Introduction to Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER I UNIT1.1 DEFINITION Psychology – “psyche”: mind/soul, “logos”: study/discourse/science – the scientific study of mental processes and behavior, and how they are affected by an organism's physical, mental, and external environment...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER I UNIT1.1 DEFINITION Psychology – “psyche”: mind/soul, “logos”: study/discourse/science – the scientific study of mental processes and behavior, and how they are affected by an organism's physical, mental, and external environment. – seeks to understand, measure, explain, and when necessary, change the behavior of man and other animals. *uses the scientific method *scientific attitude; objective : BEHAVIOR -only aspect that is OBSERVABLE; (We can always make FAIRLY TRUSTWORTHY inferences from how a person behaves.) OBJECTIVES 1. DESCRIBE BEHAVIOR 2. IDENTIFY FACTORS that HELP PREDICT BEHAVIOR 3. UNDERSTAND and EXPLAIN BEHAVIOR 4. CONTROL and CHANGE BEHAVIOR UNIT1.2 HISTORY OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY 1. EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY: flourished during the 19th century; stimulated due to the discoveries on the brain and nervous system 2. PSYCHOPHYSICS: mind-body interaction GUSTAV FECHNER - “Father of Psychophysics”; defined it as the dependency between body and mind. HERMAN LUDWIG VON HELMHOLTZ - German Physiologist; w/ other scientists led the establishment of the field of PSYCHOPHYSICS. -also studied the speed of the nervous impulse; theory of color vision and offered explanation on musical perception 3. MODERN EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY WILHELM WUNDT - founder, established the first experimental lab at University of Leipzig, Germany in 1879, the year of the establishment of PSYCHOLOGY as a separate science. *PHILOSOPHY & PHYSIOLOGY - parental fields of PSYCHOLOGY UNIT1.3 RELATION OF PSYCHOLOGY W/ OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES A. UNITY IN DIVERSITY 1a. SHARED INTEREST b. INTERDISCIPLINARY COLLABORATION  2a. EMPHASIS on RESEARCH b. APPLICATIONS of RESEARCH B. INTERDISCIPLINARY/ECLECTIC APPROACH 1. Psychology and PHYSIOLOGY - biological basis/science/make-up relation to behavior 2. Psychology and ANTHROPOLOGY - origin of man, cultural influence; naturalistic observations 3. Psychology and SOCIOLOGY - groups 4. Psychology and HISTORY - historical context, past 5. Psychology and ECONOMICS w/ POLITICAL SCIENCE - economic influences on behavior, voting behavior, leadership styles *Behavioral Sciences: PSYCHOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY, and SOCIOLOGY *Social Sciences: ECONOMICS, POLITICAL SCIENCE, and HISTORY INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA a. Initial Trauma b. Transmission c. Re-traumatization UNIT1.4 SCHOOLS of THOUGHT in PSYCHOLOGY A. INTROSPECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY (STRUCTURALISM) 1. Exponents: WILHELM WUNDT, EDWARD TITCHENER 2. Emphasis: what makes up CONSCIOUSNESS; simple mental states (elementary units) build up complex mental experiences; personal perception of reality shapes and controls behavior 3. Approach: INTROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS/EXPERIMENTAL INTROSPECTION - looking into oneself and reporting own perceptions PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH - subjective or personal interpretations of conscious experience 4. CONTRIBUTION: scientific impetus, term “psychology” was coined, and focused on subjective personal interpretation B. FUNCTIONALISM 1. JOHN DEWEY, JAMES ANGELL, WILLIAM JAMES, HARVEY CARR, ROBERT S. WOODWORTH 2. Functions of the organism's behavior and consciousness as adaptation and adjustments to its environment; exist an obvious connection between the mind and behavior. 3. COGNITIVE APPROACH - learning process, intellect, and how the organism adapts; reactions to the limitation of behavioral approach; see man as an ACTIVE INTERPRETER of the physical and social world. 4. Gave importance to the study of learning behavior and the development of educational psychology, applied psychology, and focus on cognition.  *COGNITION - mental processes of perception, memory, and information processing. C. FREUDIAN PSYCHOLOGY (PSYCHOANALYSIS) 1. SIGMUND FREUD, CARL JUNG 2. CONSCIOUS, PRE-CONSCIOUS, and UNCONSCIOUS (unacceptable wishes become part of ACTIVE UNCONSCIOUS which eventually finds its way to be expressed), carry-over of past/childhood experiences to adulthood 3. PSYCHODYNAMIC/PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH - treating “neurotics” (people w/ physical symptoms but no physical causes) or people w/ mental/personality disorders - Explores the unconscious through TALK THERAPY - verbal expression for pent-up unconscious wishes *TECHNIQUES - FREE ASSOCIATION, DREAM ANALYSIS, and HYPNOSIS 4. Unconscious and internal conflicts; motivational research; childhood and genetic factors; and defense mechanisms D. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY (HOLISTIC/FORM) 1. MAX WERTHEIMER, WOLFGANG KOHLER, KURT LEWIN KOFFKA 2. ORGANIZATION, quality of wholeness in boh behavior and experience; german word GESTALT means “form”, “organization”, “pattern”, or “configuration” - Parts take much of their characteristics from the whole and the CONTEXT EXPERIENCE to understand behavior in heir entirety. 3. Conform to the conscious experience and introspection, objected the idea of “MENTAL CHEMISTRY” (complete conscious experience can be broken down by introspective observation into its component parts. - Holds the slogan, “THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS.” Any change in an element changes the whole, paved the way towards the COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 4. Taught the organized nature of behavior in sensation and perception; investigated similar problems in learning, thinking, emotions, personality, and social psychology. F. PURPOSIVE, DYNAMIC or HORMIC PSYCHOLOGY 1. WILLIAM MCDOUGALL 2. Explore the MOTIVATING FORCES/PURPOSES of man’s action 3. DYNAMIC APPROACH- analysis of motives as a PUSH and PULL; interplay of internal and external motivating forces 4. Understanding of the UNDERLYING FORCES OF MOTIVE and motivation in human and animal behavior. G. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 1. ABRAHAM MASLOW, CARL ROGERS 2. GROWTH and SELF ACTUALIZATION; PERSONALITY as an expression of that tendency  a. MASLOW’S SELF-ACTUALIZATION-highest in the HIERARCHY of NEEDS b. CARL ROGER’S THEORY- “I” and “ME”; people constantly evaluating themselves. 3. HUMANISTIC APPROACH - assumes that people control themselves; behavior is determined by a person’s capacity to CHOOSE 4. The SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY is ATTACHED to the FREEDOM OF CHOICE. H. NEUROBIOLOGICAL/PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. FRANCIS CRICK, CHRISTOPHER EVANS, ANGEL BLAS 2. Biological factors are the most important determinants of behavior and mental processes. 3. BIOLOGICAL/NEUROBIOLOGICAL APPROACH 4. Tries to draw the relationship between processes that occur in the brain, nervous system, and glandular system, and how we think and behave. CHAPTER II UNIT2.1 DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR 1. HEREDITY - a process of biological transmission of traits to the individual from parents to offspring through germ cells or gametes consisting of chromosomes and genes during CONCEPTION. - CHROMOSOMES: carries the genes which are the true carriers of hereditary traits 2 Types of GENES a. DOMINANT GENE - phenotypically manifested when paired w/ another gene (skin color/height) b. RECESSIVE GENE - manifested after being dormant for several generations; not produced when paired w/ a dominant gene (baldness/color of the eye) *ZYGOTE - union of the egg and the sperm within the mother’s body * It is impossible to separate nature and nurture. THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF HEREDITY 1. PRINCIPLE OF CONSISTENCY - “Like begets like.” 2. PRINCIPLE OF VARIABILITY - “Like begets almost like.” 3. GENERAL INHERITANCE - only general characteristics are inherited THE STUDY OF HEREDITY 1. GENETICS - branch of biology concerned with heredity and the means by which hereditary characteristics are transmitted 2. BEHAVIOR GENETICS - specialization of genetics that combines the methods of genetics and psychology to study the inheritance of behavior from parents to offspring  3. EUGENICS - science of improving genes for the human race; careful selection of parents (selective breeding for animals and plants) 2. ENVIRONMENT - includes all conditions inside and out, takes place AFTER CONCEPTION TWO SOURCES 1. INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT - intracellular environment and extracellular environment 2. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT - physical and social THE SPECIFIC EFFECT ON INDIVIDUAL 1. A BAD ENVIRONMENT - can suppress or even nullify good inheritance 2. A GOOD ENVIRONMENT - can foster positive development, however, cannot substitute for bad heredity. THE STUDY OF ENVIRONMENT 1. ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - study of the effects of the general physical environment on behavior an mental processes. 2. EUTHENICS - science or art of improving the human race by controlling the environment or living conditions 3. MATURATION - completion of growth and development, the unfolding of an individual’s inherent traits or potential UNIT2.2 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT GROWTH - progressive increase and continuous advancement of the child from conception to maturity; structural change (height and weight), and functional change (increase in vocabulary, agility, and capacity to reason and analyze) DEVELOPMENT - progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly. Predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience; goal is to enable individual to adapt to his environment and achieve self-actualization 2 LAWS of DEVELOPMENT 1. CEPHALOCAUDAL LAW - development starts from the head toward the foot 2. PROXIMODISTAL LAW - from the center towards the extremities UNIT2.3 THEORIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THEORY - set of assumptions or generalizations supported by related philosophical assumptions and scientific principles and serving as a basis for projecting hypothesis that suggests the course of action  A. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT) :SIGMUND FREUD -all humans pass through a series of psychosexual stages - EROGENOUS ZONES - pleasure-giving spots (ID Principle) - when fails to resolve conflicts, tendency of behavior is to be fixated, and eventually affecting his psychological well-being FIXATION - obsessive focus on something FRUSTRATION - result of the unresolved conflict/fixation STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. ORAL STAGE - mouth 2. ANAL STAGE - anal region 3. PHALLIC STAGE - genital/sex organ manipulation :OEDIPUS COMPLEX - rivalry between the son and the father to get the mother’s attention - Castration anxiety, fear of boy being punished because of his desire on his mother :ELECTRA COMPLEX - rivalry between the daughter and the mother to get the father’s attention - Penis envy, feeling of loss/inadequacy because of not having a penis 4. LATENCY STAGE - focused more on reality, passive, sexual desires are repressed 5. GENITAL STAGE - onset of puberty, attraction to opposite sex B. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT :ERIK ERIKSON - EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE (people grow in a sequence) - CRISIS - to be resolved - Positive disposition - syntonic - Negative disposition - dystonic *BALANCE will result in BASIC STRENGTH. STAGES CRISIS BASIC STRENGTH Stage 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST HOPE Stage 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & DOUBT WILLPOWER Stage 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT PURPOSE Stage 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY COMPETENCE Stage 5: IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION FIDELITY Stage 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION LOVE Stage 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION CARE Stage 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR WISDOM C. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY :JEAN PIAGET -gradually develops cognitive competencies by passing through a series of periods of development COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 1. ASSIMILATION - process of taking in new information about objects by trying out existing schemes on objects that fit those schemes 2. ACCOMMODATION - process of modifying schemes as the infant tries out familiar schemes on objects that do not fit them FOUR STAGES 1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE - emphasizes that learning is based on sense perceptions and where the child is unaware of his environment. 2. PRE-OPERATIONS STAGE - use of symbols like mental images, words, and gestures to represent objects by the children to represent objects and events 3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE - children can now acquire certain logical structures that allow them to perform mental operations 4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE - mental operations are now applied to verbal/logical statements D. THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT :LAWRENCE KOHLBERG -as children grow, they pass several levels of moral development consisting of different stages that serve as the basis of their behavior when become adults. LEVELS 1. LEVEL ONE: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY - Children’s judgments are based on external criteria, they learn to distinguish right from wrong based on standards set by authorities. STAGE ONE: Behavior is based on reward and punishment. 2. LEVEL TWO: CONVENTIONAL MATURITY - Allows judgements to be based on group’s expectations. STAGE TWO: actions are based on self-satisfactions and they help those who help them. STAGE THREE: desirable behavior pleases others so they should conform to rules and regulations set by the group. STAGE FOUR: whatever is right is what is accepted. 3. LEVEL THREE: POST-CONVENTIONAL - Develops “a law must be for the greatest number of people.”  STAGE FIVE: laws are arbitrary , concept is governed by reasons. STAGE SIX: morality is based on mutual respect. CHAPTER III UNIT3.1 THE CASE OF PHINEAS GAGE - his accident led to the physiological foundations of behavior INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY: Body’s response system and how they translate internal stimulation into action The body has various mechanisms that respond to stimuli: 1. Receiving Mechanism Receptor of external stimuli 2. Reacting Mechanism Muscles & hormones 3. Connecting Mechanism Nervous System : Central and Peripheral Nervous System NERVOUS SYSTEM - major instrument of integration and coordination of the body BASIC UNITS: 1. NEURON/NERVE CELL - basic structural unit of the NS - coordinates and transmits Nervous Impulses (NI) - living cell with a nucleus - Responsible for the transmission of NI through neural circuits w/in the NS PARTS OF THE NEURON a. Cell Body / Soma -contains nucleus, center for nourishment b. Dendrites - Cellulipetal; NI → cell body c. Axon - Cellulifugal; NI → AWAY FROM THE CELL BODY d. Axon/Synaptic Terminals/Buttons - Relay message to other cells; Contains synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitter substances e. Myelin Sheath - axon’s protective coating, made of fat and protein 3 Kinds of Neurons 1. Sensory/Afferent Neuron - Conduct impulses from sense organs to the spinal cord and the brain 2. Motor/Efferent Neuron - From the brain or spinal cord to the muscles and glands 3. Interneuron - From sensory neuron to motor neuron  *The Nerve Impulse Transmission A neuron manifests the ability to respond to a stimulus (a certain irritability). These neuro-impulses are electro-chemical in nature. Once excited, the neuron generates and transmits nerve impulses to and from the brain. When a neuron is irritated, the membrane is in its polarized state characterized by negativity inside the membrane and positivity outside the membrane. Negatively charged ions (anions) predominate inside the membrane, while positively charged ions (cations) predominate outside. 2. SYNAPSE - site where transmission of a NI from one cell to another occurs; triggers the secretion of a chemical called NEUROTRANSMITTER. 3. NERVE - bundle of elongated axons belonging to hundreds and thousands of neurons - GLIAL (glue) CELLS; closely interwoven among the neurons, hold the nerves in place and provide them w/ nutrients. NEUROTRANSMITTERS - aka NEUROMESSENGERS - Chemical substances released from the nerve endings that transmit across synapses to other nerves and across the minute gaps between the nerves and the muscles of glands that they supply. - Has inhibitory and excitatory effects TYPES AND FUNCTIONS ON BEHAVIOR 1. DOPAMINE : involve in initiation and coordination of movement : Oversupply of dopamine will result in symptoms of Schizophrenia. : Undersupply will result to mood disorders such as mania and depression : Degeneration of dopamine in the post synaptic receptors may cause Parkinson's disease (movement disorder) 2. NOREPINEPHRINE NORADRENALINE) : Undersupply of norepinephrine causes depression. 3. SEROTONIN: Modulates the transmission of sensory pain input : Low level of serotonin is associated with mood and anxiety disorders. 4. ACETYLCHOLINE: Chief neurotransmitter which has an excitatory effect and is associated with mood and sleep disorders :Degeneration in the hippocampus may cause Alzheimer's disease, Down syndrome, Huntington's chorea and tardive dyskinesia : Can cause muscular paralysis.  5. GABA (GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID): Decreases level of anxiety (anxiolytic) : Decreases activity of the neuron : Sleep inducing : Anti-convulsant effect 6. GLUTAMATE: the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain 7. HISTAMINE: It is a neurotransmitter that blocks the action allergy; whose side effects such as sedation, weight gain and hypotension. 8. ENDORPHIN: Pain-relieving effect; a neuropeptide UNIT3.2 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - Composed of the brain and the spinal cord - Brain: seat of consciousness & higher mental processes - Spinal Cord: seat of reflexes; main pathway of afferent and efferent impulses I. BRAIN - Soft, spongy, mottled and pinkish-gray in color: not a good sight: but its beauty is in its function. - Largest part of the nervous system - Protected by the CRANIUM and by several layers of MENINGES: Dura Mater – outermost layer Arachnoid Membrane – middle layer that secretes a serous fluid Pia Mater – innermost layer, cellophane-like, rich in blood vessels CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ( CSF): a colorless fluid that supports and cushions the brain, and in cavities/ventricles of the brain 3 STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN A. THE CENTRAL CORE (OLD BRAIN) -innermost structure just above the spinal cord; brain stem and cerebellum -Relatively primitive part of the brain; found in all vertebrates -Evolved early in the development of species -composed of the ff: The Brain Stem-Part of the neural tube between the cerebral hemispheres and the spinal cord; sensory and motor signals pass through this Medulla-MYELENCEPHALON -Base of the central core and continuous to the spinal cord -Breathing; Maintenance of the heartbeat; Blood Circulation; Sneezing, coughing, hiccups Pons-METENCEPHALON -Joins the two halves of the cerebellum  -Transmitter of motor information, permitting the coordination of the muscles -Integration of movement between the left and right halves of the body Contralateral function** MIDBRAIN-MESENCEPHALON -Superior to the pons - Contains melanin pigment, while others synthesize Dopamine -SUBSTANTIA NIGRA is a structure in the midbrain known for its dark appearance due to high levels of neuromelanin, a byproduct of dopamine synthesis. Cerebellum-Control bodily balance - Coordinates voluntary movements - Alcohol depresses the activity of the cerebellum leading to unsteady movements of drunkenness Reticular Formation-Arouses the body to prepare it for appropriate action (puts it on alert if needed) -Screens out background stimuli allowing the person to sleep undisturbed -Attention INTERBRAIN-DIENCEPHALON -subdivides into THALAMUS and HYPOTHALAMUS Thalamus-Relay station of the brain concerning sensory information -Eyes, ears, and skin messages travel to the thalamus to be communicated upward to higher parts of the brain; EXCEPT OLFACTORY SENSE -also transmits messages from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum and medulla Hypothalamus-Maintain homeostasis (steady internal environment for the body: constant body temp, amount of nutrients in the cells, etc.) -Regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of the species – eating, drinking, sexual behavior, aggression, and nurturance of the offspring - Regulation of stress responses II. THE LIMBIC SYSTEM (ANIMAL BRAIN) - “LIMBUS,” Latin word for border - Lies between the central core and the cerebral cortex  - Self-preservation, learning, memory, and experience of pleasure - Similar structure to animals - Interconnected with the hypothalamus - Hypothalamus, Hippocampus, Amygdala A. HIPPOCAMPUS -Crucial role in memory (Factual Memory) -Associated with the temporal lobes -lies along the temporal cortex which transmits information -storage of lasting memories (LTM) -compares sensory information with what the brain has learned to expect about the world -“Gateway to memory” ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA- difficulty in learning new information RETROGRADE AMNESIA- difficulty/inability to recall past memories NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS-mesolimbic pathway B. AMYGDALA -Appetitive, sexual, and aggressive -Emotional Memory -from the ancient Greek word for “almond” -situated within the temporal lobe and implicated in the production of memory, emotions -Destruction of this area will turn a ferocious animal into a meek and docile creature - People with injuries in this area have difficulty to recognize happiness, sadness, or disgust III. Cerebrum /Cerebral Cortex (The New Brain) - Relatively recent evolution; contains 14 billion neurons - Much larger but with more deeper fissures than the limbic system CEREBRUM - a mass of deeply folded, rippled convoluted tissue that represents the largest part of the brain - covered by several thin layers of densely packed cells known collectively as the Cerebral Cortex. (Cortex is Latin for “bark” or“rind"). CEREBRAL CORTEX - a mass of sponge-like gray matter, and its surface is marked by deep wrinkles called fissures. The large fissures (grooves) can be used to mark off parts of the cortex (lobes).  CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE - a longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into two symmetrical halves CORPUS CALLOSUM - a bundle of nerve fibers joining the two cerebral hemispheres LATERALIZATION - The right hemisphere is in charge of the left side of the body and the left hemisphere is in charge of the right side of the body. The two hemispheres also have different tasks and talents. RIGHT HEMISPHERE: Controls the left side of the body; more involved in perceptual, visual, artistic, sympathetic,... LEFT HEMISPHERE: Controls the right side of the body; Technical brain FOUR MAJOR SECTIONS (LOBES) 1. FRONTAL LOBE - Expressive; Center and Motor Area of the Brain - Movement, short-term memory, planning, setting goals, creative thinking, initiative, social judgment, rational decision making, speech production. - Damage to frontal lobe results to problems in paying attention, remembering things, making good decisions, planning and organizing events, and carrying out a sequence of behavior. 2. PARIETAL LOBE - Somatosensory Area of the Brain - Processing of pressure, pain, touch and temperature - Damage at the back of parietal lobe results to inability to recognize common objects by touch or feel, e.g., agraphia or dysgraphia, acquired inability to write 3. TEMPORAL LOBE - Auditory, Olfactory, and Gustatory Centers of the Brain -Memory, perception, emotion, hearing, language, comprehension -Damage to the Wernicke's area of the temporal lobe results to Wernicke's aphasia (difficulty in understanding spoken or written words and a difficulty in putting words into meaningful sentences.) 4. OCCIPITAL LOBE - Visual Center of the Brain -Visual processing - Damage to the visual association area of the occipital lobe results to visual agnosia (failure to recognize some objects, person, or color, yet has the ability to see and even describe pieces or parts of some visual stimulus)  Cortical Areas & Their Functions Motor Area: Frontal Lobe Contralateral Control Damage to the left motor area → paralysis on the right side of the body Somatosensory Area: Parietal Lobe Primary Visual Area: Occipital Lobe Primary Auditory Area: Temporal Lobe Association Area: meaningful interpretation of sensory experience Gnosis: arousal of association areas, consequently triggering the cascading of memory complexes Basis of understanding and knowledge Gnostic disturbance that involve language: APHASIA Broca’s Area: Motor Speech Center Broca’s Aphasia Wernicke’s Area: Comprehension of Speech Wernicke’s Aphasia