Structure of the Nervous System Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System (neuronal tissue outside the (Brain and spinal cord) brain and spinal cord) Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System (sensory and motor nerves, (internal system, involuntary) voluntary) Sympathetic Part Parasympathetic ("emergency") Part ("all good“) Source: own representation according to Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 21 1.2 Biological Principles The Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Regulates the (voluntary) activity of Monitors basic life functions the skeletal muscles Regulates unconscious bodily functions Control of conscious movements (e.g. breathing, metabolism, arousal) (motor efferent) (= self-regulation of the internal organs and Feedback via movements glands) (sensory afferent) Two (antagonistic) subsystems: Sympathetic nervous system provides arousal in dangerous and stressful situations Parasympathetic nervous system provides calming and regeneration ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 22 1.2 Biological Principles The Autonomic Nervous System https://qscis.health.qld.gov.au/cardiovascular/ad-autonomic-nervous-system/ REST and DIGEST FIGHT or FLIGHT © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 24 Cognitive Psychology 02 Perception 2.1 Principles of Human Perception 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 25 2.1 Principles of Human Perception What is perception? Perception = process and result of obtaining and processing information from stimuli from the environment and inside the body. The basic task of every sensory system is to detect existing energy changes in the environment. Transduction = Conversion of certain forms of physical energy into mental events (e.g. the experiences of what is seen or heard). physical energy mental events Electromagnetic (e.g. light) Mechanical (e.g. sound, muscle tension) Chemical (e.g. odor, taste) Thermal (e.g. heat) Every form of energy is converted into nerve impulses Each sensory system uses sensory receptors to detect specific events in the environment ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 26 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception... shapes our (product/advertising/purchase) experiences in the interplay of different sensory dimensions (multisensuality).... depends on our level of attention. Some stimuli dominate our perception and are more attention-grabbing (salient). – colored stimuli vs. black/white stimuli – novel vs. familiar stimuli – erotic stimuli – intense and large stimuli – different stimuli compared to the environment Not all measurable stimuli are perceived: Stimuli can lie below the perception threshold, which varies intra-individually (e.g. daily form, context) and inter-individually (e.g. personality traits, age). Properties in one sensory channel raise expectations regarding other properties (e.g. large = powerful). ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 27 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception Research There is not THE ONE theory of perception. >> No theory can address or explain all perceptual phenomena or performances Four currents: 1. Classical psychophysics: emerged at the end of the 19th century 2. Gestalt psychology: was popular from before the First World War until the end of the Second World War, particularly in Germany 3. Perceptual ecology approach by James J. Gibson: developed after the Second World War 4. Computational approach by David Marr: developed in the 1980s, still embodies the common idea of perception as a transformation of input signals today ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 28 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception Research: Psychophysics Psychophysics Deals with the relationship between physical stimulus and perceptual sensation – Key question: What is the relationship between the objectively measurable external world (physical stimuli) and subjective perception in the human mind? Refers to physical stimulus dimensions (e.g. size, intensity, energy) – E.g. how does the perceived size, brightness or color of an object change when its physical size, brightness or color is changed? Represents a milestone in the history of scientific psychology, because it demonstrated what many had thought impossible: the quantitative recording of psychological phenomena with psychophysical methods. Representative: Gustav T. Fechner ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 29 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception Research: Psychophysics Basic concepts of sensation scaling The absolute threshold S0 is the minimum stimulus value (e.g. light intensity, sound pressure, line length, etc.), Absolute Threshold that is still perceived Is set as the psychological zero point (at the lower end of the scale) The differential threshold ∆S is the difference between two stimulus values that is still perceptible. Differential Threshold The just noticeable difference in sensation between two stimuli Used as a measurable interval variable E.g. hearing test, at what point is a sound audible? Tones the same or different? Right ear Left ear Picture: hoergeraete.hoeren-heute.de ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 30 2.1 Principles of Human Perception EXCURSE Perception Research: Psychophysics Weber‘s Law Question: How big does the difference have to be for it to be noticeable? Insight: Ratio between the just noticeable difference (JND) and the standard Ernst Heinrich Weber stimulus is the same (1795 - 1878) Differential threshold is not constant -> varies with standard stimulus The greater the standard stimulus, the greater the necessary increase, to achieve a noticeable difference (JND). This ratio is the so-called Weber quotient/constant – It is different for all sensory systems! Image source: Max Planck Institute for the History of Science ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 33 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception Research: Psychophysics The Signal Detection Theory Emphasizes the process of deciding on the (non-) presence of a stimulus (in contrast to the psychophysical absolute threshold) Adoption of two processes of sensory discovery : Sensory process Reflects the subject's sensitivity to the stimulus (stimulus sensitivity) Decision-making process Reflects the response bias of the test person Reaction Yes No Classification of a respondent's answers "Yes-sayers": Many hits, also many false alarms On Hits Misses "No-sayers": Fewer hits, also few false alarms Signal Offsetting of hits and false alarms allows estimation of sensitivity and response bias Off Correct False alarms rejections ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 36 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception Research: Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Psychology Assumption: Mental phenomena can only be understood if they are seen as a structured whole and not reduced to their elementary percepts. "The whole is more than the sum of its parts" At the beginning of the 20th century as a counter-current to elemental psychology There is not THE Gestalt psychology, but rather different schools Describes laws of how perception is organized proximity = Gestalt Laws – Follow the overriding Law of Simplicity common fate Gestalt similarity Laws Representatives: Wertheimer, Koffka, Lewin, Köhler closure continuity ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 41 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception Research: Gestalt Psychology The Law of Proximity The Law of Similarity People perceive the elements closest People perceive similar elements as to each other as a group a group Therefore, you see this figure as 3 This is why you see a square of O in columns of objects instead of 4 rows front of a field of X and not columns of mixed X and O ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 44 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception Research: Gestalt Psychology The Law of Good Continuation The Law of Closure People see lines as continuous, even People tend to fill in small gaps in if they are interrupted. order to see objects as a whole That's why you see an arrow piercing Therefore, you automatically fill in a heart instead of a pattern with the missing piece here to see a three different parts. closed circle. ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 45 2.1 Principles of Human Perception Perception research: Gestalt psychology The Low of Common Fate People tend to see objects as a group that appear to be moving in the same direction. This is why you see this graphic as individual lines that move apart. ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 46 Cognitive Psychology 02 Perception 2.1 Principles of Human Perception 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 49 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization The Perception Process = from sensory stimulus to conscious perception (and behavioral response) Outer world Receptors Inner world Perception as a process i.e. to comprehend, sense, understand, identify and classify objects and events in the environment and to prepare to react to them Important aspects Distinction between distal and proximal stimulus 3 stages of the process: sensory processes, perceptual organization and identification/recognition of objects Top-down and bottom-up processing Ambiguity (perceptual illusions) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 50 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization The Perception Process Distal and Proximal Stimulus Aim of visual perception: to interpret or identify distal stimulus from information of the proximal stimulus Proximal Stimulus: Pattern of sensory activity that is determined by the distal stimulus; Distal Stimulus: stimulus from which Physical object we derive information about the real object (e.g. retinal image) © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 52 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization The Perception Process Three Stages of the Process 3 Identify & Assignment of meaning to the percepts categorize (Recognizing – Identification ("What kind of object is this?") and classification objects) ("What is its function?") – higher level cognitive processes: require the application of theories, memories, beliefs, attitudes, values, etc. 2 Organize Percept formation of the external stimulus: creation of an internal (perceptual (mental) representation of the object or event. organization) – Percept = perceptual experience, i.e. the subjectively experienced, conscious (phenomenal) result of a perceptual process 1 Sensation Conversion of physical energy into neuronally coded information that (sensor. processes) can be further processed by the brain ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 54 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization The Perception Process Three stages of the Process 3 Identify & categorize “Painting” Recognized as a member of the (Recognizing PAINTINGS category objects) 2 Figure seen leaning away from Organize us (perceptual organization) 1 Sensation Retinal image (only sensory (sensor. processes) fragments of angles and lines) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 55 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization The Perception Process Top-down and Bottom-up Processing 3 Identify & Individual factors: categorize Previous experiences, interests, values and (Recognizing attitudes, skills and abilities, feelings and objects) moods, needs and drives Top-down Processing 2 Social factors: Organize Values and norms of the respective society or one of its (perceptual groups, attitudes, prejudices and stereotypes of other people organization) and groups of people Bottom-up Processing 1 Sensation (sensor. processes) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 56 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization The Perception Process Top-down and Bottom-up Processing Bottom-up Processing = Ascending, data-driven information processing Information processing begins with the sensory receptors of the sensory organs and proceeds in ascending order until the sensory information is integrated by the brain. Top-down Processing = Descending, concept-driven information processing Information processing is controlled by higher mental processes, e.g. when we interpret perceptions based on our experiences and expectations. Using information we already have about the world © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 57 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Methods for Researching Perception If you perceive a stimulus in such a way that this perception is definitely wrong, this is called Perceptual Illusions a perceptual illusion... arise at stage I (perception) of the... are interesting for perceptual process, when... work relatively the psychologists to research our senses demonstrably same for almost all people the human perception simulate incorrect process perceptions of a stimulus pattern Image source: Phortail.org ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 59 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Methods for Researching Perception Examples of Optical Illusions Impossible figures Müller-Lyer illusion Ebbinghaus illusion Source: Wikimedia Commons ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 60 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Ambiguity The same image at the sensory level can lead to several interpretations at levels II and III (organization; identification and classification) No simultaneous perception possible: perception 'jumps' ("perceptual instability") Examples: Tilting figures such as Necker dice (left), duck-rabbit (center) and Rubin cup (right) © of the illustrations: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 61 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Perceptual Organization = Processes that integrate sensory information to enable us to perceive coherently - Attention - Principles of perception -> see Gestalt psychology ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 64 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Attention Concentration on a subgroup of sensations Two components: Goal-directed Choice Stimulus-induced Appropriation Endogenous control Exogenous control − voluntary and controlled − reflexive, automatic, Example: If you are looking at a uncontrolled box of cookies, look specifically Features of objects attract attention automatically and at those with chocolate icing. independently of their own goals. Example: The traffic light changes from red to green, even if you are thinking. Graphic: own illustration based on Hagendorf, 2011 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 65 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Attention: Phenomena Unnoticed information due to limited capacity? – According to Broadbent's theory of information processing, limited capacity to absorb and process information, i.e. it is filtered early in the perception process e.g. experiments on dichotic hearing (different content in the left and right ear) – but also: cocktail party effect Change blindness – Large changes within a scene are not noticed if attention (for conscious perception) is not focused on the corresponding section (i.e. lack of selection of an object or part of a scene) Graphic: own illustration based on Hagendorf, 2011 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 66 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Attention: Phenomena BLUE YELLOW RED GREEN Stroop Effect (Stroop, 1935) YELLOW RED - Task: Name colors without considering the meaning of the word - Conflict: - left brain tries to say colors, right brain tries to say words - Reading = well practiced -> must be consciously 'switched off' (controlled) - Which regions are active when color and content are incongruent? (red regions = incongruent - congruent stimuli) prefrontal (green) (green) Cortex cingulate cortex (cingulate gyrus) Source: Stroop, 1935 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 73 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization EXCURSE Perceptual Illusions in Everyday Life People sometimes use perceptual illusions to achieve desired effects. Architects and interior designers use perceptual mechanisms to create objects in space that appear larger or smaller than they actually are – a small apartment looks larger if it is painted in light colors and contains little furniture, such as a low, small couch, with chairs and tables in the middle of the room instead of against the walls Psychologists working with NASA on US space programs have studied the effects of the environment on perception to develop space capsules with pleasant sensory qualities Those responsible for scenery and lighting in film and theater productions deliberately create illusions of perception in the film or on the stage. ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 74 2.2 Processes of Perceptual Organization Practical example: Color design in marketing Brand logos – Communication of certain (unconscious) associations of a brand – Colour as part of the corporate identity of a company Recognition value Differentiation – Colors add emotional impact to brands (logos) Image source: The Logo Company, 2013 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 75 Cognitive Psychology 03 Learning and Memory 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning 3.3 Social Learning 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 76 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning Learning as a method by which an organism learns from its experiences in the environment? Learning as a process that results in a relatively consistent and sustainable change in behavior or behavioral potential and is based on experience. Gerrig & Zimbardo (2008). Images: pixabay.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 77 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning EXCURSE History: Behaviorism and Behavior Analysis Behaviorism forms the basis of (modern) learning theory – "Introspection is not an acceptable means of examining behavior" – Researching observable behavior Important representatives: John Watson B. F. Skinner (1878 - 1958) (1904 - 1990) Founder of Representatives of behaviorism radical behaviorism Behavioral Analysis – examines stimulus-response patterns (stimulus-response theories), to identify environmental determinants of learning and behavior – Aim: To explore universal regularities of learning (in all species) – Method: Frequent learning experiments with animals © of the illustrations: Springer Textbook Myers: Psychology ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 78 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning How we Learn Operant Learning usually takes place by forming Classical Conditioning Conditioning Behavior associations (1+2) Linking two stimuli associated with i.e. an event or behavior is associated with leads to new Associative consequences another event: behavior Learning (reward or punishment) − classical conditioning (1) (1) − operant conditioning (2) (2) Learning Learning can also take place by imitating models (3) Social i.e. through observation and imitation (3) Learning Learning by Imitation New behavior arises through imitation of behavioral models ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 79 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning EXCURSE How we Learn But also: change in behavior based on individual (unpaired) events Classical Operant Conditioning Associative Conditioning Non-associative Learning Learning Habituation (1) (2) Sensitization Learning Dishabituation Social (3) Learning Learning by Imitation ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 80 Cognitive Psychology 03 Learning and memory 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning 3.3 Social Learning 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 81 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning EXCURSE Fig.: Myers, D. (2008) Psychology, p. 345 Image source: Iwan-pawlow.de ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 82 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist (1849 - 1936) Conducted research on digestion in dogs (Nobel Prize 1904) The discovery of classical conditioning was pure coincidence: – Pavlov wanted to measure reflex salivation when meat powder was administered – Observation that after a few trials, dogs began to salivate when the experimenter entered the room or when they heard his footsteps Experimental setup of the systematic investigation: – Tone (originally without meaning, orientation reaction) regularly presented and food given – Tone was associated with food presentation (conditioning). Image: Iwan-pawlow.de; © of the image: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 83 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Terminology of Classical Conditioning Unconditional stimulus (UCS/ US) = Stimulus that naturally triggers a reflex (e.g. food triggers a salivation reflex) US triggers UR Unconditional response (UCR/ UR) = Response after presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. salivation after presentation of food) Neutral stimulus (NS) = Stimulus that does not trigger a reflex (e.g. sound before classical conditioning) Conditional stimulus (CS) = neutral stimulus (NS) that was presented several times together with unconditioned stimulus (e.g. sound according to classical conditioning) CS triggers CR Conditional response (CR) = Response after presentation of a conditioned stimulus (e.g. salivation after presentation of a sound) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 84 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning EXCURSE Experiment: Little Albert Experiment by John Watson and Rayner (1920) Idea: People learn some of their diverse emotional reactions through classical conditioning Albert (11 months) liked to play with white rat ('positive emotional reaction') Experimental setup: – US = Noise (fear-inducing loud) – UR = startle reaction ('negative emotional reaction') – NS = Rat Conclusion: Emotions can be conditioned through learning processes Little Albert" experiment Fear generalized to other animals https://www.youtube.com/ (furry objects, e.g. rabbit, dog) watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE&t Image: spektrum.de ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 86 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Prerequisites for Successful Conditioning Contingency: Joint occurrence of two characteristics or the connection of two events → whenever UCS occurs, CS must also occur and vice versa Temporal contiguity: Temporal relationship or coupling between CS and UCS → CS and UCS must be closely related in time and presented promptly – More recent research by Robert Rescorla in the 1960s modified this view Phenomenon of stimulus generalization Stimuli that are similar to CS can also trigger CR Example: Suppose a dog has learned that a tone of a certain frequency (CS) announces food → Similar tones also trigger CR The more similar the new stimulus is, the stronger the CR will be ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 87 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Process: Acquisition and Deletion of a Conditioned Response Spontanous Acquisition Acquisition (CS + UCS) Extiction (only CS) Remission Extiction (only CS) Intensity of CR (conditioning and acquisition phase) Trials (time) NS/CS and UCS presented together NS/CS permanently presented without + chain NS/CS - UCS - UR is repeated UCS several times -> Probability of CR decreases -> Probability of CR increases Accelerated by stimulus intensity Accelerated by stimulus intensity CR can reappear after a break after acquisition, CR is performed ("spontaneous remission") solely by CS Fig.: Pearson Studium 2018; Horstmann, G. & Dreisbach. G. (2012) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 88 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Relevance and Practical Application Chemotherapy for cancer often involves the Phobias are strong fears that arise when use of drugs that cause nausea. exposed to certain stimuli. Patients often develop aversions to foods Behavioral therapies attempt to break the link they eat on the day of treatment. between stimulus (e.g. dirt) and reaction (e.g. panic) through systematic desensitization. Aversions Phobias Immune Drug abuse system In cases of alcohol abuse, for example, Immune system suppression or strengthening aversion therapy can be used to reduce the can be achieved through conditioning. This relapse rate. could be used to enhance chemotherapy. US - an emetic substance The effect of classical conditioning in triggering UR - vomiting allergic reactions has been demonstrated. CS - drinking alcohol Relapse rate after 1 year < 40% ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 89 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning EXCURSE "Oh, not bad. The light comes on, I press the lever, they write me a check. And how are you?" ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 90 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Thorndike and the Law of Effect Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) researched the behavior of cats in puzzle boxes Puzzle boxes = boxes that could be opened using various mechanisms – Cats initially resisted confinement through various behaviors based on the principle of trial and error – If they happened to show the correct response, they showed this behavior every time they were in a specific puzzle box again Have the cats "learned"? © of the illustration: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 91 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning The Law of the Effect Cats learned a stimulus-response connection: – Stimulus (S): specific box – Reaction (R): specific behavior that opens the box (e.g. pressing a button) – S-R connection is made by trial and error – Consequence (C): Reaction leads to desired result (freedom) or reward in the form of food outside the box Law of Effect = frequency of successful behaviors (with satisfying consequences) increases → i.e. consequences from the environment have an effect on behavior © of the illustration: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 92 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning EXCURSE Skinner and the Skinnerbox Burrhus F. Skinner (1904-1990) investigated the influence of environmental conditions (through systematic variation of stimulus conditions) on the probability of occurrence of reactions Developed a Skinner box that allowed manipulation of the consequences of behavior: if a rat shows desired behavior (e.g. running in circles) and then presses a lever, it gets food Measured variable: How often is the behavior shown in a certain period of time? © of the illustration: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 93 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Process of Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) = Learning processes in situations in which consequences depend on the execution of a behavior/reaction I.e. the probability of showing a behavior (operant response; "operation") again depends on the consequence of this behavior (= stimulus that changes the probability of a response occurring) – Reinforce positive consequences for behavior the willingness to act the speed the frequency of occurrence. – Negative consequences reduce the occurrence rate © of the illustration: Pearson Studium 2018 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 94 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement and punishment Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Reaction in the presence of an effective Aversive consequence is escaped by an signal achieves the desired consequence operant reaction (escape) Response rate increases Rate of escape behavior increases (pleasant stimulus is offered) (unpleasant stimulus is removed) E.g. food (for animals), praise for correct E.g. homework remission for correct speech request to speak Type 1 Punishment Type 2 Punishment (positive punishment) (negative punishment) Aversive stimulus follows reaction Reaction is followed by removal of a Reaction is suppressed pleasant stimulus (unpleasant stimulus is offered) Reaction is suppressed E.g. getting a parking ticket, getting a slap (pleasant stimulus is removed) on the wrist E.g. having to give up your driver's license, removing privileges ('house arrest') ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 95 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning EXCURSE Behavior Building → Reinforcement Schedules Any behavior can be learned instrumentally (in contrast to classical conditioning) Basic question: How often should a behavior be rewarded so that it is well learned? Types of Reinforcement Schedules – Every correct behavior is rewarded = continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement depends on certain frequency = quota plan – Reinforcement depends on time since last behavior shown = interval schedule Quota reinforcement (frequency) Interval reinforcement (time interval) Frequency of behavior e.g. every 4th (%) correct reaction is the 1st correct reaction, reinforced fixed e.g. in a 5-minute (Special case: interval, is reinforced each reaction is reinforced) Trials e.g. on average every 4th reaction is on average, a correct variable reinforced, but it can reaction is reinforced also be the 3rd or e.g. every 5 minutes 5th reaction Picture: Horstmann, G. & Dreisbach. G. (2012). General Psychology 2. p. 41 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 96 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning EXCURSE Relevance and Practical Application Behavioral Learned Education Therapy Helplessness Behavioral development Systematic learning or If individuals permanently and abandonment of unlearning of behavior learn that they cannot avoid behavior through praise (e.g. for eating disorders or negative stimuli, they become and reprimand phobias) passive and endure the Reinforcers such as Also helpful in reducing situation playtime for aggressive symptoms of mental Triple deficit arises: children are interesting disorders such as autism motivational: no actions Behavior to avoid cognitive: no recognition of unpleasant stimuli possible courses of action (avoidance learning) is very emotional: Dejection and resistant to extinction despondency (similar to Internalization as a process depression) from external reinforcement to behavioural habit ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 97 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning OVERVIEW Classical vs. Operant Conditioning in Comparison Process Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Reaction Involuntary, automatic Voluntary, influences the environment A reaction is coupled with a consequence Acquisition Events are associated, CS announces US (reinforcing or punishing stimulus) CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented Extinction alone The reaction decreases when reinforcement stops Organisms develop the expectation that the CS Organisms develop the expectation that a reaction is a signal for the imminent occurrence of a will be reinforced or punished; they also show Cognitive Processes US latent learning without reinforcement Organisms best learn behaviors that resemble Biological predispositions are a limitation on their natural behaviors; they instinctively revert to Biological which stimuli and reactions can be easily natural behaviors when unnatural behaviors are Predispositions associated with each other attempted Fig.: Springer textbook Myers: Psychology ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 99 Cognitive Psychology 03 Learning and memory 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning 3.3 Social Learning 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 100 3.3 Social Learning Learning Beyond Conditioning? Learning often takes place in social situations: "After merely observing a person's behavior reinforced or punished, the observer later behaves in a similar way, or refrains from that behavior." – traditional conditioning approaches cannot predict learning (neither active learner response nor tangible reinforcers) Cognitions in the form of expectations are relevant: "If I do exactly what she does, I will receive the same reinforcer or avoid the same punishment." What examples do you from everyday life? Image: pixabay.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 101 3.3 Social Learning Observational Learning = Learning by simply observing the behavior of another person who receives a reinforcement or punishment (without performing this behavior by their own) Extremely important and helpful (e.g. when children are learning from older siblings or when new employees are being trained) Learning from the mistakes and successes of others However, it can also become a risk with problematic models. Image source: Melanie Mieske / Pixelio.de ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 103 3.3 Social Learning Classic Experiment: Bobo-Doll (Bandura, 1961, 1963, 1965) Children observe how adults (models) push, hit and kick a plastic clown puppet ("Bobo") Children later showed greater frequency of this behavior than children in the control condition who had not seen aggressive models Later studies: Children imitate behavior just by watching sequences of filmed models, even from cartoon characters Bobo Doll experiments https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=dmBqwWlJg8U&t=5s ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 104 3.3 Social Learning Observational Learning Both antisocial (aggressive) and prosocial behavior can be learned from models Models are particularly influential when – is perceived that the behavior has reinforcing consequences. – the model is perceived as positive, popular and respected. – it is perceived that the model and the observer are similar. – the observer is rewarded for directing his attention to the model. – the model is clearly visible and salient (stands out from other models). – the observer can imitate the behavior. Image source: Karrierebibel.de, 2019 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 105 3.3 Social Learning Theory of Social-cognitive Learning According to Bandura (1976) Process of Acquisition Processes of Execution (often only long after acquisition) Attention Memory Reproduction Motivation Model Coding takes place Necessary are Reinforcement - is similar - figurative (analog) - physical abilities (expectations) through : - has power - verbal (symbolic) - Availability of sub- - Self-reinforcement skills - External reinforcement Model behavior is (symbolic) repetition - Feedback (helps, but is not necessary) - conspicuous (e.g. repeat the behavior - Vicarious reinforcement - significant sequence) (another person is - target-oriented reinforced) Observed behavior is learned and later performed (i.e. imitated) when the opportunity arises Social learning needs a model Relevance? Applicable to many situations and especially in groups ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 106 3.3 Social Learning Today‘s Importance of Observational Learning Therapy programs based on cognitive modification of maladaptive behavior patterns Learning (pro- and anti-) social behavior through television/film Role models for advertising purposes ("brand ambassadors") (e.g. VIPs in advertising, influencers on YouTube/ Instagram/ TikTok) Role models for mental health (e.g. Sven Hannawald, Simone Biles, Naomi Osaka) "We don't need to educate our children, they do everything after us anyway." Karl Valentin Image source: Karrierebibel.de, 2019 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 109 Cognitive Psychology 03 Learning and memory 3.1 Characteristics and Principles of Learning 3.2 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning 3.3 Social Learning 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 110 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory The Phenomenon of Memory Memory: The ability to store information in the brain and retrieve it later again Memory is a form of information processing. The average human brain stores around 100,000,000,000,000 (100 trillion) different pieces of information Our self is based on our memory content, our memories, what has happened in our lives, which people are important and which experiences we have had. Implicit and explicit memory Memory can be used implicitly (i.e. without conscious effort). Things come to mind "as if by themselves". One can also use memory explicitly, with conscious effort, to recall certain knowledge (actively recalling). ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 111 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory Different Forms of Memory Short-term/working Long-term Sensory register memory memory explicit/declarative implicit episodic semantic procedural Priming Source: own illustration based on Birbaumer & Schmidt, 2010 ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 112 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory The Three Store Model Multi-store Model of Memory by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Sensory Register Working Memory Long-term Memory visual, auditory (short-term memory) = Interface between perception = Cache = long-term store for all and memory Reduction of perception and information and skills acquired holds information for summarization into meaningful in the course of a lifetime. milliseconds to seconds units (so-called chunks) Content that has been specific for each sensory Memory time: approx. 30 sec processed thoroughly, modality (e.g. icono- independently and Capacity: 7 +/- 2 chunks comprehensively is stored in graphic memory for the ('magical number seven') visual system, echoic long-term memory memory for the auditory Influence of prior knowledge, and can be retrieved from system) learning situation, attention, there motivation and enjoyment ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 113 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory The Flow of Information Into Long-term Memory Control Processes rehearsal, chunking, elaboration Environmental stimuli Learning/Saving information Sensory register Attention Working Memory (Ultra-short-term Long-term Memory Memory) Encoding (Short-term Memory) Retrieval of information ignored fading/not forget recallable information memories ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 114 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory Control Processes in Working Memory (Short-term Memory) Structuring the information into meaningful blocks Chunking For numbers: 1914193319451989 or 1914 - 1933 - 1945 - 1989 For words: rememberingalotofinformationisdifficult or: Remembering a lot of information is difficult Prior knowledge facilitates chunking Internal repetition of the information Rehearsal The process is sensitive to interference Looking for connections to the familiar Elaboration Use mnemonic bridges Express in your own words What do you do if you need to remember a number at short notice (e.g. transferring a TAN number from your cell phone to your laptop)? ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 115  3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory Long-term memory Long-term Memory Stores all the information and skills that we acquire in the course of our lives Content that has been processed thoroughly, independently and comprehensively is stored in long-term memory and can be retrieved from there Long-term explicit/declarative memory implicit Declarative KNOWLEDGE memory Non-declarative BEHAVIORAL memory Knowledge that can be named and barely describable behavioral procedures described episodic semantic procedural Priming Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Autobiographical memories in Factual and meaningful a spatiotemporal context knowledge ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 116 3.4 The Phenomenon of Memory Learning as Knowledge Acquisition Knowledge acquisition is particularly effective and sustainable if one of the following functions supports the processing of information in the working memory: Interpret: Interpreting new information on the basis of previous knowledge Generate: Draw Organize: Use the your own structure of conclusions and superordination create new and subordination. connections Knowledge acquisition Select: Consciously Repeat: Learning select information deepens through considered as repetition important ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 118 Cognitive Psychology 04 Judging and Deciding 4.1 Judging 4.2 Deciding 4.3 Influencing Factors 4.4 Application ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 119 4.1 Judging Judging and Deciding - Same but Different? Judging = the process by which we form opinions, come to conclusions and critically evaluate events and people Deciding = process of choosing between alternatives, selecting and rejecting available options Processes of judgment and decision-making are interconnected The majority of judgments and decisions are guided by heuristics (= mental rules of thumb with which one quickly arrives at solutions) Heuristics (including availability, representativeness and anchoring) can lead to errors if applied incorrectly Decisions are influenced by how the various alternatives are framed. Source: Gerrig & Zimbardo (2008); Images: pixabay.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 122 4.1 Judging Judgments = Process when people assign a value to an object of judgment on a judgment dimension and explicitly express the resulting judgment Judge is aware that he is making a judgment (even if the underlying process is automatic or unconscious) Objects of judgment can be persons, objects, the self, statements, inner states, situations, abstract constructs In which everyday situations do you make a "judgment"? What is the object of judgment and what are/were the dimensions of judgment? ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 123  4.1 Judging Deductive and Inductive Judgment Deductive Judgment Inductive Thinking General/abstract → concrete/specific Concrete/specific → general Dependent on linking rules (if - then) and Require estimation of probabilities quantifiers (all, some,...), among others Examples: Examples: The sun is shining in the morning, the The credibility of a defendant has been swallows are flying high and my neighbor is assessed by experts as low, which is why a riding his bike to work. I conclude that the specific statement is classified as doubtful. weather will be good all day today. In international companies, I assume that An employee is good with Excel. I conclude my telephone partner speaks English. from this that he is mathematically gifted ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 124 4.1 Judging Judgments: Types of Judgments Kind Description Example Evaluative Include assessment on evaluative dimension I find the lamp old-fashioned judgments (e.g. positive-negative, valuable-cheap) = valence Social psychology examines evaluative judgments primarily in connection with attitudes Predictive Make predictions Real Madrid will probably win judgments Relate primarily to the assessment of the their next home game probability of future events occurring Truths Refer to the correctness or incorrectness of If no mammal lays eggs and a judgements logical conclusions chicken has laid an egg, it cannot (e.g. syllogisms) be a mammal. Social Object of judgment is another person or the I like the new head of judgments self department ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 125 4.1 Judging Judgments: Types of Judgments Special Features of Social Judgments Social judgments differ from non-social judgments (about things, events, objects, theories, etc.) in many ways: – Lack of measurability: Many characteristics by which we judge other people are not really measurable (e.g. reliability) – instead derived from a variety of cues (e.g. keeps promises, returns borrowed books without being asked, cancels appointments if unable to attend) – Interaction: Judges and “object of judgment” interact with each other and thus influence each other Image source: Pexels.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 126 4.1 Judging Judgments: How are Judgments Formed?. Memory/Organized. Knowledge.... Integration/.. Perception Categorization Judgment Stimulus Events Behavior Source: after Plessner, H.(2011). In Betsch T., Funke J. & Plessner, H. (Eds.). ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann Thinking - judging, deciding, problem solving. Springer. 127 4.1 Judging Judgments: How are Judgments Formed? Perception: The Selection of Information Judgments are largely based on perception processes, whereby not all information is further processed – Due to the limitation of human information processing capacity, a selection of information must be made → depending on the salience of the stimuli (difference and conspicuousness of a stimulus in relation to the context) – In judgment tasks, a person's perceptual sensitivity can be distinguished from a reaction criterion → Perceptual processes are measured separately from judgment processes (cf. signal detection theory) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 128 4.1 Judging Judgments: How are Judgments Formed? Categorization People structure their perception of their environment using categories: – can lead to differences between category members being reinforced (e.g. also in social judgment through social comparisons) = Accentuation effects Contrast effect: differences between categories are emphasized Assimilation effect: differences within a category are reduced – We try to confirm our assumptions and rules rather than to refute them (= "positive test strategy") – Extent of accentuation effects varies with perceived actual differences between categories ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 129 4.1 Judging Judgments: How are Judgments Formed? Memory, Previous Knowledge, Previous Experience Through top-down processes of information processing, prior knowledge is "taken into account" when forming a judgment: – Expectations can influence the selection of information that is used in judgment Tendency towards self-affirmation can also have a formative effect on the environment and other people and thus become self-fulfilling prophecies – Schemata = cognitive structures that represent knowledge about a person (or object) ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 130 4.1 Judging Judgments: How are Judgments Formed? Integration How is information integrated? Are rules applied? Normative approaches provide suggestions as to which rules of information integration should be applied in order to arrive at correct, rational judgment (normative approaches) (see logical thinking for correct reasoning) BUT: People's thinking does not always follow the laws of logic – Often only a little information is taken into account, simple rules of thumb ("heuristics") are used (see section on heuristics) – The context of the task is often decisive Image: pixabay.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 131 Cognitive Psychology 04 Judging and Deciding 4.1 Judging 4.2 Deciding 4.3 Influencing Factors 4.4 Application ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 132 4.2 Deciding Decisions = thought process in which a person makes a choice between at least two alternatives What does it take to make a decision? – Weighing up the pros and cons of the options – Weighing up the consequences for the future → Not infrequently: Conflict between different goals of the person Important elements: – Options: Alternatives between which the decision-maker can choose – Consequences: Options lead to consequences that have a value (positive, negative) for the decision-maker – Events: Events and states of the environment determine whether an option actually leads to certain consequences Image source: Pixabay ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 133 4.2 Deciding Decisions: Types of Decisions Decisions in everyday life and management are often complex (many, changing and mutually influencing factors) and not all the information is available to weigh up the consequences completely and rationally. Types of decision-making situations: − Decisions under certainty: Consequences are certain to occur, − Decision under risk: Consequences occur with a determinable probability (risk) → enables calculation of "expected values" per decision − Decision under uncertainty: Consequences occur with an indeterminable probability (uncertainty) Image source: Pixabay.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 134 4.2 Deciding Decisions: The Decision-Making Process Framework model according to Betsch et al. (2011) Identify decision – Clarifies decisions as a longer process situation – Actual choice is only part of the process Pre- Generate options selectional phase Search Pre-selection phase: information Memory – Recognize that in a decision-making situation; decide to decide Evaluate options Selectional phase – Recognizing and/or developing options and decide – Targeted search for helpful information (knowledge, previous experience, environment, etc.) Implement chosen behavior Selectional phase: Post- selectional – Evaluating the alternatives and making the actual phase decision Feedback Post-selection phase: – Controlled behavior: Implementation of the decision – Feedback/ evaluation of the decision made Source: Plessner, H.(2011). In Betsch T., Funke J. & Plessner, H. (Eds.). ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann Thinking - judging, deciding, problem solving. Springer; Becker-Carus & Wendt (2017) 135 Cognitive Psychology 04 Judging and Deciding 4.1 Judging 4.2 Deciding 4.3 Influencing Factors 4.4 Application ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 136 4.3 Influencing Factors Factors Influencing Judgments and Decisions HEURISTICS = Rules of thumb for forming an opinion are simplifying and capacity-saving (less cognitively demanding)* usually sufficiently accurate, but can lead to systematic errors ("biases" / cognitive deception) – Sequential effects (primacy and – Recognition heuristics recency effect) – "Follow-the-majority" – Availability heuristic – "Take the Best" – Representativeness heuristic – Overconfidence bias – Anchor heuristic – Hindsight bias * studied by Amor Tversky & Daniel Kahneman (70s). → Kahneman: Nobel Prize in Economics for work on 'rules of thumb' People's judgments are often based on quick, informal, simple rules of thumb (system 1: fast thinking) and not on complicated, logical thinking (system 2: slow thinking). ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 137 4.3 Influencing Factors Factors Influencing Judgments and Decisions Heuristics: Sequential Effects (Primacy and Recency Effect) = Influence of presentation order in sequential information presentation on judgment Primacy effect = Overweighting of the information that is presented first (Asch, 1946) Recency effect = overweighting of the most recently presented information (Anderson & Hubert, 1963) Both effects are influenced by other factors: the complexity of tasks the length of information sequences the consistency of information ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 138 4.3 Influencing Factors Factors Influencing Judgments and Decisions Heuristics: Availability Heuristic = Judgment based on information readily available in memory This rule of thumb replaces difficult questions about the frequency of an event or scope of a category with a simple question "how easily do we remember appropriate examples?" – Sufficiently good results in most cases – But: it becomes difficult when Nature of our memory leads to distorted basis of information for question Information stored in memory deviates systematically and significantly from actual circumstances Examples: – Are more people dying in airplane or car accidents? – How many profilers work for the police? → Overestimation of the quota, as many TV series with profilers – Proportion of coronavirus vaccination opponents? Overestimation of the rate, as there is a disproportionate amount of media coverage on the subject ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 139 4.3 Influencing Factors Factors Influencing Judgments and Decisions Heuristics: Representativeness Heuristic = evaluates the probability of events according to how closely they correspond to certain prototypes. This rule of thumb assigns an object to a certain category on the basis of a few properties that are considered typical (representative) for this category. This heuristic is very similar to inductive thinking. The conclusions drawn in this way are also often accurate. It becomes critical, If you ignore other relevant information because it is not included in the category. Example: – Would you like to play the lottery with the number sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6? Why not? Statistically speaking, it falls into the category of 'meaningful sequence’, but it actually is as likely as any other number sequence. – What newspaper are businesspeople in suits more likely to read - The Wall Street Journal or The National Enquirer? Image: pixabay.com ISM WS 2024/2025 – Cogntive Psychology - M.Sc. PM - Thiemann 140 4.3 Influencing Factors For sale: Factors Influencing Judgments and Decisions $1,200 Heuristics: Anchor Heuristic = Probability of events is insufficiently adjusted upwards or downwards from an initial value (anchor) The probable value of an event is estimated by taking an initial value (anchor) and 'extrapolating' from there (upwards or downwards) – Estimation judgment is too strongly aligned with the anchor Anchors can provide helpful orientation for certain problems - but often do not Examples: – In 5 seconds: What is the product of 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6? What is the product of 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1? Result of the first guess will be lower, because after 5 seconds, the intermediate result will be aligned to the lower anchoring