Module 1: Introduction to Psychology PDF

Republic of the Philippines San Mateo Municipal College General Luna St. Guitnangbayan I, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No.: (02) 997-9...

Republic of the Philippines San Mateo Municipal College General Luna St. Guitnangbayan I, San Mateo, Rizal Tel. No.: (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph Institute of Arts and Sciences Bachelor of Science in Psychology [PSYCORE-INPSY] Introduction to Psychology MODULE I: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Psychology is now formally defined as the scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. It involves the examination of how people think, feel, and act both individually and in groups. Psychology covers a wide range of topics, including cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, brain function, personality, development, and social interactions. The field uses various methods such as observation, experimentation, and analysis to understand mental processes and behavior. ETYMOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF PSYCHOLOGY The term “psychology” is derived from two Greek words: psyche, which means “soul”, and logos, which means “to study”. When combined, psychology literally means “the study of the soul”. Over time, the focus of psychology shifted from the philosophical exploration of the soul to the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. This evolution in focus has led to the modern understanding of psychology as a scientific discipline dedicated to understanding the complexities of human thought, emotion, and behavior. OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY The following are the four (4) main objectives of psychology: 1. Describe Behavior: What is the nature of a behavior? The first goal of psychology is to accurately describe behavior. This involves observing and noting the distinct characteristics and patterns of behavior, whether it's an individual's actions, thoughts, or emotions. By describing behavior, psychologists can identify what is happening and establish a baseline for understanding it. 2. Understand Behavior: Why does a behavior occur? Understanding behavior requires uncovering the underlying causes or motivations behind actions. This involves examining psychological, biological, social, and environmental factors that influence behavior. By understanding these causes, psychologists can develop theories and models to explain behavior. 3. Predict Behavior: When will a behavior occur? Once a behavior is described and understood, psychologists aim to predict when and how it will occur again. This objective of psychology involves anticipating when and how someone will act in a given situation based on past observations and understanding. Accurate predictions can help in preparing for future behaviors and implementing preventive measures when necessary. 4. Control Behavior: What conditions affect a behavior? Page 1 of 8  The final objective of psychology is to influence or alter behavior to promote positive behaviors, or discourage negative or harmful behaviors. This involves the use of psychological principles and techniques to modify behavior, enhance well-being, or achieve specific goals. By understanding what conditions affect behavior, psychologists can design interventions that can effectively control behavior. HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY EARLY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY The beginning of psychology can be traced back several centuries to the writings of the Greek philosophers. In 300 BC, the Greek Philosopher Aristotle wrote extensively about topics like sleep, senses, dreams, and memory. Hundreds of years later, French Philosopher Rene Descartes, proposed the idea of dualism, or that mind and brain are two separate entities—an issue that is still discussed in psychology today. Dualism is opposed to the idea of monism, or the idea that there is only one entity existing in the universe. There are three (3) forms of monism: ▪ Materialism: The view that only the physical brain exists, and all mental processes are a result of physical brain activity. ▪ Mentalism: The view that only the mind exists, and physical reality is a product of the mind. ▪ Identity Position: The view that universe has only one kind of entity, which includes both material and mental aspects. In later centuries, philosophers asked whether human characters and traits are innate or inherited (nature), or they are results of environmental influences (nurture)—an issue today that is called the Nature vs. Nurture Debate. The eventual emergence of psychology as a science was closely linked to advances in other scientific fields, particularly physiology—a branch of biology that studies the functions and parts of living organisms. In the 1600’s, the field of Biological Psychology or Physiological Psychology, a branch of psychology that studies the relation between the brain and behaviors, began when physiologists became interested in the human brain and its relation to behavior. By the early 1700’s, the idea of contralateral control was discovered when researchers and physicians began to observe that damage to one side of the brain could lead to a loss of function on the opposite side of the body. Contralateral control is the phenomenon where the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body. By the early 1800s, the concept of localization of functions, or the idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific functions or behaviors, is vigorously debated. WILHELM WUNDT: THE FATHER OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY By the late 1800s, the stage was set for the emergence of psychology as a separate scientific discipline. The leading proponent of this was a German physiologist named Wilhem Wundt, who is considered as the father or modern psychology. Wundt applied experimental methods to the study of fundamental psychological processes, such as mental reaction times in response to visual or auditory stimuli. He is known for pioneering the method of introspection, or the process of examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and sensations. In 1874, Wundt published the first bona fide psychology textbook, Principles of Physiological Psychology in which he outlined the connections between physiology and psychology. In 1879, Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Page 2 of 8 EDWARD TITCHENER AND STRUCTURALISM Although Wundt is considered as the founder of structuralism, it was Wundt’s most devoted student, Edward Titchener, who established Structuralism, the first major school of thought in psychology. Structuralism focuses on the understanding the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into their most basic components or structure. The assumption of this school of thought is that the mind can be studied by analyzing its simplest elements, similar to how chemistry breaks down compounds into elements. For example, a structuralist might ask participants to describe their sensations and feelings when looking at a rose, aiming to break down their experience into basic sensory elements, such as color, texture, and fragrance. WILLIAM JAMES AND FUNCTIONALISM Psychology may officially begin in Germany in 1879, but it is already on its way being established in the United States through the efforts of Harvard Professor, William James, who is referred to as the father of American psychology. James is the founder of functionalism, a school of thought that focuses on the understanding the purpose of mental processes and behavior—how they help an individual adapt to their environment. The assumption is that mental processes are best understood in terms of their function and purpose, rather than their structure. Psychology should focus on how mental activities help organisms adapt to their environment. JOHN B. WATSON AND BEHAVIORISM The course of psychology changed dramatically in the early 1900s when an approach called behaviorism emerged as a dominating force. Behaviorism rejected the emphasis on consciousness promoted by the structuralist and functionalists. John B. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, argued that psychology should be an objective science focused on observable behavior. Behaviorism focuses on studying observable behavior and the environmental factors that shape it, without reference to internal mental states. The assumption of behaviorism is that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. Psychology should focus on observable and measurable behaviors rather than internal mental states, which cannot be directly studied. Some of the major proponents of behaviorism are Burrhus F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Edward L. Thorndike, and Albert Bandura. SIGMUND FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYSIS While Watson and other studied directly observable behavior, across the Atlantic Ocean, an Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud focused on uncovering causes of behavior that were unconscious, or are hidden from the person’s conscious awareness. Freud’s school of thought is called psychoanalysis, which focuses on exploring the influence of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts on behavior and personality. The assumption is that human behavior is largely influenced by unconscious drives and conflicts, often rooted in early childhood experiences. Psychological problems arise when these unconscious conflicts are not adequately resolved. Some of the major proponents of psychoanalysis are Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm, Melanie Klein, and Henry Murray. Page 3 of 8 MAX WERTHEIMER AND GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY In the 1900s, another school of thought in psychology was founded by Max Wertheimer called Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt psychology focuses on understanding how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns rather than individual components. It believes in the principle that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. The assumption of gestalt psychology is that the mind organizes sensory information into meaningful wholes. The whole is different from the sum of its parts, and perception cannot be fully understood by analyzing its components. Some of the major proponents of gestalt psychology are Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka. CARL ROGERS AND HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY In combination, behaviorism and psychoanalysis dominated research and practice in American psychology for several decades. However, in the 1950s, a new school of thought emerged, called Humanistic Psychology. Because humanistic psychology was distinctly different from both psychoanalysis and behaviorism, it was sometimes referred to as the third force in American psychology. Humanistic Psychology was largely founded by American Psychologist, Carl Rogers. Humanistic psychology focuses on emphasizing individual potential, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people. Focuses on the whole person and their ability to grow and change. The assumption is that people are inherently good and motivated by a desire for personal growth and fulfillment. Free will and self-determination are central to human behavior. Some of the major proponents of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow and Rollo May. MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY In psychology, different perspectives provide unique frameworks for understanding behavior and mental processes. Each perspective offers distinct theories and methods for studying the mind and behavior. The following are some of the major perspectives in psychology: Biological Perspective The biological perspective examines the influence of genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and changes in the nervous system on behavior and mental processes. For example, it might study how chemicals in the brain affects the mood of an individual. Psychodynamic Perspective The psychodynamic perspective focuses on internal conflicts, unconscious processes, and early childhood experiences influence behavior and mental processes. For example, it might investigate how traumatic experience during early childhood influence the current behavior of an individual. Behavioral Perspective The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through interactions with the environment. For example, if a person is anxious about dogs, the behavioral perspective might explore how this fear was learned through past experiences. Humanistic Perspective The humanistic perspective emphasizes personal growth, achieving one’s full potential, and the inherent goodness of people. It focuses on how individuals can develop themselves, the importance of self-esteem and self-concept, and how striving towards personal goals affects overall well-being. Page 4 of 8 Cognitive Perspective The cognitive perspective examines mental processes like thinking, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. It looks at how people understand, process, and store information. For example, if someone has trouble remembering appointments, the cognitive perspective would study their memory processes and suggest strategies to enhance their ability to remember. Sociocultural Perspective The sociocultural perspective examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes. It considers how culture, social norms, and societal expectations shape individuals. For instance, it might explore how cultural differences impact communication styles or mental health practices. Evolutionary Perspective The evolutionary perspective examines how evolutionary principles, like natural selection, shape behavior and mental processes. It explores how traits and behaviors have evolved over time to improve survival and reproduction. Eclectic Perspective The eclectic perspective combines multiple perspectives to better understand behaviors and mental processes and address psychological issues. For example, when treating a mental health condition, the eclectic perspective might combine cognitive and behavioral perspectives to maximize the advantages of both perspectives. METHODS OF RESEARCH Psychology uses various research designs and methods to explore different aspects of behaviors and mental processes. The following are some of the research methods commonly used in psychological research: Descriptive Research A research design is used to observe, describe, and document behaviors or phenomena without manipulating any variables. Its primary goal is to provide a detailed and accurate picture of an individual, group, or situation. Using descriptive research, researchers can answer important questions, such as when certain behaviors take place, how often they occur, and whether they are related to other factors, like age, sex, race, or educational attainment. Some of the research methods under descriptive research include: Case Study A case study is an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or situation. Researchers gather detailed information through methods like interviews, observations, and reviewing records to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Case studies are particularly useful for studying rare or unusual conditions as they can provide detailed insights, offering a holistic view of the subject’s experiences and context. However, case studies have limitations. Case studies have limited generalizability since findings from one case study may not be applied or relevant to the general population. Additionally, the researcher’s perspective can influence the interpretation of data, and the process can be time-consuming. Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation is a research method where researchers observe and record behavior in its natural environment, without interfering or manipulating the situation. The primary advantage of this method is that it captures behavior as it naturally occurs, providing a realistic view of how subjects act in their everyday contexts. Additionally, this method allows researchers to gain Page 5 of 8  detailed insights into behaviors and interactions that might not be visible in a controlled environment, and avoids the biases that can come from manipulating variables. A key challenge in naturalistic observation is determining whether or not to inform subjects about the observation. While informing individuals might influence their behavior and compromise the authenticity of the data, observing them without their knowledge can raise ethical issues. Survey A survey is a research method where individuals are asked questions to collect information about their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. This can be done through various formats, such as questionnaires, interviews, or online forms. Surveys are advantageous because they can collect data from a larger population in a short period of time, making it easily generalizable, and they are generally cost-effective. Surveys also allow for the collection of standardized data since surveys use the same question for everyone, making it easier to compare and analyze responses. However, surveys also have limitations. They often offer a limited depth of information since they use standardized questions that collect brief and broad responses rather than richer, more detailed insights. Additionally, surveys can be affected by response bias, as participants may not always answer truthfully or may provide socially desirable answers. Generally, descriptive research is useful for identifying patterns and trends among subjects or contexts, making it valuable for generating insights that can guide further research or inform decisions. Also, it can be used to various fields and topics, as it is not confined to a single method. However, descriptive research does not allow researchers to establish cause-effect relationships because variables are not manipulated. It cannot confirm whether a change in one variable directly cause change in another. Experimental Research A research design wherein researchers manipulate one or more variables to observe their effects on other variables. The main goal of this research design is to determine cause-and-effect relationships through experimentation and observations. The following are some of the key components of experimental research: Independent Variable: This is the variable that researchers manipulate to observe its effect to other variables. For example, in a study examining the effect of temperature on the moods of individuals, the temperature is the independent variable. Dependent Variable: This is the variable that is being affected when researchers manipulate the independent variable. The researchers measure this variable to assess the effect of the independent variable. For example, in a study examining the effect of temperature on the moods of individuals, the moods of individuals are the dependent variable. Extraneous Variable: An outside variable that is not the focus of the study but could influence the dependent variable and thus affect the results of the study. For example, in a study examining the effect of temperature on the moods of individuals, if the participants were tested in a loud environment, the noise was an extraneous variable as it could also affect the moods of individuals. Experimental Group: This group of participants receives the treatment or intervention being studied. For example, in a study examining the effect of a new teaching method on student performance, the experimental group would be the students who are taught using the new method. Control Group: This group of participants does not receive the treatment or intervention but instead is exposed to standard conditions or a placebo. For example, in a study examining the effect of a new teaching method on student performance, the control group would be the students who are taught Page 6 of 8  using the old teaching method. The control group is used as a baseline to compare the effects of the independent variable to the dependent variable. Random Assignment: This is a method used to place participants into either the experimental group or the controlled group randomly. This process helps reduce bias and ensures that any differences in outcomes between the two groups can be attributed to the treatment or intervention itself, rather than other factors like age, sex, or pre-existing conditions. The key advantage of experimental research is that it allows for studies to be replicated, which enhances the reliability and validity of their findings. It also provides precise and quantifiable data, making it easier to analyze the effects of interventions or treatments. However, experimental research has limitations. Some experiments may create artificial conditions that do not reflect real-world scenarios, potentially limiting the generalizability of the results. Additionally, some experiments may involve treatments or interventions that are ethically problematic or impractical to implement, while some requires too much time and effort and are not cost-effective. Correlational Research A research design wherein researchers study the relationship between two or more variables, without manipulating them. The goal is to determine whether a relationship exists between the variables and, if so, to understand the strength and direction of that relationship. The following are some of the key points of correlational research: Positive Correlation: If both variables increase or decrease together, the relationship is considered a positive relationship. For example, as study time increases, grades might also improve. Negative Correlation: If one variable increases while the other one decreases, the relationship is considered a negative correlation. For example, as the number of hours spent on social media increases, academic performance might decrease. No Correlation: If there is no relationship between the variables, changes in one do not predict changes in the other. Generally, correlational research helps discover whether and how things are related, which can guide future research or practical decisions. Also, since it does not involve manipulating any variable, this research design often happens in natural settings, making the findings more relevant to everyday life. However, correlational research also has limitations. Since this research design does not involve any manipulation of variables, sometimes, a third variable that is not being studied might be influencing both variables, leading to a misleading correlation. BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is a broad field with various branches, each focusing on different aspects of human behavior, thought, and experience. The following are some of the branches of psychology: Clinical Psychology A branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. This field addresses a wide spectrum of issues, from short-term challenges like stress or anxiety to more severe, long-lasting conditions such as schizophrenia or depression. The main goal is to help individuals achieve better mental health and well-being. Clinical psychologists employ a variety of therapeutic approaches, including behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, and other counseling techniques, to help individuals manage or overcome their issues. Industrial-Organizational Psychology This branch of psychology applies psychological concepts and methods to understand and address workplace-related concerns. The primary goal is to improve both the efficiency of organizations and the well-being Page 7 of 8 of employees. This branch focuses on employee behavior, work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational structure. Additionally, industrial-organizational psychologists work on issues like personnel selection, training, employee evaluation, and organizational development. Educational Psychology Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on understanding how people learn and how teaching can be made more effective. It looks at learning processes, instructional methods, and how to address individual differences in learning. The main goal is to improve educational outcomes by understanding how students learn and how teachers can best facilitate learning. This branch also focuses on developing educational materials and assessments and supporting students with learning disabilities. Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology examines the psychological changes that occur throughout a person’s life, from infancy to old age. It looks at physical, cognitive, and social development. The purpose is to understand how people develop and change over time. The insights gained from this field can be applied to improve practices in education, parenting, and providing support for individuals at various stages of their development. Personality Psychology The branch of psychology that examines how and why people have unique patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. The aim is to understand what makes each person unique and how personality influences their actions, relationships, and life choices. Insights from personality psychology help in personal development, improving relationships, and understanding behavior in different contexts. Health Psychology Health psychology explores how psychological factors, such as stress, thoughts, behaviors, and social conditions, affect physical health and illness. It also looks at how people cope with health issues and how changes in behavior can enhance their well-being. The aim is to help people live healthier lives, prevent diseases, and manage ongoing health conditions better. Health psychologists work to develop ways to encourage good health habits and improve how people handle health issues. Experimental Psychology A branch of psychology that uses scientific methods to study how people think, feel, and behave. It involves conducting experiments to understand various aspects of human behavior and mental processes, such as perception, learning, memory, and decision-making. The goal is to uncover general principles about how people operate and apply this knowledge to solve practical problems or improve our understanding of psychological phenomena. Social Psychology This branch of psychology explores how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by their social interactions and natural environments. It examines topics such as how people interact in groups, how they perceive others, how leadership and prejudice work, and how conformity influences behavior. This knowledge is used to address issues like conflict resolution, enhance group performance, and drive social change. Prepared by: Mr. KARL MICHAEL M. VALDULLA, CHRA Couse Instructor Page 8 of 8