Renaissance Midterm Study Guide PDF

**Midterm Study Guide** **Renaissance** - Brief Description - The Renaissance began a time of cultural change that originated in Italy in the 1300s and spread through Europe over the next two centuries. "Renaissance" literally means "rebirth," and it was a time of...

**Midterm Study Guide** **Renaissance** - Brief Description - The Renaissance began a time of cultural change that originated in Italy in the 1300s and spread through Europe over the next two centuries. "Renaissance" literally means "rebirth," and it was a time of rebirth of ancient Greek and Roman culture. - Vocab - Secularism -- related to worldly things, not connected with religion - Humanism -- system of thought that focuses on humans rather than divine matters - Patron -- a person who supports artist, writers or creative institutions with money, gifts, or social or political influence - Renaissance means rebirth - It was a time of - artistic creativity - political, social, economic, and cultural change - reawakened interest in classical learning especially about Ancient Greece and Rome - 2 periods - Italian Renaissance from 1300-1600 - Northern Renaissance from about 1450-1600 - Florence - The city state of Florence was a republic (representative democracy) - Its wealthy middle class merchant families and guilds held much of the power - The city's influential Medici family included some of the richest merchants and bankers in Europe - The powerful Medici family ruled Florence during much of the Italian Renaissance and they were great patrons of the arts - Humanism - Humanists wanted to study the texts and cultures of the Ancient Greeks and Romans to increase their understanding of current times - Humanists believed that education should stimulate the individual's creative powers - The term 'Renaissance Man' comes from the belief that men should embrace all knowledge and become skilled in all things - Printing Revolution - Printing Press invented by Johanes Gutenberg - Before the printing press, each book was hand copied - This made books very expensive and rare - Impact: - Books printed with moveable metal type were cheaper - More people learned to read and write - People gained access to more knowledge - Ideas were able to spread faster throughout Europe - It is important for our world today, because it brought technological advancements and allowed knowledge to spread faster throughout the world. This is seen today in how we consume and share information quickly through digital platforms, which are direct advancements of the printing press. - Global impact: - Print enabled the spread of vernacular languages, strengthening cultural identities - Maps, charts, and trade manuals produced by the printing press facilitated exploration and trade - Allowed for an interconnectedness of information, spreading information widely and quickly, which influence human experience - Northern Renaissance - Problems resulting from the Black Death outbreak delayed the movement of the Renaissance into Northern Europe until around 1450 - Erasmus - Erasmus wanted the Bible translated into the vernacular (common language) - He criticized the church's lack of spirituality and ridiculed ignorance - This would inspire Martin Luther and his 95 Theses (talk about in Reformation) **Cause of the Renaissance and their Effects on the Reformation** Cause Effect ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Humanism of the Renaissance: fostered a revival of classical learning and emphasized human experience and critical thinking Laid the groundwork for challenging the authority of the Catholic Church in the Reformation Printing Press: revolutionized the spreading of knowledge, making books, widely accessible Allowed the spread of ideas that were critical of the Church, helping to fuel Reformation movements Corruption Starts: practices like indulgence selling, poor education in the clergy, and political influences Led to calls of reform becoming louder, inspiring movements like Lutheranism Decline of unified empires allowed local rulers (like the ones in Germany) to gain authority and they often challenged the Church's influence Secular leaders supported reforms that weakened the Authority of the Church and the Holy Roman Empire **Reformation** - Brief Description - The Reformation is the reform, or change, that established Protestantism as a branch of Christianity. Humanists like Erasmus believed that the Roman Catholic Church needed to reform its ways because they had become corrupt. - Vocabulary - Indulgences -- a pardon that you can buy from the Catholic Church to get out of punishment for wrongdoings - 95 These -- Martin Luther's list of grievances (complaints) against the Catholic Church - Excommunicate -- to officially exclude someone from participating in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church - Background - The most powerful force in Medieval Europe was the Roman Catholic Church. - The Church dominated everyday life, played a role in politics, and influenced kings by threatening excommunication - By the 1500s, the Roman Catholic church was very powerful and controlled what their followers could and could not do - No one dared question the Church's authority for fear of being punished - Economics - The Church made money in several ways: - Charging for ceremonies, selling of indulgences, and controlled about 1/3 of all of the land in Europe - The Church also spent large amounts of money to beautify churches throughout Europe - Corruption - Officials and Renaissance popes were more interested in politics than religion - Powerful officials within the church spent large sums of money and lived lavish life styles. (expensive homes, clothes and gatherings) - Many lower officials in the church were uneducated and illiterate - Selling indulgences, and telling the people that they would not be punished for any wrongdoing they committed if they buy an indulgence - Martin Luther believes that indulgences cannot prevent people from being punished - He believed that they used it as a means for gaining money - He criticized this in his 95 These and this is one of the main reasons he split from the Catholic Church - Luther gained a lot of support for pushing back against indulgences - The sale of indulgences became controversial in the 16th century because it was perceived as a corrupt practice that exploited people\'s fears of punishment for financial gain. Indulgences were supposed to reduce the punishment for wrongdoings, either for the purchaser or their loved ones, but they were increasingly marketed as a way to \"buy\" forgiveness for wrongdoings. - Erasmus - Considered to be one of the first people to write about the corruption in the Catholic Church - Inspires Martin Luther to break from the Catholic Church and write his "95 Theses" - Martin Luther - German monk who became disillusioned (disappointed) with the church - On October 31, 1517 Martin Luther nailed 95 Theses (formal statements) criticizing indulgences and the corruption of the Church to the door of the Wittenberg Church - Marks the start of the Reformation - 95 theses - A list of things he thought was wrong with the Catholic Church - The pope's power, The church's extreme wealth, and Indulgences - Pope Leo X (Medici) - Pope during the height of the church corruption and in 1520 he ordered Luther to recant his statements - Luther burned his orders - The pope then excommunicates him from the Catholic church - Charles V -- The Holy Roman Emperor - Summoned Luther to the trail in the town of Worms - Edict of Worms -- declares Luther an outlaw and heretic - Frederick (III) the Wise - Protected Luther from the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor at his Wartburg Castle - Reasons for Support of the Protestant Movement - Some saw it as an answer to the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church - Many German princes saw it as a way to get rid of the rule of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Emperor - Others like England's Henry VIII used it as an excuse to seize church property and gain wealth - Printing Press - Ideas for the protestant reformation are spread quickly throughout Europe - Luther gains many supports because his ideas were able to spread quickly - Peasant's Revolt - Luther talks about equality and the peasants believe in that message - This leads to many peasants joining Lutheranism - They start a revolt in 1524 to end Serfdom and gain more rights - Luther needs the support of the Princes so he does not support the revolt - The German princes massacre 100,000 people before they are able to regain control - Peace of Augsburg in 1555 - Northern princes supported Luther - Other princes agree to join forces with the Catholics against the north - In 1546, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his armies attacked Protestant princes - Fighting between the groups continued until the signing of the Peace of Augsburg - The Peace of Augsburg gave German princes the ability to choose to follow either Catholicism or Lutheranism. - Thirty Years' War - Peace doesn't last - Starts because of tensions between the Catholics and Protestants rise again - John Calvin - Based in Genva, Switzerland - Established a theocracy (government ruled by religious leaders) - Had very strict rules that the citizens had to follow - By the mid-sixteenth century, was the most popular Protestant section - Faced problems from both Catholics and Lutherans - Henry VIII - Began reign as a devout Catholic -- was given title "Defender of the Faith" by Pope - He and his wife (Catherine of Aragon) had a daughter Mary, but no male heir - Henry wanted a new wife who would give him a son - Believed that women were too easy to overthrow -- wanted a son on his throne so that his family line would remain the rulers of England - Pope Clement VII refuses to grant an annulment - Doesn't want to cause even more problems with the Catholic Church and Holy Roman Empire because Catherine is The Holy Roman Emperor's aunt - Henry VIII has parliament pass the 1534 Act of Supremacy - Established Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England - Also called Anglican Church - Pope now has no power or influence in England - Shut down all Catholic property and took their land - Became even wealthier and offered those in high standing in English society a share of the wealth for their support - Six Wives; Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr - Instability in England - Edward VI - Nine years old when he became king - he had advisors appointed to rule until he turned 18 - Advisors embraced Protestantism and helped pass laws to turn the Church of England into a Protestant Church - Died at the age of 15 to Tuberculosis - Mary I - Was a devout Catholic - Reversed the Protestant reforms set by Edward VI advisors and restored relations with the pope and the Roman Catholic Church - In an attempt to restore Catholicism, she ordered the execution of 300 prominent Protestants, earning her the nickname, Bloody Mary - She died without an heir - Elizabeth I - Re-established England as a Protestant Kingdom; combined with Catholic styles to please both religions in the country and try to make peace - Made the Anglican Church the official church of all of Great Britian - Catholic/Counter Reformation - Attempt to reform the church and stop the spread of Protestantism - Roman Inquisition - Established to defend the integrity of the faith - Used secret testimonies and torture to find heretics - People who were found guilty were fined, publicly beaten, had their property confiscated, were imprisoned or executed - The Council of Trent - Address concerns brought up by the Protestant reformers and helped revitalize the Catholic Church - Established penalties for corrupt clergy - Established schools to educate the clergy - The Catholic Reformation stopped the momentum of the Protestant Reformation - Europe remained divided into a Catholic South and Protestant North - Renaissance Influence - Erasmus was the first to speak out about corruption in the Catholic church - He wrote about them in his book and this would inspire Martin Luther to write his 95 Theses, eventually breaking from the Catholic Church entirely and creating Protestantism - The Printing Press helped spread Luther's ideas quickly throughout Europe, allowing him to gain many followers and others to break from the Catholic Church **Causes of the Reformation and their Effect on Absolutism** Cause Effect ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Protestant Reformation divided Europe into Catholic and Protestant states This divide weakened the Church's authority, leaving monarchs to step in and centralize power to maintain order and unity in their nations Religious Wars, such as the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) devastated much of Europe Treaties emphasized state powers, granting rulers more power over their territories and diminishing the Church's role in government **Absolutism** - The King or Queen has absolute control over their government and people. They also believe in the Divine Right of Kings (derive their power from God). - France - Louis XIII - 8 years old when he took the throne - Mother was regent because he was too young - Cardinal Richelieu - Chief minister - Strengthened power of monarchy and reduced power of nobility - Increased French power in Europe - most powerful nation in Europe - Louis XIV - Became king at 4 years old - Cardinal Mazarin became chief minister - Not as strong as Richelieu - Ordered the arrest of the leaders of Parlement - Revolt broke out - Quickly broke out into factional fighting as leaders wanted more power for themselves - Shaped the ideas of King Louis XIV (must be absolute rule or fighting takes place) - Chose the "sun" as his emblem and was known as the Sun King - Epitome of Absolutism (perfect example of absolute monarch) - Longest reign of European Monarchs - 72 years and 110 days - Palace of Versailles - Huge palace built outside of Paris - Housed Louis and his nobility - Almost bankrupted France - Expanding France - Gets involved in many wars intending to make France the most power country in Europe - War of Spanish Succession - France and Austria made a deal to split Spain after Charles II dies. Before he does, he claims Philip (Louis XIV grandson) as his heir. Louis XIV breaks the deal with Austria leading to war. They finally make peace and Philip remains King of Spain, as long as France and Spain never unite - "L'etat,c'est moi!" - Means "I am the state!" - Shows his total power over country - Louis controls everything in France - Disrespect to him is disrespect to the country - Controlling the Nobility - Nobility fought each other to have Louis XIV favor - Moves the nobility to Versailles to keep them under his control - Keeps watch on them to ensure their loyalty - Religion - Revoked the Edict of Nates which gave Huguenots the right to practice Protestantism - destroyed churches and schools - 200,000 Huguenots fled - also showed that Louis had the power to removed polices or laws that were already put in place - The Romanovs - Ruled Russia from 1613-1917 - Established by Ivan the Terrible (nicknamed due to luxurious lifestyle while rest of Russia lived in extreme poverty) - Peter the Great of Russia - Very cruel and oppressive ruler despite modernizing Russia - Had those who defied him killed (Moscow guards), took power from the nobles and humiliated those who went against him, heavily taxed citizens, and frequently warred to expand Russia's territory - Westernization - Created St. Petersburg -- capital in honor of himself - Helped increase trade and tried to copy Versailles - Opened schools - Medicine, navigation, and engineering - Orthodox Church - Takes church under state control - Catherine the Great - Ruled Russia from 1762 until 1796 - Strong and powerful ruler - Had own husband (Peter III) killed to assume power herself - Russia grows larger and stronger under her reign, and becomes recognized as one of the great powers of Europe - Spain - Philip II - Was married to England's Henry VIII's daughter Mary I - In 1570's, millions worth of gold and silver are brought from the Americas to Spain every year - The Spanish Armada is defeated by England in 1588 thanks in part to major storms in the English Channel - Sent the Armada against England after his wife Mary I died and Elizabeth took the throne - Was trying to punish England for supporting Protestants who had rebelled against Philip and Mary - Wanted to reinstate the Catholic Church in England and remove the Church of England from power - 66 British ships destroy many of the 130 Spanish ships and forces them to go North of Scotland - The Spanish then faced terrible storms that sunk many of the remaining ships - Those that survived were forced to flee back to Spain - The defeat of the Spanish Armada leads to England becoming the Largest sea power in the world - England - Because Elizabeth was unmarried and had no children her throne went to her cousin James King of Scotland and started a new royal line form Tudor to Stuart - James I - Unfamiliar with English traditions - Believed in Divine Right - king ruled by the will of God - Stood above the law and his subjects had no legitimate right to question him - His relationship with parliament was very poor - Quickly alienated a Parliament that had grown accustom under the Tudors that monarch and parliament together ruled England as a balanced government - Parliament demanded James to acknowledge its authority to get their support for a tax, James instead went around them - Charles I - Son of James I - Consistently battled with Parliament since they refused to approve his requests for more war funds - Needed tax money in order to fight wars - Parliament would only agree to the funds if Charles I agreed to the Petition of Rights - Petition of Rights - Placed limits on the King's power - Charles I responded by disbanding Parliament - Civil War - Royalists (Cavaliers) - House of lords, aristocracy, large landowners, church officials - Parliamentarians (Roundheads) - House of Commons, Puritans, Merchants, Townspeople - Oliver Cromwell - Military general and member of Parliament - New Model Army - Defeated the Cavaliers and took the King Prisoner - Oliver Cromwell - Ran a military dictatorship which brutally conquered Catholic countries Scotland and Ireland - Abolished the Monarchy through what remained of Parliament - Rump Parliament Executed Charles I in 1649 - The Commonwealth - A republic was created after the war - Failed to govern effectively - Protectorate - Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector (Dictatorship) - Denied religious freedom to Anglicans and Catholics - Puritan (section of Protestantism) - Very strict limits on what people could do -- alienated many people - The Restoration - The monarchy was "restored" and brought back - Charles II - Son of Charles I - Worked with Parliament much better than his father did - Formed a Cavalier Parliament filled with Royalists - Restored business and the Church of England - James II - Brother of Charles II - Ruled much more like Charels I and battled frequently with Parliament - Attempted to restore Catholicism in England while ignoring the Church of England - Provoked the revolution that Charles II had succeeded in avoiding - Pushed back and ignored Parliament - Glorious Revolution - Completed without bloodshed - William and Mary - Parliament gets rid of James II by asking his daughter and her husband to rule - English Bill of Rights - Sets out basic civil rights to all citizens, places limits on the powers of the monarch, sets requirements on Parliamentary elections, and guarantees freedom of speech - Limited the King/Queen's power by a written constitution, made them share it with Parliament - Created a Constitutional Monarchy - Monarchy and Parliament work together with neither side having majority power; both must work together to rule - People maintain a say in their government through free and fair Parliamentary elections - Effects of Absolutism - England's Constitutional Monarchy served as a model to others - English Bill of rights - Its limiting of power inspired - Declaration of Independence - United States Constitution - The French Declaration of the Rights of Man - Constitutions of Canada, Australia, Ireland, and New Zealand - Sowed seeds of revolution in both Frane and the 13 American Colonies - Successful revolutions in US and France led to many Latin American countries to fight against absolute rulers in the early 19^th^ century **Causes of Absolutism and their Effect on the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment** Cause Effect ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Absolutist rulers centralized authority, creating relatively stable political environments Stability allowed scholars and scientists to focus on intellectual pursuits without constant fear of war or rebellion, creating growth in science and philosophy Absolute rulers such as Louis XIV supported scientific academies, explorations, and artistic endeavors to glorify their reigns Financial and institutional support helped establish more institutions, accelerating scientific progress Many absolute rulers maintained close relationships with different religious groups and suppressed dissenting ideas Many intellectuals began seeking evidence-based explanations for natural and social phenomena as alternatives to religious or traditional authority The concentration of power and wealth in monarchies, combined with inequality, spurred resentment among intellectuals and rising middle class Philosophers began to critique absolute authority, emphasizing reason, liberty, and human rights, which became central themes of the Enlightenment Renaissance humanism and the Reformation encouraged critical thinking, while the printing press made texts widely available These earlier movements laid the groundwork for the questioning of traditional authority during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment **Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment** - Reason is the capacity of consciously making sense of things, applying logic, and adapting or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information - Scientific Revolution- focus on reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority - Copernicus - Heliocentric Theory: proposed the revolutionary idea that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun - shifted humanity's understanding of its place in the universe - One of the first to challenge long established beliefs and Catholic teachings - Issac Newton - Laws of Motion: describe the relationship between a mass and the forces acting upon it - Universal Law of Gravitation - Stated that every mass attracts all others - Newton's discoveries laid the foundation for modern physics and influenced generations of scientists - He would remain unchallenged until the 20^th^ century - Galileo Galilei - Astronomical Discoveries: Using his improved version of the telescope, Galileo made groundbreaking discoveries - Phases of Venus: Galileo observed that Venus showed phases similar to the Moon, providing evidence that planets orbited the Sun. - Galileo's support for heliocentrism brought him into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, which led to his trial by the Inquisition in 1633. He was forced to recant his views and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. - Galileo's work, however, endured, and his ideas laid the groundwork for modern science - Symbolized the need of evidence-based inquiry - Centuries later, the Church formally recognized its error - complex relationship between science and religion. - Galileo is now remembered as a symbol of intellectual freedom and scientific inquiry - Significance of the Scientific Revolution - It was a period of profound change in the way people understood the natural world and marked the emergence of modern science. It redefined humanity's understanding of nature, fostered the advancement of technology, and inspired a new way of thinking that continues to shape the modern world. It emphasized observation, experimentation, evidence and challenged traditional beliefs. Promoted values like reason, evidence, and skepticism of authority, which influenced the Enlightenment. - Enlightenment - emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism over traditional authority. - Focus: Understanding human behavior and improving society - Philosopher - A philosopher is an individual who seeks to understand and explore fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, mind, language, and the nature of reality - Role of a Philosopher - Ask Fundamental Questions, Analyze Concepts, Challenge Assumptions, Develop Theories, Apply Philosophy to Practical Issues - Separation of powers - Or system of checks and balances. - This concept involves dividing the responsibilities of government among different branches to prevent any single entity from gaining too much power - Laisses-faire - French for "let do" or "let it be" - it reflects the idea that economies function best when individuals and businesses are free to operate without government interference - This is an economic philosophy advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy - Social Contract - The social contract is a philosophical concept that makes an implicit agreement between individuals and their government - In this agreement, people consent to give up some of their freedoms in exchange for protection (of rights) and the maintenance of social order. - Natural Law - Natural law refers to a system of rights or justice that is inherent in human nature and can be understood through reason - It suggests that there are universal moral principles that govern human behavior, independent of laws made by governments or societies. - Natural Rights - Locke's ideas about natural rights---life, liberty, and property---became foundational for modern democratic thought - He argued that these rights were inherent to all individuals and should be protected by governments - Thomas Hobbes - One of the first to approach politics from a scientific and secular perspective, rather than a religious or traditional one. - Theorized that in the state of nature, humans were naturally selfish and in constant competition for resources, leading to a \"war of all against all." - without government, life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." - Believed that reason was essential to create strong political structures that would contain human selfishness. - John Locke - View of human nature: People are basically good and moral - Natural rights: Life, liberty, and property - Purpose of government: Protect natural rights - Right to revolution if government fails its duty - Rene Descartes - Known as the Father of Modern Philosophy - For work in developing a new approach to knowledge based on doubt and rational inquiry, rather than on traditional authority - Method of Doubt - Method of systematic doubt, question all beliefs that could be doubted, until reaching something that is absolutely certain - Descartes devised a method of reasoning that has four main rules: - Accept nothing as the truth unless it is self-evident - Divide problems into simple parts. - Find solutions start from simple and moving to complex. - Recheck your reasoning. - However, he realized that in the act of doubting, there was one thing he could not doubt: the existence of his own mind. - Montesquieu - Most famous for concept of the separation of government powers - Argued that governmental power should be divided into three branches; Legislative, Executive, and Judicial - Believed that separating powers would prevent any single branch from becoming too powerful and protect individual freedoms - Economics - Economics: The science of scarcity - Study of how individuals, businesses, governments, and societies manage and allocate scarce resources to satisfy their needs and wants - Scarcity: Condition where wants exceed limited resources - Prioritization: Making choices due to limited resources - Since we are unable to have everything we desire, we must make choices on how we will use our resources. - Adam Smith - Father of Modern Capitalism - Advocated for the idea that self-interest and competition naturally lead to economic prosperity and societal benefits - Ibn Khaldun - Arab Muslim scholar (1332-1406) - Proposed that labor is the source of wealth and value in an economy - Emphasized the importance of human productivity and its impact on economic growth - Argued that excessive taxation can harm economic growth - Historical Cycles - Believed that history follows a cyclical pattern, were societies rise, flourish, and eventually decline - New groups with strong social cohesion conquer older, weakened civilizations, creating a continuous cycle of renewal and decay - Significance of Enlightenment - It brought about an emphasis on reason, individualism, and scientific inquiry, and challenged traditional authority. During the Enlightenment it used reason which encouraged scientific inquiry, criticized unjust power structures and emphasized rights and the value of the individual. Driving force behind future intellectual and social movements and influenced foundational documents in the United States, France and other countries. **Causes of the Enlightenment and their Effect on Revolutions** Cause Effect ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Natural Rights Philosophy: Thinkers like John Locke argued that individuals have inherent rights to life, liberty, and property, and that governments exist to protect those rights These ideas inspired revolutionary demands for political systems that respected individual freedoms and rejected tyranny Social Contract Theory: philosophers proposed that a social contract was needed to maintain peace and order Revolutionaries used this concept to develop their own constitutions and overthrow rulers who failed to protect their rights Checks and Balances: philosophers criticized the concentration of power in monarchies and advocated for checks and balances Shaped the democratic framework in the American Constitution and inspired French to dismantle absolute monarchy and want to replace it with a constitutional monarchy Ideas surrounding equality Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) **Revolutions** - American - Britian profited economically from having colonies in America - The Seven Years War was fought against the British and the French - England required the colonist to fight in their war - After the war was over England was in debt (because wars are expensive) and because the war took place in America, they believed the colonist should help pay off the debt - Britian began to tax the Colonists - Colonists were upset -- they already paid taxes to Great Britian, and they didn't feel they had the same rights as other English citizens - The colonists did not have say in their governors or anyone in Parliament - This was "taxation without representation" (no taxation without representation was a phrased used by the colonists to protest) - War and Struggle for Independence - The first Continental Congress (government established by colonies) took place in Philadelphia in 1774 - When more Redcoats were sent to the colonies -- Paul Revere on April 18, 1775 rode through the night to warn the colonists - British troops were headed to Lexington and Concord, the colonists fought back and the American Revolutionary War officially began - The first shot in the Battles of Lexington and Concord was called "the shot heard 'round the world" in part because it showed people of other countries that they could replace absolutism with democracy - Second Continental Congress -- George Washington becomes commander in chief of the Continental Army - Olive Branch Petition -- the colonists sent a petition to England saying that they wanted to be loyal to England as long as their rights were protected, but King George III ignored it and sent more British troops to the colonies - July 4, 1776 the colonies declared their independence from the British in the Declaration of Independence - Thomas Jefferson wrote it, stating that the people had the right to overthrow their government if they did not take care of them - It gave people the right to "Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness," which were also called inalienable (absolute; not capable of being surrendered or transferred) rights. - Influenced by Locke (Natural rights and right to revolution) - Even though the colonist had declared their independence, the war still lasted until the Battle of Yorktown in 1781 when under George Washington's leadership, the colonists defeated the British army and ended the fighting - In 1783, both sides signed the Treaty of Paris, which formally recognized the colonists' independence from the British - In 1787, the Constitution outlined a set of rules in which national and state governments would share power - National government was to be divided into three branches that are in place today - Inspired by Montesquieu - Created a system of checks and balances (Legislative -- creates the laws, Executive -- carries out the laws, Judicial -- interprets and explains the laws) - French - To figure out how France would repay their war debt, King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates-General, which included representatives from the three estates of French society - The First Estate -- was the clergy. - The Second Estate -- was the nobility. - The Third Estate -- was peasants, middle class (bourgeoisie) - Members of the Third Estate resented the privileges granted to the nobles - Neither the First nor the Second Estates were required to pay the French tax on land (taille), only the poorest paid - In June 1789, members of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, a new governing body for France - The king kicked them out of the meeting hall in Versailles; they believe the king was trying to get them to disband - So they held their meeting at an indoor tennis court and took part in what is known as the Tennis Court Oath - Swore to continue meeting until the new constitution was written - Louis XIV encouraged nobles and clergy to join this new assembly while at the same time mobilizing troops to dissolve it - On July 14, 1789 -- French citizens in Paris stormed the city's prison -- the Bastille -- in search of weapons and ammunition to defend themselves, when none was found, the angry crowd destroyed the Bastille. Revolts spread across the country - This was seen as the start of the French Revolution - Maximilien Robespierre - Led a group called the Jacobins - Declared a "policy of terror" to control their opponents, arresting people for supporting the king or disagreeing with their decrees - Reign of Terror (1793-1794) - Thousands of people were guillotined at a public square in Paris, now the Place De La Concorde - Including Marie Antoinette (Louis XVI was executed a few months before the Reign of Terror began) - Committee of Public Safety - Robespierre and the Jacobins ruled as dictators under this title - July of 1794 -- Robespierre was arrested and accused of being a tyrant, he was executed the next day - Napoleon Bonaparte - Directory -- a new government that took over after Robespierre\'s death - They were weak, people did not know the best way to rule - Napoleon Bonaparte -- was a national army hero, abolished the Directory and set up a new government in 1799, ending the French Revolution - 5 years later he declared himself Emperor Napoleon I - By 1812, Napoleon had expanded France's empire to include present-day Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and other European countries (but not Britain) - Napoleon expanded too much by invading Russia. (His troops froze and fled) - Created the Napoleonic Code in 1804 - Protects individual liberty, property rights, the right to work, and the right to one's own opinions - All citizens were equal before the law - Negatives - Censored nearly all of France's newspapers and books to protect his image - Had mail opened by the government police - Liberty was replaced by despotism (system of government in which the ruler has absolute unlimited power) - Eventually he was exiled from France by an alliance of European countries - He was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo in present-day Belgium in June 1815 and was exiled again until his death in 1821 - The emperor was gone, and the French still hadn't created a democracy - Enlightenment Influence - John Locke (natural rights, role of government was to protect rights, right to revolt if government doesn't, everyone should have access to basic rights) Montesquieu (separation of powers, influenced the U.S. Constitution, protect against tyranny) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (social contract where government is based on consent of the governed, right to revolution)