Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching Module - Isabela State University PDF

Republic of the Philippines **ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY** Echague, Isabela **MODULE** **SEd/EEd Prof Ed. 214-** **FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING** **Module III: Focus on Learning** **Unit 1: Behaviourist Perspective** **Topic 1: Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner** The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior of an individual. It emphasizes that behaviorism is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (Rewards and Punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of the thought processes occurring in the mind. In this module, you will learn the principle of Behaviorism Theory for the learning progress of the student. **Learning Outcomes** After completing this module, you should be able to: 1. explain the basic principles of behaviorism; 2. devise a framework applying the primary laws of learning; 3. determine the appropriate rewards in learning effectively. **Learning Content** **Introduction to Behaviorism Theory** Behaviorism refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. The behaviorist movement began in [](C:/Users/User/Documents/New%20folder/New%20folder/tel:1913) when John Watson wrote an article entitled \'Psychology as the behaviorist views it,\' which set out a number of underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis: **Basic Assumptions** All behavior is learned from the environment. Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as \'learning theory\').Therefore, when born our mind is \'tabula rasa\' (a blank slate).The components of a theory should be as simple as possible. Behaviorists propose the use of operational definitions (defining variables in terms of observable, measurable events). Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion: While behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured.Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals.There\'s no fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal behavior. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans (i.e., comparative psychology).Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data for behaviorists, as their environments could be easily controlled. **The Behaviorism (Biography, Laws and Theories)** **Ivan Pavlov** He was a Russian Physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's most renowned experiment involves the meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog's salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical Conditioning. **Pavlov's Experiment** Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing food (Unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response).\ \ **An Illustration of Classical Conditioning:** *Stage 1 - Before conditioning* *\ \ Stage 2-During conditioning* *Stage 3- After conditioning* **Pavlov findings:** 1. **Stimulus Generalization**- Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sound. 2. **Extinction**- if you stop comparing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell. 3. **Spontaneous Recovery**- Extinguished response ca be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food. 4. **Discrimination**- the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimulus) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of the food and which would not**.** 5. **Higher- Order Conditioning**- Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell. **Edward Thorndike** He was an influential psychologist who is often referred to as the founder of modern educational psychology. He was perhaps best-known for his famous puzzle box experiments with cats which led to the development of his law of effect. Thorndike\'s principle suggests that responses immediately followed by satisfaction will be more likely to recur. His Theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled, educational Psychology. He explained that the learning is result of associations forming between stimulus (S) and response (R).The main principle of connectionism (like all behavior theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without considering any unobservable internal states. It is the strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. **He came up with the three laws:** 1. **Law of Effect**- The law of effect states that the connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequence is the positive (Reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this "law" when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. 2. **Law of Exercise-** This tells us that the more an S-R (Stimulus-Response) bond is the practiced the stronger it will become. "Practice makes perfect" seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance**.** 3. **Law of Readiness-** This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger, will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, "Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you've been waiting for". And suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but ware prevented from doing so. **John B. Watson** He was a pioneering psychologist who played an important role in developing behaviorism. Watson believed that psychology should primarily be scientific observable behavior. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process, as well as the Little Albert experiment, in which he demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus. His research also revealed that this fear could be generalized to other similar objects. He considered that the humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus and response associations through conditioning. **Experiment on Albert** Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat: but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child's response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then "extinguished" or made the child "unlearn" fear by showing the rat without the loud noise. Surely, Watson's research methods would be questioned today; nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of the emotional responses to certain stimulus. **Burrhus Frederick Skinner** He was an American psychologist best-known for his influence on behaviorism. Skinner referred to his own philosophy as \'radical behaviorism\' and suggested that the concept of free will was simply an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was the direct result of conditioning. Skinner's work was different from that of the three behaviorists before him that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behavior used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came to be known as Operant Theory.\ \ **Operant Conditioning** is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to event (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produced a consequently such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular stimulus-response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (reward) the individual is conditioned to respond.\ \ **Reinforcement** is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desire response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.\ \ **Positive Reinforcement** is any stimulus that is given or added to the increase the response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in play area to children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cellphone for her son who gets good grades. Still, other examples include verbal praises, star stamps and stickers.\ \ **Negative Reinforcement** is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed. Negative reinforcer in not a punishment, in fact it is reward. For instance, a teacher announces that student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods will no longer take the final examination. **The Extinction and Non-reinforcement** 1. **Shaping of Behavior**- an animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a level will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. 2. **Behavioral Chaining**- comes about when series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being taught to tie shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (reward) until the process of tying the shoelace is learned. 3. **Reinforcement Schedules**- Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules. 4. **Fixed Interval Schedule**- The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforce) every 10 minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar. 5. **Variable Interval Schedules-** This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of the time that must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every ten minutes. 6. **Fixed Ratio Schedules**- A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur. Example, the bird will be given a food (reinforcer) everytime it presses the bar 5 times. 7. **Variable Ratio Schedules-** The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given a food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before it gets food again. **COMPARISON CHART** **Basis for Comparison** **Classical Conditioning** **Operant Conditioning** ------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Meaning** Classical Conditioning is a process in which learning is possible by forming association between stimuli. Operant conditioning refers to the learning in which the organism studies the relation between responses and its consequences. **Stresses on** What precedes response? What follows response? **Based on** Involuntary or reflexive behavior. Voluntary Behavior. **Stimulus** Conditioned and Unconditioned stimuli are well defined. Conditioned stimulus is not defined. **Occurrence of unconditioned stimulus** Controlled by experimenter Controlled by organism. The Behaviorism Theory is based on the behavioral study and that behavior is determined by the environment. It occurs through interaction with the environment and we learned how to response to the stimuli that shapes us. This emphasizes of our behavior is we learned through conditioning and reinforcement (Having a rewards or punishment). **Teaching and Learning Activities** Watch the two videos as shown on the link provided. Choose one and write a one- page (300-500 words) reaction paper [[https://www.khanacademy.org]](https://www.khanacademy.org) [[https://www.simplypsychology.org]](https://www.simplypsychology.org) **Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.** - Handouts (pdf) upload **Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted** - Google classroom - Module - exercises **Assessment Task** ![Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/702/702797.png](media/image2.png)**Guide Questions** 1. What are the differences between behaviorism and behaviorist? 2. How do Classical and Operant conditioning affect the learning? 3. As a future educator, how will you apply the primary laws while you teach a topic? Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/996/996371.png**Activity 1** **Directions:** Spend time observing the child interaction in their environment such as in School. Observe the child reacts in stimulus and how the child response to it. Pay attention on the behavior of the child whenever there is a reward or punishment (Conditioning and reinforcement). ![Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/1925/1925168.png](media/image4.png) **Evaluation** **Thorndike's Connectionism** How would you apply the three primary Laws as a student? **Primary Laws** **APPLICATION** --------------------------------------------------------- ----------------- 1\. Law of Effect (Positive and Negative Reinforcement) 2\. Law of Exercise 3\. Law of Readiness **References:** **A. Book** - **Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. *(****2007).* Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process: Lorimar Publishing[.] Retrieved November 17, 2019. **B. Websites** - [. Retrieved November 17, 2019.] - [.] Retrieved November 17, 2019. - [.] Retrieved November 17, 2019. **Module 3: Focus on the Learning** **Topic 2: Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura** Tolman's theorizing has been called purposive behaviorism and is often considered the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory. According to Tolman's theory of sign learning, an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22). **Learning Outcomes** After completing this module, you should be able to: 1. Explain Tolman's purposive behaviorism and Bandura's social learning theory **Learning Content** Tolman (1932) proposed five types of learning: (1) approach learning, (2) escape learning, (3) avoidance learning, (4) choice-point learning, and (5) latent learning. All forms of learning depend upon means-end readiness, i.e., goal-oriented behavior, mediated by expectations, perceptions, representations, and other internal or environmental variables. Tolman's version of behaviorism emphasized the relationships between stimuli rather than stimulus-response (Tolman, 1922). According to Tolman, a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significate) through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. For this reason, Tolman's theory was closer to the connectionist framework of Thorndike than the drive reduction theory of drive reduction theory of Hull or other behaviorists. Although Tolman intended his theory to apply to human learning, almost all of his research was done with rats and mazes. Tolman (1942) examines motivation towards war, but this work is not directly related to his learning theory. Much of Tolman's research was done in the context of place learning. In the most famous experiments, one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997). The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised. **Biography of Tolman** **Edward C. Tolman** is best-known for cognitive behaviorism, his research on cognitive maps, the theory of latent learning and the concept of an intervening variable. Tolman was born on April 14, 1886, and died on November 19, 1959. **Early Life of Edward C. Tolman** Tolman originally started his academic life studying physics, mathematics, and chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After reading William James\' Principles of Psychology, he decided to shift his focus to the study of psychology. He enrolled at Harvard where he worked in Hugo Munsterberg\'s lab. In addition to being influenced by James, he also later said that his work was heavily influenced by Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin. He graduated with a Ph.D. in 1915. **Tolman\'s Career and Contributions to Psychology** Tolman is perhaps best-known for his work with rats and mazes. Tolman\'s work challenged the behaviorist notion that all behavior and learning is a result of the basic stimulus-response pattern. In a classic experiment, rats practiced a maze for several days. Then, the familiar path they normally took was blocked. According to the behaviorist view, the rats had simply formed associations about which behaviors were reinforced and which were not. Instead, Tolman discovered that the rats had formed a mental map of the maze, allowing them to choose a novel path to lead them to the reward. His theory of latent learning suggests that learning occurs even if no reinforcement is offered. Latent learning is not necessarily apparent at the time, but that appears later in situations where it is needed. Tolman\'s concepts of latent learning and cognitive maps helped pave the way for the rise of cognitive psychology. **Biography of Bandura** **Albert Bandura**, (born December 4, 1925, Mundare, Alberta, Canada), Canadian-born American psychologist and originator of social cognitive theory who is probably best known for his modeling study on aggression, referred to as the "Bobo doll" experiment, which demonstrated that children can learn behaviors through the observation of adults. **Early Life and Work** Bandura was the youngest of six children born to parents of eastern European descent. His father was from Kraków, Poland, and his mother from Ukraine; both immigrated to Canada as adolescents. After marrying, they settled in Mundare, Alberta, where Bandura's father worked laying track for the trans-Canada railroad. After graduating from high school in 1946, Bandura pursued a bachelor's degree at the University of British Columbia and in 1949 graduated with the Bolocan Award in psychology, annually awarded to the outstanding student in psychology. He then did graduate work at the University of Iowa, where he received a master's degree in psychology (1951) and a doctorate in clinical psychology (1952). In 1953 Bandura accepted a one-year instructorship at Stanford University, where he quickly secured a professorship. In 1974 he was named the David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology, and two years later he became chairman of the psychology department. He remained at Stanford, becoming professor emeritus in 2010. **Later Life and Work** Bandura was the first to demonstrate (1977) that self-efficacy, the belief in one's own capabilities, has an effect on what individuals choose to do, the amount of effort they put into doing it, and the way they feel as they are doing it. Bandura also discovered that learning occurs both through those beliefs and through social modeling---thereby originating social cognitive theory (1986), which holds that a person's environment, cognition, and behaviour all interact to determine how that person functions, as opposed to one of those factors playing a dominant role. Bandura received numerous awards for his contributions to the field of psychology, including the American Psychological Association (APA) Award for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology (2004), the American Psychological Foundation's Gold Medal Award for distinguished lifetime contribution to psychological science (2006), and the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Psychology (2008; carrying a \$200,000 prize) for his groundbreaking work in self-efficacy and cognitive theory. In 2016 he received the National Medal of Science. Bandura also held many organizational memberships and positions, including APA president (1974) and American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS) fellow (1980). Bandura was associated for many years with a variety of academic journals, including the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Applied Psychology, Media Psychology, Cognitive Therapy and Research, Behavior Research and Therapy, and Social Behavior and Personality. He also authored, coauthored, or edited a number of books, including Adolescent Aggression (1959), Principles of Behavior Modification (1969), Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis (1973), and Social Learning Theory (1977). In 2002 the Review of General Psychology ranked Bandura as the fourth most eminent psychologist of the 20th century, following B.F. Skinner, Jean Piaget, and Sigmund Freud. **Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism** Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman's theory was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists and those of John Watson, the behaviorist. Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior. Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e.., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized aspect of learning. "The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determine what responses, if any, the animal will finally make." Tolman's form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the *sign*) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the *significate*) through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your maze activity, the new stimuli or "sign" (maze B) became associated with already meaningful stimuli, the *significate* (maze A). So you may have connected the two stimuli, maze A and maze B; and use your knowledge and experience in maze A to learn to respond to maze B. **Tolman Key Concepts** **Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.** Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strived toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive. **Cognitive maps in rats.** In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the **location** rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is tendency to "learn location" signified the rats somehow formed **cognitive maps** that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that **organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.** Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to school every day, he requires cognitive map of location of his school. So when transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest or easiest way. **Latent Learning** Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently learned the maze by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they needed to. Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the T.V. remote control and observes how the T.V. is turned on or how channel is changed, and volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that on the first time that their daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons to press for what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand, even though she has never done them before. **The concept of intervening variable**. Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants \'of behavior, Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable. **Reinforcement, not essential for learning**. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze,.i.e., to developa cognitive map, even in the absence of reinforcement. **Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory** **Social learning theory** focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy ***Sergio Pelico*** did watch Saddam's execution on TV and then must have imitated it. Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory. **General principles of social learning theory** 1\. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. 2\. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change\' in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. 3\. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit 4\. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. **How the Environment Reinforces and Punishes Modelling** People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways: \' e 1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group. 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing the behavior. 3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Man, behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcement results. For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in tins would do the same extra work and also experience enjoyment. 4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observer's behavior l vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll. **Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment** 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause. 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned. 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, when the teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know the information for a test. **Cognitive Factors in Social Learning** Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually operant factors). 1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman's latent learning. 2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in learning: 3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to be aware, however, of the response reinforcements and response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that connection. 4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other. 5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs. **Behaviors that can be learned through Modeling** Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Research indicates that children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modeling. **Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur** Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else: 1. **Attention**- The person must first pay attention to the model. 2. **Retention**- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of 1ncreasing this is using the technique of rehearsal. 3. **Motor reproduction**- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion. 4. **Motivation**- The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior differently. **Effects of Modeling on Behavior** 1. Modeling teaches new behaviors. 2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors. 3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors. 4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a student might see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough for basketball. **Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory** Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use. 1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. \' 2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors. 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning; modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors. 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes. **Teaching and Learning Activities** Watch the two videos as shown on the link provided. Choose one and write a one- page (300-500 words) reaction paper [[https://m.youtube.com]](https://m.youtube.com) [[https://cosmolearning.org]](https://cosmolearning.org) **Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.** - Handouts (pdf) upload **Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted** - Google classroom - module **Assessment Task** ![Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/702/702797.png](media/image2.png)**Guide Questions** 1. What is Neo behaviorism? 2. What is the connection between *Tolman*'s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura's Social Learning Theory? 3. Why did *Tolman* conclude that reinforcement is not essential for learning? 4. What are the factors in social learning? Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/996/996371.png**Activity 1** Form a group with five members and discuss about the two theories of Tolman and Bandura. After discussing it in your group, formulate at least 5 questions that will be answered by the other groups. Each group should not throw questions that are relevant to the questions of other group. This question and answer challenge is for you to master the overview of Neo Behaviorism.(Google Classroom) ![Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/1925/1925168.png](media/image4.png) **Evaluation** **Multiple Choice.** Read the following questions below and choose the best answer that corresponds to the questions. 1. These were the transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning. a. Existentialists b. Psychologists 2. Tolman's theory was founded on these two psychological views. One of these is the Gestalt psychologists and those of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_? a. Those of Bandura's theories b. Those of John Locke's view of formal discipline c. Those of John Watson, the behaviorist d. Those of John Dewey, the pragmatist 3. Why does Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process? a. Because learning requires intelligent mind b. Because it involves active awareness of cognitive development c. Because it involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge d. Because learning is individual's power to survive 4. These were the transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning. a\. Existentialists b. Psychologists c\. Behaviorists d. Behaviorists 5. Tolman's theory was founded on these two psychological views. One of these is the Gestalt psychologists and those of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_? a. Those of Bandura's theories b. Those of John Locke's view of formal discipline c. Those of John Watson, the behaviourist d. Those of John Dewey, the pragmatist 6. Why does Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process? a. Because learning requires intelligent mind b. Because it involves active awareness of cognitive development c. Because it involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge d. Because learning is individual's power to survive 7. Purposive behaviorism is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory and is also referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_? a. Social learning theory b. Cognitive theory c. Gestalt theory d. Sign learning theory 8. Where does social learning theory focus? a. Environment b. Family c. Friends and peers d. Social context **True or False.** Write **true** if the statement is correct and write **false** if it's not, then underline the word/s that are incorrect and write the correct answer through the given space before each number. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have direct effects on learning. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_2. Neo behaviorism has aspects of behaviorism but it also reaches out to the cognitive perspective. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_3. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_4. "Modeling may discourage previously forbidden behaviors" is one of the effects of modeling on behavior. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_5. On educational implications of Bandura's theory, students often learn a great deal simply by learning other people. **References** **A. Book** - **Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus.** *(2007).* Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process: Lorimar Publishing **B. Website** - *https://www.academia.edu/34757010/Module\_8\_Neo\_Behaviorism\_Tolman\_and\_Bandura\_INRODUCTION.*. Retrieved November 17, 2019. **Unit 2: Cognitive Perspective** **Topic 1: Gestalt Psychology** Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic focus of behaviourism. It considered the mental processes and products of perception. **Learning Outcomes** After completing this module, you should be able to: 1. Categorize specific applications of each theory in the teaching- learning process 2. Demonstrate ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching- learning process **Learning Content** **GESTALT THEORY** Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt means "form" or "configuration." Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experience, needs, attitude and one's present situation can affect their perception. According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These principles or laws determine what we see or make of things or situations we meet. **Gestalt Principles** **(1) Law of Proximity.** Elements that are close together will be perceived as a coherent object. On the left there appears to be three columns, while on the right, there appears to be three horizontal rows. When objects we are perceiving are near each\ other, we perceive them as belonging together. ![](media/image5.jpeg) **(3) Law of Closure.** We tend to fill the gaps or "close" the figures we perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure. **(4) Law of Good Continuation.** Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People tend t draw a good continuous line. ![](media/image7.jpeg) **(5) Law of Good Pragnanz.** The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry,\\ simplicity and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated shaped. Based on our experiences with perception, we "expect" certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern. **(6) Law of Figure/Ground.** We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground. (*Figures designed by jenny Fultz of Anderson University*) **Insight Learning** Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top of a chimpanzee's cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing on and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler's apes (Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler's very intelligent ape, was able to master a two-stick problem by insetting one stick into the end of the other in order to reach the food In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning. Kohler proposed the view that might follows from the characteristics of objects under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when the individual perceived the relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes there elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight. This could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training, or investigation is necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another person. **Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process** The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact on learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on Gestalt psychology. His theory focusing on "life space" adhered to Gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his learning. Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates. All these forces interact and impact on the person's learning. Maria Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes about the relevance of Gestalt psychology to education. *Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It takes interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all that emerge. It stimulates learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning. It appreciates the affections and meaning that awe attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is conceived as a continuous organization and rearrangement of information according to needs, purposes and meanings. It asserts that learning is not accumulation but remodelling or insight. Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodelling is respected. The contact experience between teachers and students is given value: an authentic meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.* **Teaching and Learning Activities** - Read about cognitive perspectives or watch a video about these topics. Make a summary of the different cognitive perspective **Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.** - Reading text (pdf) - Open Educational Sources **Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted** - Google classroom - module **Assessment Task** ![Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/702/702797.png](media/image2.png)**Guide Questions** **1. What are gestalt principles?** **2. What are** Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process? Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/996/996371.png**Activity 1** ![Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/1925/1925168.png](media/image4.png) **True or False. Write T if the statement is correct and F if it is false.** \_\_\_\_\_1. The law of proximity explained that similar lessons should be grouped together to make learners develop understanding more effectively. \_\_\_\_\_2. Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to essentialism.\ \_\_\_\_\_3. The law of good continuation explained that lessons should be taught closely to each other.\ \_\_\_\_\_4. According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by certain principles.\ \_\_\_\_\_5. The law of closure tends to fill the gaps to the figure we perceive. **References:** **A. Book** - **Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus.** *(2007).* Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019. **Topic 2: Information Processing** Information Processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process. **Learning outcomes** After completing this module, you should be able to: 1. discuss the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge; and 2. evaluate educational implications of the theory on information processing **Learning Content** **Information Processing Theory (IPT)** Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in the Information Processing Theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the human mind. Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what he/she receives shapes what she/he will learn. All those notions comprise what is called **the information processing theory.** IPT describes how the learners receives information or (stimuli) from the environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and long-term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieve or "remembered" when the learner needs it. We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive. **"Types" of Knowledge** - General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one. - Declarative: This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They maybe in the form of a word or an image. - Procedural: This includes knowledge on how to do things. - Episodic: This includes memories of life events. - Conditional: This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural strategies. **Stages in the Information Processing Theory** The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short term memory, and the long term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc). These three primary stages in IPT are: - Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived and attended to. - Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding. - Retrieval - the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory. What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theorist of information processing revolved around three main stages in the memory process: **Sensory Register** The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information to a very brief time. - Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds can hold or perceive - Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief period- the order of one to three seconds. - There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent than visual. **Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)** - Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 "chunks" of information, sometimes described as 7 + /-2. It is called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate researches to process the information or until the information is forgotten. - Duration: around 18 seconds or less. - To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do **maintenance rehearsal**. It is using repetition to keep the information active on STM. **Long- Term Memory (LTM)** The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the stored information until needed again. - Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity. - Duration: duration in the LTM is indefinite. **Executive Control Processes** The **executive control processes** involve the executive processor or what is referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system help the learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize or interpret information. **Forgetting** Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs: - Decay: information is not attended to, and eventually 'fades' away. Very prevalent in working memory. - Interference: New or old information \'blocks\' access to the information in question. **Methods for Increasing Retrieval for Information** 1. Rehearsal: This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or allowed. 2. Meaningful Learning: This is making connections between new information and prior knowledge. 3. Organization: It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled. 4. Elaboration: This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning. 5. Visual Imagery: This means forming a "teacher" of the information. 6. Generation: Things we 'produce' are easier to remember than things we 'hear'. 7. Context: Remembering the situation helps recover information. 8. Personalization: It is making the information relevant to the individual. **Other Memory Methods** 1. Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy): You will remember the beginning and end of a 'list' more readily. 2. Part Learning: Break up the 'list' or "chunk" information to increase memorization. 3. Distributed Practice: Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice). 4. Mnemonic Aids: These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve information more effectively. Resulta ng larawan para sa executive control processes including metacognition **The Information Processing Model** Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later. **Teaching and Learning Activities** - Ask the students to discuss the topic as shown on the link provided. Write a summary of your readings [[https://lo.unisa.edu.au]](https://lo.unisa.edu.au) **Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.** - Handouts (pdf) upload **Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted** - Google classroom - Module - exercises **Assessment Task** ![Description: Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/702/702797.png](media/image2.png)**Guide Questions** 1. **What is the importance of IPT or Information Processing Theory?** 2. **What is the difference between long term and short term theory?** 3. **What are some methods that can increase your retrieval of information?** Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/996/996371.png**Activity 24** As a small group, cite a teaching implication of the information process given below. Number one is given. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Process** | **Teaching Implication/s** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1\. Information is received | 1.1 Be sure that the learners' | | through the senses. | senses are functioning well. | | | | | | 1.2 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2\. If information is not | 2.1 | | relevant, it decays. | | | | 2.2 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3\. If information goes to the | 3.1 | | Short Term Memory and if given | | | attention and is found to be | 3.2 | | relevant, it is sent to the | | | Long Term Memory. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4\. If information is not | 4.1 | | properly encoder, forgetting | | | occurs. | 4.2 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5\. There are methods to | 5.1 | | increase retrieval of | | | information when needed. | 5.2 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ![Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/1925/1925168.png](media/image4.png) **Evaluation** **Essay**. Answer the following questions briefly. 1. As a student, how are you going to use the different techniques to make information processing more effective? 2. How will you apply this theory in your daily life? 3. What do you think is the importance of the IPM in your learning? **Reference:** **A. Book** - **Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus.** *(2007).* Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process: Lorimar Publishing **Topic 3: Gagne\'s Conditions of Learning** **This module stipulates that there are several different types of or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there ,must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.** **Learning Outcomes** After completing this module, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. **Learning Content** In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instruction events that serve as basis for the sequencing of instruction. **Gagne\'s Conditions of Learning** 1. **Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes**. Gagne\'s theory asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning. Futhermore, the theory implies that each different type of learning calls for different types of instruction. **Gagne named five categories of learning; verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.** Distinct internal and external conditions are required for each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be an opportunity for problem solving; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to credible role model or arguments that are convincing and moving. Below are the categories of learning worth corresponding learning outcomes and conditions of learning. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Category of | **Examples of | **Conditions of | | Learning** | Learning Outcome** | Learning** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Verbal | | | | Information** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Intellectual | | | | Skills**: | | | | | | | | Discrminations, | | | | | | | | Concrete Concepts, | | | | | | | | Defined Concepts, | | | | | | | | Rules, Higher Order | | | | Rules | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cognitive | | | | Strategies** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Attitudes** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Motor Skills** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ 2. **Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and as a sequence of instruction.** Gagne suggest that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity; stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept, formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of in instruction. 3. **Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.** These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media. The theory includes **nine instructional events** and corresponding cognitive processes. Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of instruction. Example: Lesson: Equilateral Triangles Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles Target group: Grade 4 pupils 1. Gain attention- show variety of computer generated triangles 2. Identify objective - pose question: \"What is an equilateral triangle?\" 3. Recall prior learning-review definition of equilateral triangle 4. Present stimulus- give definition of equilateral triangle 5. Guide learning-show example of how to create an equilateral triangle 6. Elicit performance- ask students to create 5 different examples 7. Provide feedback- check all examples as correct/incorrect 8. Asses performance- provide scores and remediation 9. Enhance retention/transfer- show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals **Teaching and Learning Activities** - Read about Gagne\'s Conditions of Learning or watch a video about this topic. Make a summary of the **nine instructional events** and corresponding cognitive processes. **Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.** - Handouts (pdf) upload **Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted** - Google classroom - Module - exercises **Assessment Task** Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/702/702797.png**Guide Questions** 1. What are the different instructions required for different learning outcomes? 2. What ways constitute the conditions of learning? 3. Define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction? ![Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/996/996371.png](media/image3.png)**Activity 1** After reading the entire module, see if you can arrange the nine steps in lesson presentation (instructional events) in their proper order. Read and arrange the steps by numbering them. Form groups of 5 for this activity.(use Google Classroom for grouping) 1\. Guidance of student\'s performance 2\. Recall prior learning 3\. Enhance retention and transfer 4\. Gain attention 5\. Provide feedback 6\. Assess performance 7\. Present stimulus 8\. Elicit performance 9\. Identify the objective Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/1925/1925168.png **Evaluation** Enumerate the categories of learning in Gagne\'s conditions of learning and give your insight about it using graphic organizer. **Reference:** **A. Book** - **Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus.** *(2007).* Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process: Lorimar Publishing **Topic 4: Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory** Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or presentational manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role in learning as providers of information, while students remain as passive receivers of information. David Ausubel's, instead of criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning. **Learning Outcomes** After completing this module, you should be able to: 1. 2. **Learning content** The main theme of Ausubel's theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already known. It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal / textual presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning. **Basic Assumptions to Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory:** One of the strongest criticisms of the information processing model was that it did not account for variation in the effort necessary to acquire knowledge of different content types or by different learners. Ausubel was formally referring to his theory as *assimilation* theory in order to "emphasize a major characteristic; the important interactive role that existing cognitive structures play in the process of new learning" (Ausubel et al., 1978). To contextualize his theory, Ausubel et al. distinguished between two types of learning, *rote* and *meaningful,* and argued that contrary to some popular claims. Most school learning was not rote, but meaningful. The rote learning of lists of nonsense syllables and arbitrarily paired adjectives is representative of few defensible learning tasks in modern classrooms. Like memorization of representational equivalents (lists of vocabulary in foreign language study, the values of various constants in mathematics and science) tends to form a very small portion of the curriculum, especially beyond the elementary school years, once children have mastered the basic letter and number symbols. While Meaningful learning of verbally presented materials constitutes the principal means of augmenting the learner's store of knowledge, both within and outside the classroom. Hence, no research program purporting to advance this objective can avoid coming to grips with the fundamental variables involved in meaningful learning. According to Ausubel et al. (1978) both rote and meaningful learning could occur in two different modes, *reception* and *discovery*. Though not completely against them, Ausubel et al. felt that "discovery methods of teaching hardly constitute an efficient *primary* means of transmitting the *content* of an academic discipline. This inefficiency was due to the extra effort required by the learner. Where in reception learning "the entire content of what is to be learned is presented to the learner in its final form" (Ausubel, 1961), discovery learning requires a much greater effort in which learners must "rearrange a given array of information, integrate it with existing cognitive structure, and reorganize or transform the integrated combination in such a way as to create a desired end product or discover the missing means-end relationship". In the end "the discovered content is internalized just as in reception learning". In verbal reception learning, presented material is merely "internalized," i.e., made available (functionally reproducible) for future use. Reception learning is meaningful provided that the learner adopts a set to relate the material to cognitive structure, and that the material itself is logically, i.e., non-arbitrarily, relatable thereto. In other words, pupils do not independently have to discover concepts or generalizations before they can understand or use them meaningfully. (Ausubel, 1962) Ausubel assumed a model of cognitive organization that supposed "the existence of a cognitive structure that is hierarchically organized in terms of highly inclusive conceptual traces under which are subsumed traces of less inclusive sub-concepts as well as traces of specific informational data". Ausubel et al. (1978) later described three learning processes by which new knowledge is assimilated into existing cognitive structure. **Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory** **Focus of Ausubel's Theory** 1. The important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of the learner's present knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, propositions, theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to his/her cognitive structure. 2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to ideas that the learner already posses. Ausubel believed that before new material can be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of new information is facilitated (assimilation). The way to strengthen the student's cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to already have a bird's eye view or to see the "big picture "of the topic to be learned even before going to the details. Ausubel's belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption. He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, Ausubel pointed out, that what is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that one's own prior knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned. Also retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts. **Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:** Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an example of a concept that you already learned. Let's say you have acquired a basic concept such as "bird". You know that a bird has feathers, a beak, lays egg (*schema*). Now you learn about a kind of that you have never seen before, let's says an Isabela oriole (*assimilation*), that conforms attached to your previous understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of Isabela oriole is attached to your concept of bird, without substantially altering that concept in any way (*accommodation*). So in Ausubel's theory, you had learned about Isabela oriole through the process of derivative subsumption. Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let's say you see new kind of bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn't fly but can run fast. In order to accommodate this new information, you have to expand your concept of bird to include the possibility of being big and having long legs. You now include your concept of an ostrich to your previous concept of what a bird is. You have learned about this new kind of bird through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense you might say that this is more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept. Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with passion pomegranate, strawberry, grapes, apple etc., but the child did not know, until he or she was taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this case, the child already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to him/her. This is Superordinate learning. Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The first three learning processes all include new information that relates to a hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge. Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related, "branch"). It is a lot like as learning by analogy. For example, to teach someone how plants "breathe" you might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man inhales oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide. **Advance Organizers.** The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The advance organizer gives you two benefits: 1. You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about the topic. 2. You can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other. As you go about learning and go through the four learning processes, the advance organizers helps you link the new learning to your existing scheme. As such, advance organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure. Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas that presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers acts as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas. Types of Advance Organizers: 1. Expository - describes the new content. ![](media/image10.jpeg) 2. Narrative -- presents the new information in the form of a story to students. 3. Skimming -- is done by looking over the new content to gain abasic overview. ![](media/image12.jpeg) 4. Graphic Organizer -- visual set up or outline the new information. This may include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns and concept maps. Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning **/Subsumption Theory.** Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity. Furthermore Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas. Ausubel's theory has commonalities with [[Gestalt theories ]](http://instructionaldesign.org/theories/gestalt/)and those that involve [[schema ]](http://instructionaldesign.org/concepts/schema/)(e.g., Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities with [[Bruner's "spiral learning" model ]](http://instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist/), although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of [[Piaget]](http://instructionaldesign.org/theories/genetic-epistemology/) on cognitive development. **Teaching and Learning Activities** Watch the video as shown on the link provided. Make a summary of Ausubel's meaningful learning.. [[https://aminsalmee.wixsite.com]](https://aminsalmee.wixsite.com) **Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.** - Reading text (pdf) **Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted** - Google classroom - Module **Assessment Task** ![Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/702/702797.png](media/image2.png)**Guide Questions** 1. How do advance organizers hasten the learning of the students? 2. As a future educator, how would you apply Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory? 3. How does Ausubel's theory , Gestalt Psychology and Bruner's theory are interrelated and explain how their concepts and principles complement each other. Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/996/996371.png**Activity 12** **Directions:** Choose any topics in this module and present your output using a graphic organizer. Work individually. ![Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/1925/1925168.png](media/image4.png) **Evaluation** Name:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Course & Year level:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ **Directions:** Give your answer on the following questions. Write it on a sheet of paper. 1. Discuss the implications of four meaningful learning processes? 2. How can the advance organizer help the students? 3. How it important is that advance organizer is presented prior to the discussion? **References:** **A. Books** - Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. *(2007).* Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019 - Underwood, B. J. (*1959*). *Verbal learning in the educative processes*. Harvard Educational Review. Retrieved November 18, 2019 - Ebbinghaus (*1913*). Individual differences in retention and acquisition, as well as differences based on different content types were noted at least as early as 1913. Retrieved November 18, 2019 - [[https://principlesoflearning.wordpress.com/dissertation/chapter-3-literature-review-2/the-cognitive-perspective/subsumption-theory-david-p-ausubel-1962/]](https://principlesoflearning.wordpress.com/dissertation/chapter-3-literature-review-2/the-cognitive-perspective/subsumption-theory-david-p-ausubel-1962/). Retrieved November 18, 2019 **Topic 5: Bruner's Constructivist Theory** Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current or past knowledge. The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience \"generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions\" (Bruner, 1957, p. 234). Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the \"recurrent regularities\" in their environment. So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to \"invent\" these things for oneself. Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and \"culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities.\" These culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual\'s response. **Learning Outcomes** 1. discuss constructivism in facilitating learning; 2. describe strategies to promote knowledge construction and to facilitate conceptual learning; and 3. explain the process of the spiral curriculum **Learning Content** **The Bruner's main concepts** Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge. **1. Enactive representation (action-based)** This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle. The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an infant will "shake a rattle" which has just been removed or dropped, as if the movements themselves are expected to produce the accustomed sound. And this is not just limited to children. Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form. **2. Iconic representation** This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the mind's eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don't experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information. **3. Symbolic representation** This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class. Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc., so the user isn't constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems. *Bruner\'s constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner\'s work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.* Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher's level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learners 'cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned. **THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION** ***Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:*** **[1. Predisposition to learn.]** He introduced the ideas of "readiness for learning". Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child\'s cognitive abilities. This feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general or of learning something in particular. - Motivational cultural and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teachers and parental influence on this. - He believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a child a spontaneous explorations. **[2. Structure of Knowledge.]** This refers to the ways in which a body of Knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily gasped by the Leaner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques. a\. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible. **[3. Effective sequencing.]** No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas \'over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of hill understanding and mastery. **[4. Reinforcement.]** Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Brunet did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class making Bruner gave much attention to categorization information in the construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that ***perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making*** inferences all involved categorization. Categories are "rules\" that specify four things about objectives. Four things are given below: 1. Criteria attribute required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category. 2. The second rule prescribes how the criteria attributes are combined. 3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. 4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. **There are several kinds of categories:** 1\. Identity categories include objects based on their attributes or features. 2\. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories). Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects \' equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, "car\", "truck". "van\" could all be combined in an inclusive category called "motor vehicle\"), or by formal criteria. 3\. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related categories form a "coding system." These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories. The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to how individuals construct their own models or View of the world. **Teaching and Learning Activities** - Read about Bruner's main concepts. Make a summary of the different Bruner's main concepts. **Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.** - Handouts (pdf) upload **Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted** - Google classroom - Module - exercises **Assessment Task** Description: Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/702/702797.png**Guide Questions** 1. How can we apply Bruner's theory to teaching learning? 2. How learning occur in constructivism? 3. How does constructivism influence learning? ![Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/996/996371.png](media/image3.png)**Activity 13** **Directions:** Encircle the missing word in the puzzle bellow. W E R G Y G N J O S E K L O --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- C O N S T R U C T I V I S M O N E Y E S L E G C I A A M L U M A A O D G O T L R H E Y J B C N V A S N C O I A C F I O H A E A D I A Y S L Q O R L E O X E R C N A T D S H N I R I L G G E E L O S P E R C E P T I O N H E T G P L A T O J K L D A G G L E 1\. Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. 2\. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. 3\. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information. 4\. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class. 5\. Bruner's believed that***\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_,*** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**,** learning, decision making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are "rules\" that specify four things about objectives. Description: Description: https://image.flaticon.com/icons/png/128/1925/1925168.png **Evaluation** **Multiple Choice**. Encircle the correct answer. 1\. He introduced the ideas of "readiness for learning" a\. Vygotsky b\. Aristotel c\. Bruner 2\. This are "rules\" that specify four things about objectives. a\. Representation b\. Reinforcement c\. Categories 3\. If baby Ana might remember the action of shaking a rattle, what is the representation of knowledge is done. a\. Symbolic representation b\. Enactive representation c\. Iconic representation 4-10. Essay - How does constructivism influence learning? - How can you apply constructivism in a real situation of your life? **References:** **A. Books** - **Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus.** *(2007).* Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019 - **Saul McLeod** (Evauducation.Info). Retrieved November 18, 2019 - **Bruner, J.S. *(****1957).* Going beyond the information given. New York :Norton **Unit 3: Cognitive Processes** **Topic 1: Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/ Concept Learning** This module discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the previous modules of Piaget and Bruner. It is the distillation of most of the principles of cognitive psychologist. **Learning Outcomes** 1. Discuss constructivism in facilitating learning 2. Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction and to facilitate conceptual learning **Learning content** **Two Views of Constructivism** **1. Individual Constructivism.** This is also called cognitive constructivism. It emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. It is largely based on Piaget's theory. Proponents of this type choose child-centered and discovery learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to discover principles through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the teacher. **2. Social Constructivism**. This View emphasizes that "knowledge exists in a social context and is initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual." It is based on Vygotsky's theory. Here, construction of (know1edge is shared by two or more people. According to social constructivists, the opportunities to interact and share among learners help to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual. **Characteristics of Constructivism** Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there are four characteristics that these two views have in common. According to Eggen and Kauchak, these are: **1. Learners construct understanding.** As discussed earlier, constructivists do not View learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as active thinkers who interpret new information based on what they already know. They construct knowledge in a way that makes sense to them. **2. New learning depends on current understanding.** Background information is very important. It is through the present views or scheme that the learner has that new information will be interpreted. **3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.** Constructivists believe in creating a "community of learners" within classrooms. Learning communities help learners take responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and collaborate to solve problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator rather than an expert who has all the knowledge. **4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks**. An authentic task is one that involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and understanding that is so akin to the knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real world. Example, 3 writing activity where six-year olds prepare a checklist of things they need to do in school is a more an authentic activity than for them to be working only on tracing worksheets with dotted lines. **ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE** **Concepts.** A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects of events in our mind. A concept, of "teach" includes a group of tasks Such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain, assist, etc. In your life as a student you would learn thousands of concepts, some simple ones, others more complicated that may take you to learn them more gradually. The concepts you learn are also revised as you learn more and experience more. **Concepts as Feature Lists.** Learning a Concept involves learning specific features that characterize positive instance of the concept, Included here are defining features and correlational feature. A defining feature is a characteristic present in ALL instances. Example, a triangle has three sides. Having three sides is a defining feature of a triangle because ALL triangles should have three sides. If one doesn't, then it is not a triangle. A correlational feature is one that is present in many positive instances but not essential for concept membership. For example, a mother is loving. Being loving is a feature commonly present in the concept mother. But a mother may not be loving. So "being loving" is only a correlational feature, not a defining one. **Concepts as Prototypes**. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a "typical" example. It is usually formed based on the positive ins

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching Module - Isabela State University PDF

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue