Unit 1: Focus on the 21st Century Learner PDF

**Unit 1: Focus on the 21^st^ Century Learner** Estimated Duration for Study: A. **Major Schools of Thought Related to Learners' Development** **Introduction** In this unit, you will consider a construct which is central to your life as a future educator to 21^st^ century learners -- learning,...

**Unit 1: Focus on the 21^st^ Century Learner** Estimated Duration for Study: A. **Major Schools of Thought Related to Learners' Development** **Introduction** In this unit, you will consider a construct which is central to your life as a future educator to 21^st^ century learners -- learning, teaching, and the relationship between them. Learning and teaching are commonly encountered words, both within and beyond education -- so common indeed that it is easy to take their meaning for granted, both individually and in combination. In this unit, we introduce significant theories of learning related to learners' development which will help you understand the concepts behind how learners learn. We hope you will use them to challenge what is considered normal about learning as you work through the rest of this module. **Unit Objectives** At the end of this lesson, students must have: 1. demonstrated understanding on what is meant by learning and a learning theory; 2. explained the salient concepts and principles of the major theories; 3. developed and refined your own personal theory of learning; 4. applied these theories to teaching and learning situations. **What is Learning?** Before we dive into understanding the relevant science behind the learning process, let's ground ourselves in a definition of learning below that is drawn from research. **Which aspects resonate most with you and why?** Learning is a process that: 1. **is active -** process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, and conversations in order to build mental models of the world (Dewey, 1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986). Learners build knowledge as they explore the world around them, observe and interact with phenomena, converse and engage with others, and make connections between new ideas and prior understandings. 2. **builds on prior knowledge** - and involves enriching, building on, and changing existing understanding, where "one's knowledge base is a scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning" (Alexander, 1996). 3. **occurs in a complex social environment** - and thus should not be limited to being examined or perceived as something that happens on an individual level. Instead, it is necessary to think of learning as a social activity involving people, the things they use, the words they speak, the cultural context they're in, and the actions they take (Bransford, et al., 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledge is built by members in the activity (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006). 4. **is situated in an authentic context** - provides learners with the opportunity to engage with specific ideas and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis (Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006). 5. **requires learners' motivation and cognitive engagement** to be sustained when learning complex ideas, because considerable mental effort and persistence are necessary. The conditions for inputs to learning are clear, but the process is incomplete without making sense of what outputs constitute learning has taken place. At the core, learning is a process that results in a change in knowledge or behavior as a result of experience. Understanding what it takes to get that knowledge in and out (or promote behavioral change of a specific kind) can help optimize learning. **In this extract, a Japanese student of English language reflects on what have been, for her, the least and most effective forms of learning.** **Write about helpful and unhelpful approaches to learning during your own education from pre-school up to the present.** How did you learn? When did you learn best? What prevented you from learning? What motivated you to learn? How did this vary, depending on time, place and teacher? What was positive about those approaches? Did they reflect or express any particular theories of learning? \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ **Abstraction** **Learning Theories** Formal theories of learning have their origins in psychology. Like informal theories, they are concerned with answering the question \'How do people learn?\' Over time, consideration of this question by psychologists and others has resulted in the development of a number of formal learning theories, some of which you will encounter in this module. One of the main differences between formal and informal learning theories is that formal learning theories are the result of considered thought by psychologists and, very often, research. Formal theories have been written down and made available for others to consider and, where they disagree, to dispute and offer alternatives. Thus, formal learning theories are, unlike informal theories, scientific. Most of these formal theories are unknown to people outside education, psychology and related fields, yet we as education professionals need them if we are to have informed discussions about learning, how it happens, and how best to support it. A. **Behaviorism**  **Behaviorism** is a branch of formal learning theory. It is often associated with, among others, the American psychologist B. F. Skinner. The essence of the behaviorist point of view is that learning cannot be observed directly -- instead it must be inferred to have taken place, from an observed behavioral response to a stimulus. For instance, if a question (stimulus) is \'Which group of fruit do lemons and limes belong to?\' and the answer (response) \'Citrus\' is given, then from behaviorist point of view learning has taken place in order for the correct response to the stimulus to have been given. Behavioral theories of learning stress observable changes in behaviors, skills, and habits. Attention is clearly on behavior. Learning is seen as a change in behavior brought about by experience, with virtually no concern for the mental or internal processes of thinking (Woolfolk Hoy, Davis and Anderman, 2013). **Read this brief article below, which provides some basic explanation of \'the behaviorist orientation to learning\'.** **Think of some instances from your own experience in education which would fit with the behavioral view of learning. Make some notes about those instances and how they fit with the behavioral view.** **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** **B. Information Processing** Information Processing Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how information is encoded into our memory. The theory describes how our brains filter information, from what we are paying attention to in the present moment, to what gets stored in our short-term or working memory and ultimately into our long-term memory. The premise of Information Processing Theory is that creating a long-term memory is something that happens in stages; first we perceive something through our sensory memory, which is everything we can see, hear, feel or taste in a given moment; our short-term memory is what we use to remember things for very short periods, like a phone number; and long-term memory is stored permanently in our brains. **Basic Assumptions** The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions, including: 1. Information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory); 2. These processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways; 3. The aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance; 4. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers. **Computer Analogy** Developed by American psychologists including George Miller in the 1950s, Information Processing Theory has in recent years compared the human brain to a computer. The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor, or analogy, to which they could compare human mental processing. The use of the computer as a tool for thinking how the human mind handles information is known as the computer analogy. The 'input' is the information we give to the computer - or to our brains - while the CPU is likened to our short-term memory, and the hard-drive is our long-term memory. Our cognitive processes filter information, deciding what is important enough to 'save' from our sensory memory to our short-term memory, and ultimately to encode into our long-term memory. Our cognitive processes include thinking, perception, remembering, recognition, logical reasoning, imagining, problem-solving, our sense of judgment, and planning. *Figure 1.* Information Processing Model Essentially, computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores information, uses information, and produces an output (retrieves info). The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works. For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural activity which is fed back to the brain where it is "stored" and "coded". This information is can be used by other parts of the brain relating to mental activities such as memory, perception and attention. The output (i.e. behavior) might be, for example, to read what you can see on a printed page. Hence the information processing approach characterizes thinking as the environment providing input of data, which is then transformed by our senses. The information can be stored, retrieved and transformed using "mental programs", with the results being behavioral responses. Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of study to produce, for example, social learning theory, cognitive neuropsychology and artificial intelligence (AI). +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING | | | APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Principle | **Example** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1\. Gain the students\' | - Use cues to signal when you | | attention. | are ready to begin. | | | | | | - Move around the room and use | | | voice inflections. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2\. Bring to mind relevant prior | - Review previous day\'s | | learning. | lesson. | | | | | | - Have a discussion about | | | previously covered content. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3\. Point out important | - Provide handouts. | | information. | | | | - Write on the board or use | | | transparencies. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4\. Present information in an | - Show a logical sequence to | | organized manner. | concepts and skills. | | | | | | - Go from simple to complex | | | when presenting new material. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5\. Show students how to | - Present information in | | categorize (chunk) related | categories. | | information. | | | | - Teach inductive reasoning. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 6\. Provide opportunities for | - Connect new information to | | students to elaborate on new | something already known. | | information. | | | | - Look for similarities and | | | differences among concepts. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 7\. Show students how to use | - Make up silly sentence with | | coding when memorizing lists. | first letter of each word in | | | the list. | | | | | | - Use mental imagery techniques | | | such as the keyword method. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 8\. Provide for repetition of | - State important principles | | learning. | several times in different | | | ways during presentation of | | | information (STM). | | | | | | - Have items on each day\'s | | | lesson from previous lesson | | | (LTM). | | | | | | - Schedule periodic reviews of | | | previously learned concepts | | | and skills (LTM). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 9\. Provide opportunities for | - Use daily drills for | | overlearning of fundamental | arithmetic facts. | | concepts and skills. | | | | - Play form of trivial pursuit | | | with content related to | | | class. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Think of some instances from your own experience in education which would fit with the information processing view of learning. Make some notes about those instances and how they fit with the information processing view.** **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.** **C. Humanistic** Humanistic Learning Theory, often called Humanism, focuses on the specific human capabilities including creativity, personal growth, and choice. Humanists believe people are good and noble. Maslow's research into hierarchical needs is a major concept in this learning theory, especially Self-Actualization, as it is only at this level the student can truly experience growth. Humanistic Learning Theory can be summarized this way: 1. Learners can be trusted to find their own goals and should have some options or choices in what they learn at school. 2. Students should set their standards and should evaluate their work. 3. The school experience should help students to develop positive relations with their peers **The Role of the Learner** Ideally, learning should be an active process, where the student is engaged with the learning activities to acquire the knowledge specific to their situation. Since a major theme is the learner being the source of authority, the learner determines what learning materials are used, and how they will learn the material. They could choose to read, listen to speeches, watch movies or practice what they have learned through social interactions or by producing a specific output. The learner also establishes the quantity of learning, as in how much do I need to learn about a specific subject. But making the correct or incorrect choice in their learning decisions rests with the student and not the teacher. This reinforces the student as the source of authority. **The Role of the Teacher** Just because the learner is the source of authority and makes the decision about what and how they will learn something, does not negate the need for the teacher. The teacher assumes the role of a coach or facilitator to assist the student in establishing and using their learning strategy to achieve their goal. Doing this means the teacher must be aware of the student's unique needs, to be effective at supporting the student in acquiring the desired knowledge. By understanding the student's unique needs, the teacher can assist in designing the strategy to support the individual student's intellectual and emotional development. Creating a non-threatening and supportive environment is important to this development. While the student identifies the learning methods and materials, the teacher needs to ensure the learning activities are related to actual life experience, so the student can apply the learning to their daily living, which is a key concept in Roger's Experiential Learning Theory. **How Does Learning Take Place** Bugental (2003) proposed learning occurs through meaningful living and studied the explicit and visible behaviors resulting from the subjective internal processes occurring in the learner. A key point is emphasizing the differences between individual learners. Rogers viewed every individual experience is a logical event and different for every individual. From this individual viewpoint, the learner is encouraged to form their perspective and meaning through their experiences and beliefs. This makes each experience unique to the learner. Rogers also emphasized the importance of acquiring experience and knowledge from the environment, allowing the learner to form both positive and negative self-concepts about specific situations. **Read this short article, which provides some further explanation of \'the humanistic orientation to learning\'.** **Think of some instances from your own experience in education which would fit with the humanistic view of learning. Make some notes about those instances and how they fit with the humanistic view.** **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.** **D. Cognitivism /Cognitive Constructivism** The cognitivist branch of learning theory was to some degree born of dissatisfaction with behaviorism's strict focus on observable behaviors. However, like behaviorism, it focuses on the individual. It is associated with, among others, the psychologist Jean Piaget. The cognitivist approach invokes the idea of mental processes and attempts to answer the question which behaviorism avoided: \'What is going on in the mind of the learner?\' Unlike behaviorist learning theory, where learners are thought to be motivated by extrinsic factors such as rewards and punishment, cognitive learning theory sees motivation as largely intrinsic. Because it involves significant restructuring of existing cognitive structures, successful learning requires a major personal investment on the part of the learner (University of California Berkeley Center for Teaching and Learning, 2019 citing Perry, 1999). Because this perspective on learning focuses on the mind and its activity when building (or \'constructing\') the \'cognitive structures\' referred to in the above quotation, the word \'constructivism\' is sometimes added, and the phrase \'cognitive constructivism\' is used by some writers. Others, however, treat cognitivist and constructivism separately. **Read the short article that follows, which provides some further explanation of \'the cognitivist orientation to learning\'.** **Think of some instances from your own experience in education which would fit with the cognitivist view of learning. Make some notes about those instances and how they fit with the cognitivist view.** **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** **E. Constructivism and Social Constructivism** Constructivism is 'an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner' (Elliott et al., 2000, p. 256). In elaborating constructivists' ideas Arends (1998) states that constructivism believes in personal construction of meaning by the learner through experience, and that meaning is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge and new events. Both constructivism and social constructivism acknowledge how knowledge is constructed through an active process in the mind of the knower, but social constructivism asserts the centrality of social interactions in the process. These social interactions can be between a parent and child, students and teachers, groups of students and so on. Social constructivism is often associated with the Russian psychologist Vygotsky, who is seen as originating many of the ideas. According to social constructivist, the opportunity to interact and share among learners helps to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual. **Principles of Constructivism** 1. **Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed.** Constructivism\'s central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995). 2. **Learning is an active process**. The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process. The passive view of teaching views the learner as 'an empty vessel' to be filled with knowledge, whereas constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through active engagement with the world (such as experiments or real-world problem solving). Information may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it must come from making meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge, and the processes involved in learning. 3. **All knowledge is socially constructed**. Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction with each other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938). For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a central role in the process of \"making meaning.\" For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about. Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially constituted knowledge. 4. **All knowledge is personal**. Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing knowledge and values. This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different learning by each pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ. This principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is socially constructed. Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although individuals have their own personal history of learning, nevertheless they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although education is a social process, powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless cultures are made up of sub- cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures and their knowledge-base are constantly in a process of change and the knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially constructed template. In learning a culture, each child changes that culture. 5. **Learning exists in the mind.** The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind, and that it does not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000).Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own individual mental model of the real world from their perceptions of that world. As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update their own mental models to reflect the new information, and will, therefore, construct their own interpretation of reality. **Having studied about the constructivism and its application to teaching, give at least 5 characteristics of a constructivist teacher. You may express your answer by writing a poem or drawing or a clipart or photo essay.** **Describe each of the learning theory and discuss how this can be applied in the teaching and learning.** ------------------------------ ----------------- **Theory/Concept** **Application** **Behaviorism** **Information Processing** **Humanistic** **Cognitive Constructivism** **Constructivism** ------------------------------ ----------------- **Read a research or a study related to any of the learning theories presented in this unit. Fill out the matrix below.** -------------------------------------- **Research Title:** **Problem:** **Research Methodology:** **Findings:** **Conclusions and Recommendations:** **References:** **Teaching Implications** -------------------------------------- **References** Behets, D. (1990) Concerns of preservice physical education teachers. *Journal of* *Teaching in Physical Education* 10: pp.66-75. Center for Teaching and Learning (undated) *What is learning?* \[online\]. University of Hare, C. (2019). *An Introduction to humanistic learning theory*. Retrieved from Lawless, C. (2019). What is Information Processing Theory?: Using it in Your Corporate Lucas, M.R. and Corpus, B. (2014). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive process. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Merriam, S. B. and Kim, Y. S. (2008) Non‐Western perspectives on learning and Smith, M. K. (1999). 'The cognitive orientation to learning', The encyclopedia of Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The behaviorist orientation to learning', The encyclopedia of Surgenor, P. (2010) *Behaviourism.* In: Teaching Toolkit: How students learn 2 \[online\]. Surgenor, P. (2010) *Constructivism.* In: Teaching Toolkit: How students learn UCD Tweed, R. G. and Lehman, D. R. (2002) Learning considered within a cultural context. Willinsky, J. (1998) *Learning to divide the world: education at empire\'s end*. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Woolfolk Hoy, A., Davis, H. A. and Anderman, E. M. (2013) Theories of learning and teaching in TIP. *Theory Into Practice* 52(sup1): pp.9-21.