Motivation & Emotion PDF

CHAPTER 11 Motivation & Emotion 1 Motivation Outline Understanding Motivation Primary vs. Psychological Motives Motivation Theories Motivation for Personal Achievement  Motivation We have much going on with our lives and have thousands of different thoughts each day,...

CHAPTER 11 Motivation & Emotion 1 Motivation Outline Understanding Motivation Primary vs. Psychological Motives Motivation Theories Motivation for Personal Achievement  Motivation We have much going on with our lives and have thousands of different thoughts each day, but we act on portion of them Trying to understand the why is extremely challenging Motivation varies within and between individuals We are all motivated but not in the same way, at the same time, with the same people  Motivation Motivation – internal state that activate and gives direction to thoughts General term for all the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities Root is Latin movere – “to move” What causes us to think and behave in a certain way? No one theory will allow us to answer the question fully  Motivation Also concerns the conditions responsible for variation in intensity (vigor), persistence, quality (direction), and direction of ongoing behaviour (Vinacke, 1962) Biological: internal physiological state Internal factors and external Dorniden Primary Motives  Human motives for things that are necessary for survival and growth – e.g., food, water, warm, shelter, love  Governed by the midbrain & hindbrain  The hypothalamus (forebrain) governs homeostasis - thirst, sleep, body temperature, hunger, emotions Motivation Instincts Preprogrammed tendencies (that are essential for the survival of a species) that help us behave in a specific and predictable way – what are some?  Humans have biological and social instincts  William James and Charles Darwin – instincts are purposive However, reinforcement & learning play a role (operant conditioning)  Motivation  Clark Hull’s Drive Theory  Most important behaviours are motivated by internal drives – states that arise in response to physiological needs  Seek to maintain homeostasis (equilibrium) – a consistent physiological state in response to the outer environment  Drives are aroused when homeostasis is disrupted (causes tension), which pushes us towards tension reduction (we have a set point) Behaviour is also motivated by incentives – external stimuli or rewards (the pull) that aren’t directly related to biological needs – e.g., greed example in your textbook Motives  Are motives that are not directly related to the biological survival  Some psychological motives are found in each person, while others seem to be learned Expectancy Theory Expectancy – perceived likelihood that efforts will result in certain level of performance Instrumentality – perception that performance will lead to outcomes such as rewards Valence – perceived attractiveness of particular outcomes/rewards Psychodynamic Theory Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Human needs organized; arranged from most basic to personal and advanced needs Lower needs must be met first or higher needs cannot operate Hierarchy of Needs begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied then higher- level safety needs become active then psychological needs become Humanistic Theory Self-Determination Theory When deciding what to do, how to do it, when to stop doing it we desire choice (Deci & Ryan, 1985) Achievement Motivation Need For Achievement argues the desire to accomplish tasks and to attain certain standards of excellence Henry Murray (1938) argued that we have a need to achieve that varies in strength in different people Influences what we approach (or not) & our evaluations of our performance Can be measured by the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; McClelland et al., 1953) What led up to the present situation? What is going on in the present situation? What is going to happen in the future? What led up to the present situation? What is going on in the present situation? What is going to happen in the future?  Need for Achievement TAT measure of need for achievement designated as n Ach Individual differences in the importance of planning and working towards one’s goals (i.e., approach- oriented – especially in more challenging tasks) High n Ach does not always predict levels of motivation or outcomes (e.g., do not always pick the most difficult task – usually intermediate) Need for efficiency – same result for less effort or more effort for greater result (low vs. competitive task) They are able to persist base on 21 challenges, achieve more Motivation/Achievement Goal Theory Individual differences in how people define success and failure Goals How is Success Defined? Mastery Orientation – focuses on personal mastery and improvement Performance Orientation – focuses on competition, outperforming others Goals Mastery Approach Goals – motivated learn as much as I can about a subject Performance Approach Goals – motivated to outperform others in class Master Avoidance Goals – the goal is to avoid learning too little in class Performance Avoidance Goals – the goal is to avoid doing poorly in class Goals Achievement Motivation Motivational Conflict Motivational Conflict What are Emotions? Emotions are … Complex pattern of bodily and mental changes Includes physiological arousal (e.g., heart beating before a presentation), cognitive processes (I will never take a class again with presentations), and visible expressions (including face and posture – expressing fear by breathing shallow, eyebrows raised) Also involves specific behavioural reactions made in response to a situation Overview Emotion - positive or negative experience generally in reaction to stimuli (external or internal) that are accompanied by physiological arousal and characteristic behavior (happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust) Feeling – subjective representation of emotions Affect - refers to pattern of observable behaviours associated with emotions (e.g. facial expression, voice pitch). Mood - refers to a pervasive and sustained emotional response that can influence a person’s perception of the world (e.g. depressed mood) – more diffuse than an emotion Emotions vs. Moods Features of Emotions Features of Emotions 1) Motivation and attention  Emotions arouse you to take action and motivation helps sustain behaviours towards goals (just like hunger has purpose)  Motives are accompanied by emotions  Emotion focuses attention which can improve memory 2) Social functions  Regulate social interactions (glue v. repellent), and engage in prosocial/instrumental behaviours 3) Emotional effects on cognitive functioning (adaptive)  Negative emotions – narrow attention  Positive emotions – broadening of attention  Basic Emotions Charles Darwin (1872) argued that emotions evolved as part of human behaviour to deal adaptively with recurring situations They are not unpredictable and vague, but appropriate for certain stimuli - Approach vs. Avoidance The are calls to action – instrumental behaviours Silvan Tomkins (1962) Basic emotions form during the 1st 9 months of life Found that infants are “prewired” to respond to certain stimuli with emotion – physiological & behavioural reactions to fear & anger To escape life threatening experiences Similarities in basic emotions across cultures But cultural differences influence innate emotional responses – Basic Emotions 35  Can You Identify the Emotion? Fundamental Emotional Patterns Cognitive Component Self conscious emotions develop after birth and are influenced by others – e.g., pride, shame, guilt, embarrassment Cognitive Appraisals?? Culture Cultural role in emotion: Fundamental emotional patterns Some facial expressions unique to culture o Display rules/Social rules on what type of emotions should be displayed – Eastern vs. Western show of emotions, male vs. females, embarrassment in N.A. vs. Japanese students Social appropriateness of emotions dependent on context  What Is The Person In The Middle Feeling? Cultural role in emotion: Physiological Component 41 Physiological Component  Physiological Component Physiological components of emotion: helps to mobilize us to respond to the emotions Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions both involved (e.g., emergency reaction system) For mild unpleasant (sympathetic more active), for mild pleasant (parasympathetic more active) Cerebral cortex (cortical) Provides associations, memories, and meanings Left hemisphere (+ emotions) Right hemisphere (-) Approach-related versus withdrawal-related Hypothalamus & limbic system (amygdala) Amygdala is associated with fear and anger (message from thalamus & cerebral cortex) Integration of hormonal & neural aspects of arousal  Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory of Body Reaction William James & Carl Lange Perceiving a stimulus causes autonomic arousal and other bodily actions that lead to experience of a specific emotion (peripheralist – somatic theory of emotion) e.g., fearful because we tremble Cannon-Bard Theory of Central Neural Processes Walter Cannon & Philip Bard Physiological reactions did not precede emotions Emotional stimuli produce two concurrent of Emotion Conscious emotional experiences are caused by feedback to the cerebral cortex from physiological Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory of Body Reaction Perceiving a stimulus causes autonomic arousal and other bodily actions that lead to experience of a specific emotion (peripheralist) e.g., fearful because we tremble Cannon-Bard Theory of Central Neural Processes Emotional stimuli produce two concurrent reactions: arousal and the experience of emotion (centralist) Example - if a meteor exploded over Toronto of Emotion Conscious emotional experiences and physiological reactions and behavior are relatively independent Theories of Emotion Cognitive Appraisal Theories (2 Factor Theory) Stanley Schacter Emotion is joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal (similar, yet different than Cannon- Bard) Believed that all arousal is general and undiffentiated You then appraise the arousal and discover what emotion it is – example – you experience fear, because time for the exam is coming to an end or you experience joy because the exam is coming to an end. Richard Lazarus Emotion involves automatic appraisals of environment You search for interpretation based on the environment – am I nervous because of the test or the Cognitive Theory of Emotion Cognitive interpretation of events in the outside world and stimuli from our own bodies is the key factor in