Module 1 Cellular Function Fall 2024 PDF

CHAPTER 1CELLULAR FUNCTION BASIC CELL FUNCTION: EXCHANGING MATERIAL Homeostasis- a state of balance among all the body systems needed for the body to survive and function correctly DIFFUSION: MOVEMENT...

CHAPTER 1CELLULAR FUNCTION BASIC CELL FUNCTION: EXCHANGING MATERIAL Homeostasis- a state of balance among all the body systems needed for the body to survive and function correctly DIFFUSION: MOVEMENT SUBSTANCES WITH FREE SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY: OF SOLUTES TOWARDS PASSAGE LOWER SOLUTE ⚬Ability of the cell wall ⚬ENZYMES: PROTEINS ⚬CONCENTRATIONS FACILITATED to allow some THAT FACILITATE DIFFUSION: THE substances through CHEMICAL TRANSPORT OF the membrane and REACTIONS SUBSTANCES ACROSS block others ⚬GLUCOSE: SUGAR A BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE THAT MEMBRANE FROM AN PROVIDES ENERGY AREA OF HIGHER ⚬ELECTROLYTES: CONCENTRATION TO CHARGED CHEMICAL AN AREA OF LOWER CONDUCTORS WHEN CONCENTRATION WITH DISSOLVED THE HELP OF A TRANSPORT MOLECULE DIFFUSIO N movement of solutes towards lower solute concentrations OSMOSIS: PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF WATER/SOLVENT ACROSS MEMBRANE TOWARDS HIGHER CONCENTRATIONS (OSMOTIC PRESSURE) ⚬Lysis and crenation ACTIVE TRANSPORT: MOVEMENT AGAINST CONCENTRATION GRADIENT ⚬Endocytosis: bringing substance into cell ￭ Phagocytosis ￭ Pinocytosis BASIC CELL FUNCTION: ENERGY, REPLICATION, AND DIFFERENTIATION Energy (ATP) comes from ⚬ENERGY CAN BE STORED BY BUILDING LARGER breaking down glucose, triglycerides, or protein (when MOLECULES ⚬KREBS (CITRIC ACID) CYCLE AND nothing else is available) AEROBIC/ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION Cell proliferation occurs when ⚬MITOSIS (PROPHASE, METAPHASE, ANAPHASE, cells divide and reproduce TELOPHASE) AND MEIOSIS ⚬STEM CELLS ARE LESS DIFFERENTIATED, Cell differentiation occurs when cells become ALLOWING THEM TO DIFFERENTIATE AND FILL specialized DIFFERENT ROLES AS NEEDED  TISSUE Epithelial tissue acts as ⚬Tightly packed cells a barrier (simple or (squamous, cuboidal, stratified) and columnar) ⚬Cells suspended in Connective tissue extracellular matrix supports and connects other tissues (loose or dense) ⚬Consists of cell fibers Muscle tissue contracts with contractile to enable body movement proteins (actin and myosin) Nervous tissue senses, ⚬Consists of neurons processes, and and neuroglia responds to stimuli CELLULAR ADAPTATION AND DAMAGE Atrophy (decrease in cell size): lowers functionality ⚬Decreasing workload diminishes organelle size and lowers energy usage Hypertrophy (increase in cell size): lowers functionality ⚬Increasing workload increases organelle size and contractility Hyperplasia (increase in cell number): increases functionality ⚬Increasing workload increases tissue size due to cell proliferation Metaplasia: a pathologic replacement of normal cells with abnormal cells Dysplasia, a pathologic mutation of normal cells into abnormal cells  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1va CELL INJURY AND DEATH EVcMfa1E MOST DISEASES BEGIN WITH CELL INJURY (BY ISCHEMIA, NECROSIS, FREE RADICALS) ⚬MAY BE REVERSIBLE AS LONG AS IT IS BALANCED WITH CELL RENEWAL CAUSES OF CELL INJURY INCLUDE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, OR BIOLOGICAL AGENTS; RADIATION; AND NUTRITIONAL IMBALANCES APOPTOSIS IS THE PROGRAMMED “SUICIDE” OF CELLS NECROTIC CELL DEATH (COAGULATIVE, LIQUEFACTIVE, CASEOUS, OR FATTY) ⚬GANGRENE IS NECROSIS BY SEVERE HYPOXIC INJURY (COAGULATIVE, LIQUEFACTIVE, OR GAS PATHOLOGIES) Carcinogenesis (initiation of cancer formation) Neoplasm: “new growth”, uncontrolled and unregulated May originate in one organ or spread from another site Carcinogenesis is impacted by heredity (oncogenes) and carcinogen exposure and has three steps: Initiation: introduction of the agent Promotion: initiation of uncontrolled growth Progression: permanent malignant changes Benign cancers are slow, progressive, localized, defined, and differentiated more like host tissue Malignant cancers are rapid, metastatic,  CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS AND COMPLICATIONS OF CANCER TAKE CAUTION TO DETECT CANCER ⚬Change in elimination habits Healthcare providers, ⚬A sore that doesn’t heal patients, and family ⚬Unusual bleeding or discharge members detect many ⚬Thickening or lump in tissue cases of cancer first through ⚬Indigestion or difficulty swallowing the recognition of ⚬Obvious change in wart or mole manifestations ⚬Nagging cough or hoarseness COMPLICATIONS OF CANCER ⚬Cachexia, fatigue, infection, pain ⚬Anemia, leukopenia, and  Diagnosis procedures have three main types: biopsy, tumor markers, and other miscellaneous imaging procedures CANCER DIAGNOSIS CLASSIFICATION, Cancer is classified by stage and grade TREATMENT, AND ⚬Staging: TNM (tumor node metastasis), based on disease spread ⚬Grading: I–IV, according to histological findings of tumor differentiation PROGNOSIS Treatment goals are curative, palliative, and/or prophylactic ⚬Treatments range from surgery to radiation to chemical modalities Prognosis: the likelihood of surviving the cancer Remission: when the cancer is considered “under control” Screening is what stage of health promotion ?  CHROMOSOMES CONTAIN GENETIC INFORMATION IN 23 PAIRED SECTIONS ⚬Sex chromosomes are unpaired until CHROMOSOMES reproduction ⚬Karyotypes AND CONGENITAL ⚬Phenotypes DISORDERS PATTERNS OF GENETIC INHERITANCE ⚬Homozygous/heterozygous ⚬Dominant/recessive MANY IDENTIFIED CONGENITAL AND GENETIC DISORDERS ⚬Caused by a mutation ⚬Characterized by the patterns of transmission AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT DISORDERS Transmitted from affected Example: Marfan parents to offspring syndrome (incurable, regardless of gender palliative treatment) ⚬50% chance of ⚬FBN1 (chromosome transmission, where 15) creates unaffected offspring microfibrils for do not pass on the strength, growth disorder factor release, tissue ⚬Delayed onset repair; mutation ⚬Typically involve reduces elasticity, abnormalities with increases growth structural proteins factor AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISORDERS Rare, as both members of Example: Cystic Fibrosis the gene pair must be affected ⚬Occur only in Progressive disorder of homozygous allele the mucus and sweat pairs (e.g. aa) glands ⚬Those with Primarily affects the heterozygous pairs lungs and pancreas (e.g., Aa) are carriers (but also affects liver, only and exhibit no intestines, sinuses) symptoms Most cases diagnosed ⚬Early onset, usually by the age of 2 caused by deficient enzyme  X-LINKED DISORDERS Sex-linked disorders almost always X- Fragile X syndrome linked ⚬Males have a 50% chance of ⚬Associated with single getting the disorder from their trinucleotide gene (FMR1) affected mother, females have a sequence on the X chromosome, 50% chance of being a carrier for repeated > 200 times the disorder ⚬Affects synaptic development ⚬Female offspring of affected ⚬Manifests physically as long face; males are carriers, male offspring large mandible, ears, and are not testicles; connective tissue disorders ⚬Manifests mentally as learning disabilities/delays, behavioral issues, or autism spectrum disorder MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE DISORDERS A common but unpredictable class of disorders resulting from an interaction of environmental and genetic factors ⚬May be expressed at birth or later Cleft lip and palate (unilateral or bilateral deformities) ⚬Improper formation of soft tissues in mouth and lips ⚬Leads to feeding/nutrition issues ⚬Risk factors include maternal smoking, diabetes, and seizure medications ⚬Diagnosed with prenatal ultrasound ⚬Treated with surgery and speech therapy  Trisomy 21 (Down’s Syndrome, diagnosed through parental screening) Manifestations include upward slanted eyes, varying degrees of disability, organ defects/complications, and a strong relation to Alzheimer’s disease CHROMOSO Monosomy X (Turner’s Syndrome, diagnosed in females with idiopathic deletion of X chromosome MAL through serum hormones and genetic tests) Manifestations include gonadal streaks (no ovaries), DISORDERS distinctive physiology, aortic coarctation, but no Meiosis produces abnormal intellectual disability number or structure of chromosomes Polysomy X (Klinefelter’s Syndrome, diagnosed in males with multiple X chromosomes through genetic testing but often undetected) Manifestations include small genitals, distinctive physiology, and increased vulnerability to osteoporosis and breast cancer