Introduction to Psychology (Chap 1-2) PDF

# CHAPTER ONE ## Introduction Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres o...

# CHAPTER ONE ## Introduction Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including relating to individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. It is largely concerned with humans, although the behavior and mental processes of animals can also be part of psychology research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g. animal cognition and ethology), or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology). **The subject matter of psychology** - the brain and nervous system - sensation and perception - learning - memory - thinking and decision making - motivation and emotion - states of consciousness - intelligence and mental abilities - stress and coping - personality - psychological disorders and their treatment - social cognition and social influence >Behavior refers to activities or processes that can be observed objectively such as the reaction of the muscles and the glands, as well as the organized patterns of responses as a whole. > >Mental Processes are internal, covert activity of the mind such as thinking, remembering, analyzing etc. ## PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES Psychology overlaps with others sciences that investigate behavior and mental processes. ### Psychology vs. Biology and neuroscience Whereas biology and neuroscience study the biological or neural processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce, psychology is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior on a systemic level. The subfield of neuropsychology studies the actual neural processes while biological psychology studies the biological bases of behavior and mental states. ### Psychology vs. sociology and anthropology Both psychology and sociology explore how people behave when they are in groups. However, psychologists try to understand behavior from the vantage point of the individual, whereas sociologists focus on how behavior is shaped by social forces and social institutions. Anthropologists investigate behavior as well, paying particular attention to the similarities and differences between human cultures around the world. ### Psychology vs. Psychiatry Psychology is closely connected with psychiatry, which is the branch of medicine specializing in mental illnesses. The study of mental illness is one of the largest areas of research in psychology. Psychiatrists and psychologists differ in their training. A person seeking to become a psychiatrist first obtains a medical degree and then engages in further formal medical education in psychiatry. Most psychologists have a doctoral graduate degree in psychology. ## EARLY USAGE OF THE WORD 'PSYCHOLOGY' * The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Goeckel (Latinized Rudolph Goclenius), published in 1590. More than six decades earlier, however, the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić used the term in the title of a work which was subsequently lost. This, of course, may not have been the very first usage, but it is the earliest documented use at present. * The term did not fall into popular usage until the German idealist philosopher, Christian Wolff (1679-1754) used it in his Psychologia empirica and Psychologia rationalis (1732-1734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up in Diderot's Encyclopedie and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran. * The root of the word psychology (psyche) is very roughly equivalent to "soul" (Gr. psukhe) in Greek, and (logy) equivalent to "study" (Gr. logos). Psychology came to be considered a study of the soul in a religious sense of this term much later, in Christian times. Psychology as a medical discipline can be seen in Thomas Willis' reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, as part of his 1672 anatomical treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). Until about the end of the 19th century, psychology was regarded as a branch of philosophy. ## HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology as a discipline did not emerge until the late 19th century, But its roots extend to the ancient past. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece where philosophers and religious scholars have wondered about the nature of the mind. It also has its roots in the scientific development of the 19th century which contributed to the development of psychology as an independent scientific discipline. ### I. Pre-Scientific Era #### A. Philosophical Roots Like most sciences, psychology has its roots in philosophy. * Buddha, the spiritual leader whose teachings founded Buddhism, questioned how our sensations and preconceptions combine to form ideas. * Confucius, the Chinese philosopher, stressed the power of ideas and an educated mind. * Socrates and Plato(387 BC) of Ancient Greece concluded that the mind is separable from the body and continues after the body dies. In so much to say that knowledge is innate. * Aristotle (334 BC) refuted, however, that knowledge is not pre-existing but grows from experience. Derived principles of knowledge all come from careful observation. Furthermore, Aristotle is said to be the 'Father of Psychology' for writing what is probably the first systematic treatise on Psychology (De Anima). * Rene Decartes, the French philosopher and mathematician, is considered to be the founder of modern science. Descartes' philosophy is closely associated with Dualism (1641) which distinguishes the mind (composed of nonphysical substance) from the brain which is physical in nature and is the seat of intelligence. * John Locke, British political philosopher, interested in human abilities, in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), argued that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa or "blank slate" on which experience writes. Bacon and Locke (1690) developed modern empiricism or the view that knowledge originates in experience and that is why science should rely on observation and experimentation. #### B. Scientific Roots * **1859**. Charles Darwin published the "On the Origin of Species", detailing his view of evolution. In his theory, Darwin proposed that through natural selection physical characteristics that promote the survival of the individual are more likely to be passed on to offspring, because individuals with these characteristics are more likely to live long enough to reproduce. This brought attention to the role of heredity on behavior. * **1869**. Sir Francis Galton, Influenced by Charles Darwin's 'Origin of the Species,' publishes 'Hereditary Genius,' and argues that intellectual abilities are biological in nature. Furthermore, Galton, was concerned with the way in which biology causes one person's abilities, character and behavior to differ from those of other people. ### II. Scientific Era (Psychology as an Independent Science) * The late 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year **1879** is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in that year German scientist Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt combined philosophical introspection with techniques and laboratory apparatuses brought over from his physiological studies with Helmholtz, as well as many of his own design. This experimental introspection was in contrast to what had been called psychology until then, a branch of philosophy where people introspected themselves. * **1890** The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology, laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. **Women who made important contributions despite discrimination** - **1893**. Christine Ladd-Franklin (who proposed the evolutionary theory on color vision) and Mary Whiton Calkins were the first women elected to membership in the APA (American Psychological Association). In 1918, Calkins became the First woman president of APA. - **1894**. Margaret Floy Washbum became the first woman in America to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. * **1900**. The Austrian physician Sigmund Freud publishes his "Interpretation of Dreams", his major theoretical work on psychoanalysis. Freud, who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and introspection, and was focused in particular on resolving mental distress and psychopathology. * **1905**. A Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), begins publishing researches on conditioning in animals which brought the concept of conditioned reflex. This gave psychologists a new tool with which to explore the development of behavior. By applying this concept, in which a response is brought about by a stimulus different from the one that first produced it, psychologists could begin to account for behavior as the product of prior experience and learning. * **1912.** Max Wertheimer published research on the perception of movement, marking the beginnings of Gestalt Psychology. ### 20th century. Behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Championed by psychologists such as John B. Watson and Edward Thomdike (and later, B.F. Skinner), behaviorism was grounded in studies of animal behavior. Behaviorists argued that psychology should be a science of behavior, not the mind, and rejected the idea that internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals could be studied scientifically. In his paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913), Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods", and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute." ### III. Modern Era Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and scientific approaches to the mind. It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research. The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, Carl Rogers who created and developed client-centered therapy, and Fritz Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. * **1959**. Noam Chomsky's review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviorism's reign. Chomsky demonstrated that language could not purely be learned from conditioning, as people could produce sentences unique in structure and meaning that couldn't possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language, implying that there must be internal states of mind that behaviorism rejected as illusory. * Similarly, work by Albert Bandura (1971) showed that children could learn by social observation, without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal representations. The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as information processing. In **1978**, psychologist Herbert A. Simon, wins a Nobel Prize for pioneering research on computer simulations of human thinking and problem solving. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as the dominant model of the mind. Links between brain and nervous system function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people such as Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury. With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology. * **1991**. Martin Seligman publishes Learned Optimism which foreshadows the "positive psychology movement." * **1993**. In his Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner outlines his multiple theory of intelligences. * **2002**. Psychologist Daniel Kahneman, receives a Nobel Prize for his research on decision making. ## Psychology in the Philippines ### American Roots * The Americans brought psychology to Manila in the early 1900's when psychology was taught as a subject separate from philosophy. In 1926 the Department of Psychology was formed at the School of Education in the University of the Philippines. ### German Roots * Psychology managed to develop independently for a time in Cebu at the University of San Carlos, the country's oldest learning center. It 1954, a department of psychology was established at the USC by Fr. Joseph Goertz, SVD who was teaching *psychology in the tradition of Wundt.* ### Spanish Influence * Fr. Angel de Blas, a Spanish Dominican priest and philosopher founded the experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Santo Tomas in 1938 * Under the leadership of Fr. De Blas, the department's orientation was medical and physiological. ### The Belgian Connection in the Cordilleras * As psychology develops in Manila and the south, a program of teaching and research is also independently developing up north in the Cordilleras. * Fr. Evarist Verlinden, a Belgian missionary priest headed the St. Louis University (Baguio) when it offered psychology as undergraduate degree in 1967 ## SOME PIONEERS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES - ELIAS BUMATAY *Majored in educational psychology (Ph.D.)- University of Texas in 1940* - ALFREDO LAGMAY *Chairman of UP Psychology department for 20 years.* - ESTEFANIA ALDABA - LIM *First Filipina to receive a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the University of Michigan.* - AUGUSTO ALONZO *Obtained his Ph.D. in Experimental psychology - University of Chicago in 1926. Established the first psychological cllinic in 1932 at UP.* - SINFOROSO PADILLA *Established the Department of Psychology at Ateneo de Manila University.* - FR. JAIME BULATAO, SJ *Founded the Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino in 1975 and was the leading proponent of Filipino Psychology.* - VIRGILIO ENRIQUEZ ## SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT & MODERN PERSPECTIVES * When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of psychology represent the major theories within psychology, which focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, primarily sensation and perception. **Structuralism** * Wilhelm Wundt founded this first school of psychology, which focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, primarily sensation and perception. Structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human mind. Edward Titchener expanded Wundt's ideas . >introspection - the process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities. **Functionalism** * Instead of focusing on the structure of consciousness, William James was interested in the study of the adaptive functions of the human mind. **Behaviorism** * This was based upon the work of thinkers such as: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. **Psychoanalysis** * is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior, early life experiences and development through stages. **Humanistic psychology** * developed as a response to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth and the concept of self-actualization. Major humanist thinkers include: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. >**Gestalt motto:** "The whole is more than the sum of all its parts." **Gestalt psychology** * is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Instead of breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience. Max Wertheimer - proponent ## MODERN PERSPECTIVES * In the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively with one single school of thought. Today, most psychologists have an eclectic outlook on psychology. They now approach the problem on human behavior from different perspectives. - **Neuroscience** - focuses on how the body and brain create emotions, memories, and sensory experiences - **Evolutionary** - focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristics, such as why we lie, how attractiveness influences mate selection, the universality of fear, etc. - **Psychodynamic** - how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts - **Behavioral** - focuses on how we learn observable responses - **Cognitive** - focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information - **Socio-cultural** - focuses on how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures - **Humanistic psychology** emphasizes the importances of individual perceptions and self-perceptions and strives to help each individual reach his or her fullest potential. ## BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY/FIELD OF SPECIALIZATION Independent of perspective, psychologists study different areas of behavior and experience and apply psychology to different types of problems: - **Abnormal Psychology** - studies mental disorders and tries to find ways to prevent them. - **Clinical Psychology** -the study, diagnosis and treatment of behavior disorders by the use of clinical methods. - **Community Psychology** - a specialization dealing with the mental health of the community. - **Comparative or Animal Psychology-** studies general principles of behavior that apply to all animals. - **Counseling Psychology** - the science of understanding and helping people with personality, marital and vocational problems. - **Developmental or Genetic Psychology-** the study of human development from conception to old age. - **Differential Psychology** - studies the differences and similarities existing between individuals, social groups and races. - **Educational Psychology** the study and application of learning principles, and diagnosis and treatment of learning problems, as well as counseling of youngsters in school. - **Experimental Psychology** -specializes in the investigation and experimentation of the physiological aspects of behavior, like, sensation, perception learning, emotion, memory, motivation and language. - **Forensic or Legal Psychology** the application of Psychology to law, court and legal procedures. - **General Psychology** - studies the different theories and principles of human behavior. - **Industrial Psychology** the application of Psychology to the problems of business and industry, especially on improving worker performance. - **Personality Psychology** examines variables that explain how individuals develop and maintain their individual characteristics - **Physiological Psychology** - studies the connection between the nervous and endocrine systems and behavior. - **Psychometric Psychology** - is the measurement and evaluation of individual as well as group behavior. - **Social Psychology** - studies group interaction, including the effect of the group on the individual and vice versa. ## ENDURING ISSUES - **Person-Situation** * Is behavior caused by factors inside the person or outside? - **Nature-Nurture** * Is a person the product of genetics (nature) or simply the sum of their experiences (nurture)? - **Stability-Change** * Are behavior patterns learned in childhood permanent or do people change over times? - **Diversity-Universality** * How are people similar to others and how are they unique? - **Mind-Body** * What is the relationship between the mind and the body? ## Who is a Psychologist? A psychologist... * ...works in the field of psychology, treatment, counseling, consulting * ...is trained in psychology * ...has an advanced degree (masters or doctorate degree) *A psychologist is one who questions and examines behavior and internal mental states.* ## Future of Psychology There are a number of trends that current psychologists have identified. - increasing specialization (the APA has 53 divisions) - new perspectives and new approaches within the old perspectives - integration of the poles (nature and nurture; behavior and mental states) - increasing acceptance of and access to treatment for mental illness - increasing acknowledgement of diversity - application of psychology to many areas of life # CHAPTER TWO ## Psychology as a Science Psychology is a Science. It is considered to be an empirical discipline. It is held to be based on objective observation. A central belief in psychology is that it is public knowledge--psychological truths are not based on secret insights, personal prejudices, or mystic experiences. Furthermore, psychology as a science, tries to determine facts and reduce uncertainty through the use of scientific methodologies. ## THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD This is defined as a source of knowledge based on the assumption that knowledge comes from the objective, systematic observation and measurement of particular variables and the events they affect. **The scientific method is based on certain basic assumptions:** 1. What we perceive with our five senses represents objective reality. 2. Objective reality functions according to certain natural laws that are observable, describable, and persistent. 3. Every effect has a cause; and each event can cause others (everything happens for an observable reason). 4. Through observation, manipulation and reason we can decipher the basic principles of the physical world. **The Goals of Psychology** Psychologists usually have four specific goals when they study some behavior or mental process: - To observe and describe behavior → what - To understand or explain behavior by identifying its causes →why - To predict behavior →when - To influence people to change their behavior → how ## The Scientific Method in Conducting Psychological Research Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of the scientific method ### The Scientific Method in Conducting Psychological Research Research in psychology is conducted in accordance with the standards of the scientific method: 1. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM - One or more specific questions based on observation 2. FORMULATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS - an educated assumption of the phenomena being studied 3. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS - the method to be used will depend on the hypothesis i.e. descriptive, correlational, experimental 4. ANALYSIS - the data will be analyzed using statistics 5. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS - whether the data supports or does not support the hypothesis 6. REPORTING RESULTS ### Population and Sampling * Before choosing a particular research design, there is a need to point out the characteristics of people who belong to the target population. Literacy levels, language issues, geographic restrictions must be analyzed first. **Population** - the entire group whose characteristics are being studied. It is not usually feasible to study the population as a whole. **Sample** - a subset of the population; A sample is representative of the population if its characteristics match those of the population. **The purpose of sampling is to make generalizations about the whole [the population] which are valid [accurate] and which allow prediction.** **Types:** 1. **Probability or Random Sampling** - if each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample. 2. **Non-Probability Sampling** * This is any sort of sampling process which is not random (not all units of the population have an opportunity to be selected). These methods are popular because they are more convenient and less expensive. ### Approaches in Psychology Research * **Nomothetic (Quantitative Approach)** * **Idiographic (Qualitative Approach)** **Nomothetic (Quantitative Approach)** * This approach basically used inferential and descriptive statistics as both mediums of scientific method of investigation in analyzing, presenting, and interpretation of data gathered by the researcher through standardized or objective instruments (e.g. psychological Tests). The term "nomothetic" comes from the Greek word "nomos" meaning "law". Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws or generalizations. **Idiographic (Qualitative Approach)** * This approach uses qualitative methods of data gathering such as interviews, diaries, and other written materials, obtained from or provided by the expected or anticipated respondents of a particular research. The term "idiographic" comes from the Greek word "idios" meaning "own" or "private". Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience seek to discover what makes each of us unique. ### Research Designs and Methods * Although there are many different kinds of research designs in psychology, studies may be categorized into descriptive, correlational, and experimental. The method of data collection also varies, with self-report on one end of the spectrum, and naturalistic observation on the other. **Descriptive Studies** * Studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called descriptive studies. In this research method, general or specific behaviors or attributes are observed and measured, without respect to each other. * An example of such a study would be a researcher inquiring into the quality of mental health institutions. This would be done by observation or measurements of various criteria, as opposed to relationships between variables. Alternatively, the study could be conducted without any specific criteria in mind. * The following are the main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-study methods, survey methods, and archival methods. #### Observational Method * With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method - naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. - **naturalistic observation** - looking at the behavior of people and animals in their normal environment. - **participant observation** - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed. #### Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional * Cross-sectional research is an observational study that compares different population groups at a single point in time. Meanwhile, Longitudinal study is also an observational one that is conducted several times over a period of time, sometimes lasting many years #### Case Study Method * Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions. #### Survey Method * In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. #### Archival Research * In this method, the psychologist systematically examines collections of letters, manuscripts, tape recordings, video recordings, or other materials. #### Correlational Study * This method of statistical analysis shows the relationship between two variables. For example, research has shown that alcohol dependence correlates with depression. That is to say, the more alcohol people consume, the more depressed they become. On the other hand, it could be the other way around as well: the more depressed people become, the more likely they are to consume alcohol. **The attributes of correlations include strength and direction.** ##### Direction * **Positive correlation** - as the values of one of the variables increase, the values of the second variable also increase. * **Negative correlation** - the increase in the value of one variable is associated with the decrease of the other variable. ##### Strength * **10** Perfect relationship, the two factors always occur together * **76-99** Very strong relationship, the two factors occur together very often * **51-75** Strong relationship, the two factors occur together frequently * **26-50** Moderate relationship, the two factors occur together occasionally * **01-25** Weak relationship, the two factors seldom occur together * **00** No relationship, the two factors never occur together *A correlational study serves only to describe/predict behavior and not to explain it. This is so because a third variable could be shown to cause the occurrence of one of the variables. Furthermore, only experiments can prove causation.* #### Experimental * Experiments are generally the studies that are the most precise and have the most weight to them due to their conclusive power. They are particularly effective in proving hypotheses about cause and effect relationships between variables. **IMPORTANT CONCEPTS:** * **hypothesis** is a prediction of how one variable relates to another. There are two types of hypotheses, null and directional. - The null is a prediction that there will not be any change in the dependent variable when the researcher changes the independent variable. - The **directional hypothesis** states that the change in the independent variable will induce a change in the dependent variable. * In a true experiment all variables are held constant except for the independent variable, which is manipulated. Thus, any changes in the experimental groups can be solely attributed to the action of the independent variable. * In an experiment, we manipulate the variable of interest and control (keep the same) other variables. * In the simplest experiment we have a treatment group and a control group. * In the purest experiments, we change only a single variable. If multiple variables are changed, we need to use statistical techniques to separate the effects of each. * If extraneous variables change from one test to the next, they may confound the results. * If there is no standardization of conditions we have an uncontrolled experiment. * Steps must be taken to make sure that there is no **experimenter bias.** * Two common forms of bias are demand characteristics and expectancy effects. * If a researcher expects certain results from an experiment and influences the subjects response this is called **demand characteristics.** * If the experimenter inadvertently interprets the information to be as expected in his hypothesis it is called **expectancy effect.** * To counteract experimenter bias the subjects can be kept uninformed on the intentions of the experiment, which is called single blind. If the people collecting the information and the subjects giving it are kept uninformed then it is called a double blind experiment. * The experiment should also be reported so that other researchers can repeat it. * If an experiment isn't repeatable it will not hold much weight in the scientific community. * To help an experiment be repeatable the researcher should have the variables be measureable, this is called being **empirical**. **7 Rules in Conducting Experiments in Psychology** 1. Ask asks questions then change it into a hypothesis 2. Identify → operationally define the variables 3. Choose → randomly choose participants 4. Assign → randomly assign participants into the groups 5. Manipulate → administer the independent variable/treatment 6. Measure the dependent variable 7. Analyze → use statistical procedures to determine whether the changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable or to chance or error ## COMPARING RESEARCH METHODS | RESEARCH METHOD | BASIC PURPOSE | HOW CONDUCTED | WHAT MANIPULATED | IS WEAKNESSES | |---|---|---|---|---| | Descriptive | To observe and record behavior. | Do case studies, surveys, naturalistic observations,etc. | Nothing | No control of variables; single cases may be misleading. | | Experimental | To explore cause and effect | Manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment. | The independent variable/s | Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables. | | Correlational | To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another. | Compute statistical association, sometimes survey responses. | Nothing | Does not specify cause and effect. | ## Choosing Research Settings 1. **Naturalistic setting** is a relatively normal environment in which researchers gather information by observing individuals' behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation. 2. **A laboratory setting** involves studying individuals under systematic and controlled conditions, with many of the real world influences eliminated. ## USING STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH After psychologists develop a theory, form a hypothesis, make observations, and collect data, they end up with a lot of information, usually in the form of numerical data. The term **statistics** refers to the analysis and interpretation of this numerical data. Psychologists use statistics to organize, summarize, and interpret the information they collect. ### Descriptive Statistics * To organize and summarize their data, researchers need numbers to describe what happened. These numbers are called **descriptive statistics**. Researchers may use histograms or bar graphs to show the way data are distributed. Presenting data this way makes it easy to compare results, see trends in data, and evaluate results quickly. #### Measuring Central Tendency * Researchers summarize their data by calculating measures of central tendency, such as the mean, the median, and the mode. - **mean** = average - **median** = the middle value - **mode** = the most common value #### Measuring Variation * Measures of variation tell researchers how much the scores in a distribution differ. Examples of measures of variation include the range and the standard deviation. - **The range** is the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in the distribution. Researchers calculate the range by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score. - **The standard deviation** provides more information about the amount of variation in scores. It tells a researcher the degree to which scores vary around the mean of the data ### CORRELATIONAL STATISTICS * Correlation is a statistical technique that can show whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related. There are many ways of measuring correlations, but the most common is Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient which measures the relationship between two quantitative variables and is symbolized by the letter "r." The correlation coefficient, r, may range from 1.00 (indicating a perfect, positive, linear relationship) to -1.00 (indicating a perfect, negative, linear relationship), and any value between the two. When r = 0.00, then no linear relationship exists between the two variables. ### INFERENTIAL STATISTICS * With inferential statistics, we are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. * Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data. ## Milgram's Famous Obedience Experiment Milgram wanted to answer the question "Can someone be coerced by an authority figure to hurt someone else?** The Set Up: On the face of it, the experiment looked at learning and had three participants: an experimenter, a teacher and a learner. The teacher and the leamer were supposed to be experimental subjects who drew straws to determine roles. In fact, the drawing was rigged so that the one subject was always the "teacher." The learner was always the same person (a 47 year old accountant who had been thoroughly coached on his performance). The learner was strapped into an electric chair. Both the teacher and the learner were told "Although the shocks can be extremely painful, they cause no permanent tissue damage." The Lesson: The teacher sat in a different room where he could hear but not see the learner. The teacher gave the leamer a simple word association test. When the learner answered wrong, the teacher was supposed to administer a shock. The Shock Generator: Milgram made a very convincing looking gizmo with labeled switches for giving shocks at levels from 15 to 450 volts. The teacher was given a sample shock using the switch marked 45 volts. The switches were grouped from "Slight Shock" to "Danger: Severe Shock" (the last two were listed with "XXX")._When the switch was flipped, a red light came on above the switch, there was a click and a buzzing noise. The Experiment: Each time the learner made a mistake, the teacher was told to move to the next voltage level. The teacher was supposed to announce the voltage level to the learner then flip the switch. At various voltage levels the learner expressed discomfort then pain then agony. At 120V, he said "Hey this really hurts; at 270V he screamed and shouted "let me out of here." At 300 V he refuse to answer anymore (which of course meant he got the question wrong). After 330V he stopped responding altogether (after complaining about his heart since 150V). If the teacher did not want to continue, the experimenter said "The experiment requires that you continue" or "You have no choice, you must continue." The experiment ended when the teacher refused to give any more shocks or 450V had been reached. Once the experiment was over, the set up was explained and the teacher and learner shook hands. The Results: 26 out of 40 subjects went all the way to 450V. No one stopped before 300V. The subjects in Milgram's experiment were very distressed (even though they continued) and were greatly relieved when they heard about the hoax. Milgram's experiment has been confirmed many times over. ### Factors that reduced obedience: * Expectation * Context * Gradual escalation * Displaced responsibility * Separation from the learner Milgram tried a number of variations, some of which reduced the likelihood that the teacher would obey. ## VARIATIONS ON MILGRAM'S EXPERIMENT | CONDITIONS | PERCENTAGE OF OBEDIENCE | |---|---| | Original Set-up | 65% | | Office Building Instead of University | 48% | | Teacher & Learner in the Same Room | 40% | | Teacher Forcing Learner's Head onto Stick Plate | 30% | | Experimenter Leaves and Gives Orders by Phone | 23% | | Experimenter Leaves and Ordinary Person Gives Orders | 20% | | Teacher Sees Two Other Teachers Rebel | 10% | | Teacher Chooses Shock Level | 3% | ## CRITICAL THINKING TIME! Answer the following questions: 1. What basic question did Stanley Milgram try to answer with his famous experiment in 1961? 2. In the study