Module 5 Research Methodology in Lifelong Learning PDF

Module Five Course One Research Methodology in Lifelong Learning 1  Chapter One Fundamentals of Research Objectives of the Unit After completing this unit, t...

Module Five Course One Research Methodology in Lifelong Learning 1  Chapter One Fundamentals of Research Objectives of the Unit After completing this unit, the students will be able to:  Identify the ways through which knowledge can be acquired  Define what research is  Explain the characteristics of research  State the criteria that are used to classify research into different categories 1.1 Introduction Different stakeholders of education have different questions to be answered, for instance, teachers, parents, educational bureau officials, TVET agencies, adult educators and others, who are directly or indirectly involved in the process of education, raise a number of questions that demand looking deep into the process. How do they acquire information about the issues they want to know? How do they make decisions about education and other issues? How and where do you get knowledge? This unit presents the sources of knowledge through which people acquire knowledge, the definition of research, and its types and characteristics. 1.2. Sources of Knowledge Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies about knowledge. Understanding sources of knowledge is very important to have a full picture of research. One of the important questions that should be asked here is: How do you know what you know? As a human being we know lots of things, hence, examining their source is very important. Knowledge based on source can be classified in to two: scientific and alternative sources of knowledge (every day experience). 2 1.2.1. Alternative sources of knowledge We know a lot about the world in general and our environment in particular. So, how do you think that we can acquire such knowledge? Let you discuss with your friends and list some ways of acquiring knowledge. Some sources of knowledge can be included: A) Authority B) Common sense C) Personal experiences D) Tradition (culture) E) Logical reasoning and F) Science. A) Authority: When knowledge is obtained from individuals, the source of the knowledge is said to be an authority. In earlier times, elders and philosophers (like Plato and Aristotle) were accepted as sources of knowledge. Knowledge about religion will be obtained from the priests and sheiks. They are authorities who possess information on the specific religions. B) Common Sense: When people rely on common sense, they assume that if most people share a belief then it must be true. It is being for granted that something is true as everyone believes (knows) that it is so. C) Personal Experiences: We see, hear, taste, smell, and touch. The information we take in from the world through our senses is the most immediate way we have about knowing something. It is based on one‘s personal testing and experience. However, they are mostly undependable and incomplete. The data we take in through our senses do not account for all (even most) of what we seem feel in the range of human knowing. Therefore, to obtain reliable knowledge, we cannot rely on our senses alone, but must check what we think we know with other sources. D) Tradition: Much of what we think; we know has come from tradition or culture. In every society, cultures or traditions serve as the major source of knowledge. If we consider our culture's way of dressing, we know that, it is not culturally accepted for males to wear females‘ dresses. We don't ask why this is because we accept it as correct. So, when we accept without question the traditions, culture of our forefathers or the society within which we are living, the source of knowledge is said to be a tradition but you should not take that what is traditionally done is always right. E) Reasoning (Logic): Here, knowledge will be obtained based on some rules and forms of logic. It can be seen in two ways: 1) Deductive Reasoning is a thinking process in which one will go from general statements to specific statements. It is a means to evaluate the correctness of any given conclusion or idea by going from the known to the unknown. A) It consists of a previously established fact which is known as Major Premise. B) A particular case to which the fact can be applied is known as Minor Premise. A conclusion of (A) and (B) must be true for a conclusion to be necessarily true. Consider the following example: - A) All animals are mortal (Major premise); 3  B) Cat is an animal (Minor premise); what conclusion can we reach from the above statements? The conclusion will be: (C) cat is mortal. 2) Inductive reasoning: in this case, you will go from specific to general ideas. Here, conclusions will be given by observing particular instances (situations) and generalizing from them to the whole phenomenon. Consider the following examples: Mammals are mortal; Insects are mortal; Birds are mortal; Fishes are mortal; Plants are mortal; Reptiles are mortal. What possible conclusion can you have from the above specific points? So, the possible conclusion that can be given is: All living things are mortal. F) Science: What is science? Discuss with your friends and briefly define it. Compare your definition with the following description. Science is a systematic development and organization of a body of knowledge. Information is organized to provide a structure by which facts and events are explained. It integrates the most important aspects of the inductive and deductive methods. Here, knowledge will be obtained through a step by step process of collecting data, analyzing the data and reaching at a conclusion. The process of research boiled down into five major steps: I. Identify the problem. II. Define or state more precisely the problem or the questions to be answered. III. Determine what kinds of information would solve the problem – gather data. IV. Organize and analyze the data obtained. V. After the information has been collected and analyzed, it must be interpreted carefully. These steps show that science is a systematized body of knowledge used either to solve our everyday problems or to formulate new knowledge or theories. In this description of science, we see that research is the major vehicle of science. 1.2.2. Scientific source of knowledge /Science as a source of knowledge By now we know what alternative sources of knowledge are. We need to ask ourselves a question by saying that what are the elements of science which distinguish it from alternative sources of knowledge? It is very important to know the distinction between these two sources of knowledge. Science is an extension of alternative sources of knowledge. In research, always source of knowledge is very important. We use citation and a reference to show what we have is from scientific sources. Hence, we need to help readers to make distinction between information from scientific and alternative sources with providing evidence about the sources of knowledge. Scientific knowledge has its unique characteristics. These characteristics are: 4   Systematic-Reject the use of guessing and intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking  Logical-Guided by rules of logical reasoning and logical process of induction and deduction  Empirical-Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation)  Replicable-Verified by replicating the study. Figure 1: Sources of knowledge 1.3. Definition of Research What do you understand by the term research? Discuss with your friends and describe what does research mean. Research is a systematic attempt to obtain solutions to the problems about events through the application of scientific procedures. Research is a systematic and scientific way of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data to reach sound, reliable, and valid conclusions. It is concerned with finding answers for questions but every attempt to search for answers to questions is not a research. To be considered a research, it should be scientific, i.e., data gathering, analysis and Knowledge from research is dependable, reliable, objective, valid, and verifiable since research is systematic and scientific. The interpretation should be systematic, reliable, objective, and valid but knowledge from common sense and other sources of knowledge such as, expert opinion, authority, personal experience, logic, and tradition is not as such dependable, reliable, objective, valid, and verifiable since they are not systematic and scientific. The main objectives of the research include:  to describe about a phenomenon  to predict about something  to explain about solutions of a problem  to interpret what is being investigated  to solve problems of interest  to improve practice/service 5 1.4 Characteristics of Research Generally, the followings are the characteristics:  Research is directed towards the solution of a problem. It may attempt to answer a question or to determine the relation between two or more variable.  Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. If answers to a research question go to the same direction repeatedly, it will enable us to formulate a generalization.  Research involves gathering of data/information. If we want to compare the mathematics ability of male and female students, what data do we need to have? At least we need to have the mathematics scores of the students. We need to collect it from rosters or another document or the researcher may prepare a new test and give it to male and female students.  Research requires expertise. The researcher should be knowledgeable about how to conduct a research as well as about the issue that is being treated/ studied by the research.  Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures. It is not something to be conducted through trial and error or blindly. There are systematic steps in research.  These steps are the followings: A) Identification of the research problem B) Selection of the research method C) Data collection D) Analysis and interpretation of data E) Reporting of the results.  Research requires courage. A researcher should be courageous to face difficulties that he/she may encounter when conducting research or after its completion. At times, it may be difficult to get data from your study subjects.  The Research procedures should lead to valid conclusions. Regardless of the form, that the research takes or the ends to which it is directed, research should be valid. In general, for something to be valid we want it to be based on fact or evidence. 6 1.5. External Validity and Internal Validity in Research Researchers should consider the external and internal validity of their research. Suppose that, there are 5,000 elementary school teachers in region X and you want to study their attitude towards self-contained method of teaching. Let's say that you took 20 teachers from a school and studied their attitude. As a result, you found them having not good attitude towards the method. Can you generalize that teachers in Region X have negative attitude towards self-contained Method of Teaching? Why? Discuss with your friends. In such cases, teachers from a single school cannot represent 5,000 teachers in the Region. As result, the results or your research will lack external validity. External validity is, therefore, the extent to which the results of a research can be generalized to larger population. Internal Validity: For research results to be useful, the procedures that we follow should be carefully designed. Suppose that, you want to study about the effect of homework provision on students‘ academic achievement. What other factors other than homework provision can you mention as factors that may affect academic achievement of students? Some possible factors may be the ability of the learners, the method by which they have learned and family background etc. We can suppose the following two groups: For Group 1 Students: Home work is given; they are intelligent students; they learned using discussion method. For Group 2 Students: There is no homework given; they are very weak students; they learned using lecture method. Under the above conditions, let's say that you found achievement of group 1 students better than that of group 2 students. Can you conclude that homework provision improves achievement? Why? Discuss with your friends. In this case, the better achievement of Group 1 students may be due to their ability or due to the type of teaching method used. So, our generalization will lack internal validity. For the conclusion to be valid, all other factors that may affect achievement other than homework provision should be kept constant. Therefore, internal validity refers to the extent to which the result can be interpreted accurately (correctly).  Research has a variety of forms. The types of problems are many and different in nature. To solve these problems, we have to apply varying approaches and methods of research. Educational research is one type that deals with educational problems. 7 1.6. The Classification of Research Research can be classified into different types based on various criteria. The criteria used to classify research are: purpose, aim or goal of the research, i.e., the why of the research; the designs or strategies followed by the researcher to analyze the data; the nature (type) of the research questions; the approach of the research; the time perspective of the research and the setting, in which the research is carried out. 1.6.1 Purpose of the Research Based on their purpose, researches can be categorized as: A) Basic Research B) Applied Research and C) Evaluation Research. A) Basic Research Basic Research is a type of research conducted to formulate new knowledge, develop new theories, test theories, to predict and make generalizations. It does not necessarily provide immediate results, and practical use. It is also called pure or fundamental research. It employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the sample subjects. B) Applied research Applied research is conducted to seek solutions for practical problems. The findings of applied research will be evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in terms of universal validity (usefulness). It focuses on the solution of day to day problems at the local level. For example, Action Research conducted by a teacher, administrator, or other educational professional to aid in decision making in the local school is one form of applied research. C) Evaluation research What do you think about the purpose of evaluation research? Evaluation research assesses the merits and worth of a particular practice in terms of the values operating at the site(s). The practice may be a program, a product, a policy, or a process. It determines whether the practice works as intended at the site or not. 1.6.2. Design of the Research Research design refers to the plan and structure of the investigation used to obtain evidence to answer the research questions. It describes the procedures: when, from who, where, and under what conditions the data will be obtained, analyzed and reported. In other words, design indicates how the research is set up: what happens to the subjects and what methods of data collection and analyses are used. Thus, design is concerned with four basic things: 8 I. The time when the research is carried out II. The nature and selection of research participants or subjects of the study III. The place where research is conducted and IV. The how of the data collection, analysis and reporting or the conditions under which the research takes place. In short, the design of the study is the blueprint of the research. Based on design, we can classify research in to two major categories as follow: 1) Non-experimental Designs 2) Experimental Designs 1.6.2.1. Non-experimental Designs Non-experimental designs describe something that has occurred, or examine relationships between things without suggesting direct cause-and-effect relationships. It should be noted, however, that in some situations non-experimental designs are used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships, given there are sufficient theoretical and/or empirical grounds. There are five types of non-experimental designs: A) Descriptive Design B) Co relational Design C) Survey Design D) Comparative and E) Case Study Design. 1.6.2.2. Experimental Designs The investigator has some control over what will happen to the subjects by systematically imposing or withholding specified conditions. The researcher then makes comparisons between subjects who have had the treatment (the experimental group) and others who have not had (the control group) the treatment. Experimental designs also have a particular purpose in mind to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between manipulated conditions and measured outcomes. 1.6.3. Nature of the Research Questions Researchers raise a number of questions that seek solutions. Some research questions pertain to current issues, other deal with past events, others describe the situation as it naturally occurs, and still others focus on cause-effect relationships. Based on the research questions, research can be divided into the following types: 9 A) Survey research: what is the condition of...? What is the status of...? What is the relationship between variables? What are the characteristics of the variables? Are there differences between two or more groups in a certain behavior? B) Experimental research: Does drinking cappuccino one hour before a test improve results? C) Historical research: It consists of describing what was, rather than what is. D) Ethnographic Research: what are the cultural experiences of the ----- people? 1.6.4. Approaches of Research Based on the research approaches, a research is customary divided into three: 1) Qualitative Research Approach 2) Quantitative Research Approach 3) Mixed Research Approach 1.6.5. Time Perspective of Research Researchers use three time perspectives in the study of a research. These are: A) Cross-sectional research: It involves looking at a behavior in different groups of subjects who are at different ages or stages of development. B) Longitudinal research: It involves studying the same group of subjects over a period of time. E.g., the reasoning ability of children from 4 to 8 years old longitudinally or cross-section ally. C) Sequential research: the researcher can make both longitudinal comparisons and cross-sectional comparisons. 10 1.7. Unit Summary Research is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing data for some purpose. The criteria that are used to classify research include purpose, design, and the nature of research questions, approaches, and time perspective. Basic Research tests theories, develops new knowledge or theories, and explains empirical and analytical relations in physical, behavioral, and social sciences. Applied research tests the usefulness of scientific theories in the field of application and investigates relationships and analytical generalizations common to the given field. Evaluation research assesses the merit and worth of a particular practice at a given site or sites against one or more scales of values. Based on design, the research can be divided into two broad categories: Non-experimental and experimental. Non-experimental designs include co relational, survey, case, and descriptive and comparative research designs. In non-experimental design, there is no direct control over causation. In experimental design, the researcher studies cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating a factor and seeing how that factor relates to the outcomes of the study. 11  Chapter Two The Development of Research Proposal Objectives of the Unit After completing this unit, the students will be able to:  Specify the sources of research problems.  Formulate hypotheses and research questions.  Distinguish between researchable and non-researchable problems.  Identify the components of a research proposal.  State the characteristics of good research questions.  Describe different types of hypotheses. 2.1. Identification of a Research Problem Researchers can ask many questions about educational theories and practices as follow: What is the present status of a group's opinions or performance? What are the effects of a specific practice, innovation, or policy? How clear are these questions to you and to the reader? For examples, let's take the first question: What is the present status of a group's opinions or performance? What group does it refer to? Opinions on what on what performance is it? Does it refer to high school students, college students, elementary school teachers, community of a certain locality, or what? It is not clear what group it is referring to, the background of the research participants, and the stimulus material in which their performance or opinions are measured. The other questions have also similar problems. Selecting a workable research problem is the most difficult aspect of research: In terms of formulating a clear, concise, and manageable research problem. The research problem statement is crucial because it communicates to others the focus and importance of the problem, the educational context and scope, and the framework for reporting the results. A research problem, in contrast with a practical problem, is formally stated to indicate a need for empirical investigation. Research problems may be phrased as questions or hypotheses. Let us look at some examples: 12 1. What are the attitudes of the parents toward student retention policy in Bahir Dar town? 2. Are there differences in attributions and academic achievement of education, engineering, law, and business and economics faculties of Bahir Dar University students? 3. Is there a positive relationship between preschool attendance and social maturity in elementary school students? 4. Do academic aptitude, self-concept, & level of aspiration influence academic achievement? Social problem and research problems: What is the difference between social problem and research problem? Research problem is a gap in the existing literature, a question without answer, uncovered part of a certain concept on the other hand, social problem is a problem that affects a significant portion of a society and it is acknowledged by the government, policy makers and academicians. 2.2. Sources of a Research Problem Some sources of a research problem are once own professional experience; theory and; Professional literature. Following, we shall discuss these sources: A. Professional Experience If you identify a problem to be researched as you engage in your day-to-day professional task, the source of the problem is said to be professional experience. As teachers, we may be confronted with a number of behavioral aspects and problems in the classroom. The behavioral aspects and problems may be analyzed in terms of the pupils‘ achievement, interest, attitude, motivation, personality etc. As a teacher, you need to make decisions about teaching methods and techniques. You may study the effectiveness of a particular method of teaching in order to base classroom instruction on empirical evidence. Problems outside the classroom also can be identified as part of one's professional experience. For example, problems related to school administration, decision-making, teachers‘ satisfaction etc. are some of them. Beyond these contacts and discussions with people who usually conduct research, attending conferences and seminars are helpful in locating research problems. B. Inference from Theory A theory is a generalization or series of generalizations by which an attempt is made to explain some phenomena in a systematic manner. In the sphere of education, there are a number of theories. What educational theories have you learned? Some of them may include: learning theories, curriculum theories, management theories etc. If we consider learning theories, they explain about the way by which learning will occur. Some learning theorists state that learning occurs through trial and error; others say that it 13 occurs by careful observation ability of the learner. As sources of research problems, the application of general principles involved in various theories to specific classroom situations, makes an excellent starting point for research. It will help to determine whether a particular theory can be translated into actual practice or not. C. Professional Literature Research reports, research abstracts, written materials in the field of one's interest are helpful sources to identify research problems. From reading such materials you may find out an area where research may be done. For example, from your reading of research works, you may find a researcher who has got that girls are usually less achievers in mathematics than boys. Another researcher, on the other hand, might have stated that there is no difference between boys' and girls' mathematics achievement rather, any difference is due to the girls‘ high engagement in home responsibilities. Therefore, you can take this existing variation in the research results as a source of problem and conduct further study by yourself. 2.3. Evaluating the Research Problem Selection of a research problem does not necessarily mean that it is adequately stated. Initial problem statements are usually reworked and reworded many times as each word is scrutinized for the exact meaning and the logical reasoning to be employed. After the problem has been selected, the next task is to define it in a form that will be proper (easier) to conduct research. Defining a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision. Each question to be answered will be specified. The limits of the investigation must be determined. There are questions that a researcher should ask him/herself to evaluate his/her problem. All these questions must be answered positively before the research is conducted. A. Re-searchable Problem The problem should be one that can effectively be solved through the process of research. Consider the following question. "Is it good to provide sex education in schools?‘‘ Is it possible to get an answer to the above question through a research procedure? Why? When we look at the question, it is a question of value. It can be answered only on the basis of value judgment. Instead of this it could be better if the question is restated as: ―Is there a difference in attitude between educated and uneducated parents towards the provision of sex education in schools?" B. New Problem There is no purpose in studying a problem that had already been adequately investigated by other researchers. You should not unnecessarily spend your time on a problem that is already investigated by some other researcher. To avoid such duplication, it is necessary to carefully examine the record of previous 14 studies completed in one's field. But this does not to mean that a problem, once investigated, should not be touched again. When a research work can be repeated? A researcher may repeat a study when he/she wants to check its conclusions. When a researcher wants to see the correctness of the findings in a different situation (setting), than the original situation (setting); when methodological flaws are observed. C. The Significant of the Problem It needs to have some practical contributions for example, consider the following problems: "The Relationship between School Size and Number of Students" or “the relationship between shoe number and height”. In a real sense, there is no practical value to be obtained from studying the relationship between school size and number of students or shoe number and height. It is obvious that schools with larger size will have the capacity for entertaining large number of students such kinds of problems do not have significant contribution to the teaching learning process or to the educational system. D. Feasibility of The Problem There should be some important preconditions to conduct a research effectively. What preconditions, do you think, should be taken in to account before conducting a research? Research Competency: - the researcher should have good knowledge about the problem area he/she is studying. Besides, he/she should be able in research skills. Interest: - there should be interest on the part of the researcher in conducting his/her study. Administrative Considerations: The researcher must be sure about the availability and accessibility of data. 2.4. Preparation of the Research Proposal A plan for research is commonly named as a Research Proposal. It presents specifications that are essential for good research. A good research will be resulted only from a carefully planned and well - designed proposal. Following to this, you will read about the components that should appear in a research proposal. 2.4.1. The Title of The Research The title of a research should clearly state the main theme of the research. In stating a title, you have to consider the following points: 15 A) Avoid too long title. Eliminate unnecessary repetitions. Look at the following title: "A Comparative Study of the Academic Achievement of Students Attending Government Schools and Those Attending Private Schools at Bahir Dar Town". Can you briefly restate the above title? One possible statement may be: "The Effect of School Type on students Academic Achievement: the case of Bahir Dar Town Primary schools" In this later title, terms like school type should be defined later in the section of ‗definition of terms‘ and the types of schools to be considered (Government and Private) should be indicated in the 'delimitation' part. B) The title should not also be too brief. If it is too short it will be too vague to indicate the required meaning. Look at the following example: "Student Dropout in Southern Omo Zone" from the above example, it is difficult to know whether the study is about the factors or the trend of dropout at different years or comparison of dropout rates of males and females etc. How can you restate the above title in a better way? One possible way maybe: "Factors Related to Students Dropout in Elementary Schools of Southern Omo zone". 2.4.2. Background of the Study This part of a research provides some general theoretical basis or justifications for conducting a research. It tells to the reader from what perspective that the research will be conducted or the overall justification as to why it is needed to conduct the study. 2.4.3. Statement of the Problem A problem might be defined as a gap that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study. It is an important aspect of the proposal and answers the following question: What exactly do you want to study? Why is it worth studying? Does the proposed study have practical significance? Does it contribute to the construction of theories? The researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem identification). Effective problem statement answers the questions “why does this research need to be conducted”. 2.4.4. Research Questions and Hypotheses What is a research question? A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable question around which you center your research. You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely curious about. A research question helps the researchers to focus their research by providing a path through the research and writing process. The process of answering research questions or revising them 16 is ongoing. It is not limited to and does not end with the literature review. It continues throughout the data collection process. New questions continue to be added as the data suggest other important areas of inquiry. The broad research questions that ultimately selected are keeping a researcher on track. Selection of research questions, like the selection of a research problem, is often a matter of priorities. Very few research problems can be studied in their entirety in a single research effort. Research questions may be descriptive questions, relationship questions, or difference questions. Each type of question implies a different design. A. Descriptive Research Questions It asks ―what is the achievement level of our tenth-grade students on the NGE?" "What are the administrators' opinions of a program?" "What are the attitudes of our students toward the mainstreamed children?" These questions indicate a survey research design. B. Relationship Questions It asks ―what is the relationship between two or more variables?" "Does self- concept relate to achievement?" asks the relationship between one variable (self-concept) and another variable (achievement).These questions imply a co relational research design. C. Difference Questions Difference questions ask "Is there a difference between two groups or two or more treatments?" They are used when the study compares two or more groups or variables. "Is there a difference between pretest and posttest scores?" Research questions are not statistical questions stated for data analysis. Statistical questions may be phrased: "Is there a statistically significant difference between A and B observations?" or ―Is there a statistically significant relationship between a variable and B variable?" Statistical questions are stated in the methodology section of a study. Research questions are stated in the introduction of a study and suggest the design. 2.4.4.1. Characteristics of Good Research Questions Good research questions possess four essential characteristics: 1) The question is feasible. A feasible research question is one that can be investigated with available resources. 2) The question is clear. Most people would agree as to what the key words in the question mean. 3) The question is significant. Research questions should be worth investigating 4) The question is ethical. The effort made to answer the question will not involve psychological or physical harm or damage to human beings, or to the environment of which they are part. 17 2.4.4.2. Research Hypotheses A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem, expressed in the form of a clearly stated relationship between two or more variables, or differences between two or more groups. Hypotheses are tentative answers because they can be verified only after they have been tested empirically. When proposing a hypothesis, the researcher does not know whether it will be verified or not. A hypothesis is constructed and then tested. If it is rejected after the study is conducted, another one is put forward. If it is accepted it is incorporated into the body of scientific knowledge. Hypotheses are very important to determine the nature of data needed; to offer the basis for selecting the samples, the research procedures and method of analysis; to restrict the scope of the study; to set a framework for reporting the conclusions. Hypotheses are especially important in co relational and experimental researches that investigate relations between variables. To be useful the research, a hypothesis should meet several standards:  The hypothesis should be specific. It should state the expected relationship or difference between two or more variables  A hypothesis should be testable. A testable hypothesis is verifiable for example, "Home-work and assignments promote the overall learning of students.” In the above example, it is very difficult to measure overall learning of students. So, that, it is hard to test the hypothesis. A hypothesis should offer a tentative explanation based on theory or previous research. A well-grounded hypothesis indicates there is sufficient research.  A hypothesis should be concise/ brief. A hypothesis in its simplest form should have logical coherence and a clear order of arrangement. Brief statement aids both the reader and the researcher in interpreting the results considering the hypothesis important enough to test. Although a researcher may have one general broad hypothesis, it is better to rephrase the broad statement into more specific hypotheses for clarity. Rephrase the broad statement into more specific hypotheses for clarity. Stating hypotheses in simple terms not only makes their meaning clear to others, but also promotes their testability. You should not make use of vague terms. Look at the following example: "Bright students have good attitude towards school". In the above hypothesis, terms like bright, good, attitude represent broad, undefined generalities. 18 2.4.4.2.1. Types of Hypotheses Researchers use two types of hypotheses: Substantive hypotheses and Statistical hypotheses. 1) Substantive hypotheses, sometimes called research hypotheses, are tentative statements about the expected outcomes for the variables of the research study. E.g. ―Provision of home works and assignments help to improve elementary school students‘ achievement‖. ―Laboratory instruction enhances the students‘ understanding of science processes over lecture, discussion, and problem solving instructional approaches‖. 2) Statistical hypotheses, on the other hand, are given in quantitative or statistical terms. There are two types of hypotheses: Null hypothesis and Alternative hypothesis. 1) A null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis which reflects the ―no difference,‖ ―no relationships‖ or ―no effect‖ situation. For example, if we are interested to compare two methods of teaching (Method A and Method B) in terms of their contribution for students‘ reading achievement, the null hypothesis can be stated as: there is no statistically significant difference in achievement between students‘ taught using method A and those thought using method B. In the example above, it is stated that the two groups of students (students taught by Method A and Method B) score the same. This shows that there is no difference in students‘ achievement. Technically, when a statistical hypothesis is tested using inferential statistics, it is a null hypothesis that is being tested. 2) An alternative hypothesis expresses the remaining possible outcomes of the null hypothesis. The possible alternative hypotheses for the reading achievement example would be the reading achievement mean of third-grade students taught by Method A is different from the reading achievement mean of those students taught by Method B. Or the reading achievement mean of third-grade students taught by Method A is less than the reading achievement mean of those students taught by Method B. Or the reading achievement mean of third-grade students taught by Method A is greater than the reading achievement means of those students taught by Method B. Alternative hypothesis can be categorized as Non – directional or Directional. A) Non-directional hypotheses state that a difference or a relationship exists among variables, whereas B) Directional hypotheses state the particular nature of the connection. From the above alternative hypotheses, which one(s), do you think, is/are non-directional and which one(s) is/are directional? While the first one is a Non – directional hypotheses, the remaining two are Directional hypotheses. 19 2. 4. 5. Setting out Research Objectives A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to investigate the variables. Generally, research objectives focus on the way to measure the Sometimes objectives are directed towards identifying the relationship between or differences between two variables. Research Objectives are the results sought by the researcher at the end of the research process. What researcher will be able to achieve at the end of the research study. 2. 4. 5.1. The Need for Research Objectives The research objectives will help researchers to focus on the study. Objectives help the researcher avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem that he or she has defined. 2. 4. 5.2. Type of Research Objectives There are two kinds of research objectives: General Objectives are broad goals to be achieved at the end of the research. They use general terms such as to understand, investigate, assess, examine, explore... and mostly few in number. On the other hand, specific objectives are short term and narrow focused. They are derived from general objectives (by breaking down the general objectives into small logically connected parts). They are more in number and should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time bound). Specific objectives also use action verbs such as: to identify, determine, compare, establish, estimate, analyze, describe, develop, collect and calculate. 2. 4. 6. Significance of the Study It shows the benefits and the beneficiaries of the results of the research being conducted. It states the importance or contribution that the study will have for different bodies such as policy makers, participants, concerning bodies and other researchers. 2. 4. 7. Delimitations of the Study It indicates the scope (coverage) of the study. The study should be delimited to a manageable size. This should be done in relation to the area coverage as well as to the extent of treatment of the variables in your study. 20 2. 4. 8. Limitation of the Study These are constraints you think that they have influenced on the results of the study. These may be the weaknesses of methodology, lack of access to data, faulty instruments, sampling restrictions, lack of recent literature etc. 2.4. 9. Definition of Basic Terms In writing a research proposal, it is necessary to define all unusual terms and concepts that may be misinterpreted by your readers. It assigns meaning to a variable by specifying the activities necessary to measure, categorize, or manipulate the variable. This is usually an optional component of a research proposal. In addition, you have to include this section only if you are using terms and concepts in your study differently than they are used in their normal context/meaning. 2.5. Summary It summarizes the major aspects of the unit. A research problem implies the possibility of empirical investigation. Sources for research problems are professional experience, inference from theory and professional literature. Before starting to work on a research problem, it is essential to make an evaluation on it. The evaluation should focus on the research ability, novelty, and significance of the problem and feasibility of conducting research on the problem. A research proposal is a plan researchers prepare in conducting a research. It composes, title, background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose, significance, delimitation, limitation, definition of basic terms and the design to be employed when conducting the study. In conducting a research, we need to have questions to be answered and/or hypotheses to be proved or disproved. Many research problems are stated as questions. Good research questions have four essential characteristics. They are feasible, clear, significant, and ethical. A research hypothesis should be specific, testable, offer a tentative explanation based on theory or previous and it should be concise. It can be classified as substantive and statistical. Statistical hypotheses can further be classified as Null and Alternative. While null hypotheses states that there is no difference or relationship between variables or groups, alternative hypotheses states another possible result in a directional on non-directional form. 21  Chapter Three Literature Review Unit objectives After completing this unit, the students will be able to:  Describe the purposes of literature review  Explain the procedures involved reviewing literature  Explain the ways by which sources will be cited in the literature reviews  State the different ways of using quotations in reviewing literature  List the sources of literature review 3.1. The Concept of Literature Review What is a literature Review? A literature review is a search and evaluation of the available literature in your given subject or topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and do not report new or original experimental work. Literature reviews are a basis for research in nearly every academic field. 3.2. The Page Limitation of Literature Review In a proposal it should be brief and provide a summary of the major studies on the problem. It is shorter (say20-30 pages) in length and tells the reader the main point on the topic and the latest writings but it may be 20 to 60 pages in the research report or so as a chapter. 3.3. The Purposes of Literature Review Do you think that reviewing research works in relation to your area of research is valuable? Why? Discuss with your friends and write the possible purposes it may serve. Literature review serves several purposes, such as to state the significance the problem; develop the research design; relate the results to previous knowledge and suggest further research. The literature review enables you:  Define and limit the problem 22 Most studies investigate only one aspect of the larger topic. The researcher initially becomes familiar with the major works regarding the research topic or problem. The research problem is eventually limited to a subtopic within a larger body of knowledge.  Place the study in a historical and relationship perspective. To add to the knowledge in any sub-field, researchers analyze the way, how their studies will relate to existing knowledge.  Avoid unintentional and unnecessary replication. A thorough search of the literature enables the researcher to avoid unintentional or unneeded replication. The researcher, however, may deliberately replicate a study for verification. A research topic that has been investigated with similar methods that failed to produce significant results indicates a need to revise the problem or the research design. Evaluation studies may seem to duplicate prior research, but this duplication is necessary if the study is designed for site- specific decision-making.  Select promising methods and measures. As researchers sort out the knowledge on a subject, they assess the research methods that have established that knowledge. Previous investigations provide a rationale and insight for the research design. Analysis of measures, sampling, and methods of prior research may lead to a more sophisticated design; the selection of a different instrument; a more appropriate data analysis procedure; an improved methodology for the problem.  Relate the findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research. The results of a study are contrasted to those of previous research in order to state how the study added new knowledge. If the study yielded non-significant results, the researcher's insights may relate to the research problem or to the design. Most researchers suggest directions for further research based on insights gained from conducting the study and the literature review. 3.4. Procedures for Reviewing Literature Reviewing literature should be made systematically. Reviewing literature may vary from one discipline to another, there are some general procedures to adequately collect prepare and organize literature review. 23  A) Identifying Sources The first thing that a researcher should check is the availability of enough sources of information related to the issue of his/her research problem. The researcher should be familiar with materials written around the problem. B) Developing a Tentative Outline Review literature has to be organized on the basis of outline. An outline helps to group ideas. It is not to be fixed only once. It can be flexible and can be changed while progressing in the research work. In order to write a good outline for your review, first you need to read about your research area before you attempt to develop it and start writing. Then write what you know about your topic in conceptual manner. Write what information you want to cover. Consult your friends and experts in your area. After generating fragments of thought about a topic, you need to cluster (group) ideas. Then formulate the main focus of your study as a major heading. C) Taking Notes Once you develop your outline, the next step is to gather relevant information for your research. In gathering your information, not only take notes but also the sources of the notes. You have to avoid using the ideas of others without acknowledging them.  Guidelines for Proper Note Taking There are guidelines for proper note taking: first study the source material in depth; write notes later; use a specially designed writing pad for notes; write only one item on each page writing pad; identify the source for each note.  Pad's Page Formats for Note Taking  Author __________________________  Title of source ____________________  Date of Publication ________________  Volume __________________________  Number _________________________  Page ____________________________  Publisher ________________________ 24 3.5 Note Recording Methods. A) Summary Notes This involves condensing of ideas. You will extract only the main ideas. Here, you will add nothing new to the information rather than you simply shorten the idea of the writer. B) Paraphrases: This is restating the writer's ideas in one's own words. Here, you will not copy the sentences or words of the writer directly rather you will substitute them with other your own words. C) Quotation This is copying the exact ideas of an author word by word. When you do this, use quotation marks (" ") and copy the ideas as exactly stated in the source including punctuation marks but you don‘t have to use quotations so frequently. When quotations are used, try to add your explanations below or above them. 3.6. Organizing the Review It involves the arrangement of the collected ideas according to the proposed outline. In organizing your review, begin your discussion from a comprehensive perspective. This means broad and general studies should be reviewed first then specific & local studies. A) Citations in Review Citations refer to the identification of the source of an idea by the name of the author and the date of publication. In reviewing literature, you have to indicate your source by writing the author‘s name and the year when the source is written.  Ways of Writing Citations There are different ways of writing citations: A) when the author is mentioned as part of the idea being presented, write the author's name and put the year of publication in parentheses or brackets for example, Good lad (1995) states that the quality of education depends on the quality of teachers. B) When the author is not mentioned as part of the narrative (idea), his/her name and the year of publication will be placed at the end of the idea being in a parenthesis and separated by a comma for example, Supervisors’ involvement in instructional activities of schools and their supportive role of teachers' practices is a major predictor of effectiveness (Jupta, 1982). C) When the authors are two, use the term 'and' to separate their names when 25 they are mentioned as part of the idea. If they are not mentioned as part of the idea being presented, use (&) to separate their names for example, as Pierce and Jones (1993) point out, many educational innovations fail due to teachers' unwillingness to change their mode of teaching practices and beliefs or the reason for the failure of many educational innovations is found in teachers’ unwillingness to change their mode of teaching practices and beliefs (Pierce & Jones, 1993). D) When you may not find the original source of the idea you want but when you find it in another secondary source you need to mention that it is a cited idea for example, as Griffin (1972) cited in Dunkin (1986) stated, male teachers are more direct and authoritarian than female teachers. B) Quotations in Review Quotations are directly taken statements from a source material. You must consider the followings in quoting: Include page numbers for quotations separated by a colon (:) or with a coma (,) and an abbreviation. for example “… adolescent boys and girls show no consistent differences in specific competencies” (Mussen, 1980: 344) or “… adolescent boys and girls show no consistent differences in specific competencies” (Mussen, 1980, p. 344). If the idea to be quoted is up to 5 lines enclose it in quotation marks and write it as part of the text. Use quotations rarely. Don't use too many quotations. On the other hand, if the quoted idea is more than five lines put it in a separately indented position with reduced spacing between the lines than the normal text. According to Hamblin (1980:230), Choosing a career is the major way in which an adolescent translates his self picture in to reality. This is a psychological theory of occupational choice, which requires the job chooses to say more or less explicitly. “I am that sort of person.” The greatest difficulty in using this self-theory is, however, the question of explicitness. In other words, although a great deal of supportive evidence exists, we have to remain critical of this theory. No quotation marks are needed. 3.7. Sources for a Literature Review Researchers need to be familiar with two basic types of sources as they begin to search for information related to their research question. These are primary sources and secondary sources. Secondary literature provides a quick overview of research developments on the topic. These sources eliminate much technical information about each original study but cite extensive 26 references. Examples of secondary literature are monographs, articles in encyclopedias, handbooks, books, and journals that contain reviews of research. Primary sources are original research studies or writings by a theorist or researcher. They contain full text of a research report or a theory and thus are more detailed and technical. Examples of primary sources are empirical studies published in journals, research reports, scholarly monographs, essays, theses, and dissertations. Primary literature and secondary literature provide different information. A secondary source gives an overview of the field, a general knowledge of what has been done on the topic, and a context for placing current primary sources into a framework. The essence of a review, however, is the primary literature. There are a number of potential sources of literature such as: Books, Journals, Magazines, Encyclopedias, Monographs, Reports, Research abstracts, Newsletters and Unpublished research works (senior essays, theses, etc…). 3.8. Summary  Literature includes theoretical discussions, reviews of the status of knowledge by authorities, philosophical papers, descriptions and evaluations of current practices, and empirical research. Literature for a review is taken from journals, reports, books, monographs, government documents, dissertations, and electronic resources.  Reviewing the literature enables the researcher to define and limit the problems, place the study in historical and relationship perspective, avoid unnecessary replication, select promising methods and measures, relate the findings to previous knowledge, and suggest further research. The selected literature should be relevant to the research problem.  Even if secondary sources provide useful information to get started, primary sources are valued more highly in a review. Secondary literature is a synthesis of the original work and usually consists of articles in general and specialized educational journals, annuals, yearbooks, handbooks, encyclopedias, or books. On the other hand, primary literature is the original empirical studies or writings by a researcher, which is found by using indexes to journals, educational documents, government documents, and dissertations. 27