Midterm Ecobot PDF

FATTY OILS (fixed oils) Another type of oil that occurs in plants is the fatty oil. - unlike the essential oils, they do not evaporate or become volatile - they cannot be distilled without being decomposed. - Chemically these vegetable fatty oils are close to animal fats. - Vegetable fa...

FATTY OILS (fixed oils) Another type of oil that occurs in plants is the fatty oil. - unlike the essential oils, they do not evaporate or become volatile - they cannot be distilled without being decomposed. - Chemically these vegetable fatty oils are close to animal fats. - Vegetable fatty oils are consist of glycerin in combination with a fatty acid. - The so-called oils are liquid at ordinary temperatures and usually contain oleic acid. The fats are solid at ordinary temperatures and contain stearic or palmitic acid. - The fatty oils are insoluble in water, but soluble in various organie solvents. - When fats break down, they yield the fatty acids and glycerin, of which they are composed, and usually develop a rancid odor and taste. - When a fat is boiled with an alkali, it decomposes and the fatty acid unites with the alkali to form soap. - If potash or lye is used, a soft soap is obtained; if soda is used, a hard soap is the result. Fatty oils are produced in many families of plants, both tropical and temperate they are often associated with proteins. This type of reserve food material is available as a source of energy for the processes involved in the germination of the seed. The fatty oils are bland and lack the strong taste and odor and the antiseptic qualities of the essential oils. Consequently they are available as food for man. PROCESSES: nonedible oils have been rendered available - Hydrogenation - the adding of hydrogen. The method of extraction of the oils varies in different cases. - Usually the seed coats have to be removed, and then the materialis reduced to a fine meal. - The oils are removed by solvents or by subjecting the meal to hydraulic pressure. - This latter method is used for the edible oils. - The residue is rich in proteins and is valuable as a fertilizer and as a cattle feed. - The pressure causes the cell walls to break and the fats escape. - The extracted oils are filtered and may be further purified. - The higher grades are edible, and the lower are used in the industries. Four classes of vegetable fatty oils are recognized: (1) drying oils (2) semidrying oils (3) nondrying oils (4) fats or tallows.  1.Linseed Oil - seed of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum) DRYING OILS - source of the most important of the drying oils - Seeds that are immature, or otherwise unfit for germination, are - able to absorb oxygen collected and stored for several months. - on exposure dry into thin - Linseed oil varies from yellow to brownish in color and has an elastic films. acrid taste and smell. - Used in paint and varnish - Linseed oil is used chiefly in the making of paints and industries. varnishes, linoleum, and printer's ink. PROCESS: - The impurities are removed and the seeds are ground to a fine meal. - The oil is extracted by pressure with heat, or by using naphtha or other solvents. - On oxidation it forms a very tough elastic film. - This drying property is increased by heating the raw oil to 65°C., producing the so-called boiled linseed oil. - After extraction the oil cake is used as a cattle feed. - Linseed is produced commercially chiefly in Argentina, where over 3,000,000 acres are devoted to flax cultivation. 2. Chinawood and Tung Oils Chinawood oils - widely used in the varnish industry as a substitute for linseed oil, - yield a quick-drying varnish much less liable to crack than that obtained with kauri gum and other hard resins. - good preservative and very resistant to weathering, so it is particularly valuable for outside paints. - These oils are the most rapid of the drying oils. - The oil cake is poisonous and cannot be used for food. Chinawood oils are obtained from the nuts of two Chinese species of Aleurites - (A. montana the mu tree restricted to southeastern China) and - (A. Fordii the tung-oil tree a species native to central and western China) Tung and chinawood oils are very similar in nature. - also used for paints, linoleum, leather dressings, and waterproof priming for cement. - Chinawood oil is a Boatmen prefer it as it is little affected by salt water. 3. Candlenut Oil - obtained from the hard-shelled seeds or "nuts" of Aleurites moluccana, which is native to Malaya and the Pacific Islands and is cultivated elsewhere. - It is a good drying oil and is much used as a substitute for linseed oil in making paints, varnishes, lacquer, linoleum, and soft soapand as a preservative for the hulls of vessels. The nuts are used in Hawaii and the other Polynesian islands for illumination, hence the name candlenut. The oil cake is poisonous and serviceable only as a fertilizer. 4. Perilla Oil - obtained from the seeds of Perilla frutescens, - an aromatic annual 3 to 5 ft. in height with numerous branches - The plant, a native of northern India, China, and Japan, is extensively cultivated in the Orient, particularly in Japan. - It matures slowly and has to be harvested before it is quite ripe or the seeds fall from the capsules. The oil, which is expressed from roasted and crushed seeds, is edible and has been used for food purposes from earliest time. It is used in the manufacture of the famous Japanese oil papers, cheap lacquer, paper umbrellas, waterproof clothes, artificial leather, and printer's ink. The United States imports a large amount for use in the paint and varnish industries as a substitute for linseed oil, even though the quality is inferior. 5. Walnut Oil - Mature and old kernels of the English walnut (Juglans regia) - yield a drying oil used for white paint and artist's oll paints and for printing ink and soap. - Hot-pressed oil is best adapted for these purposes. - The fresh or cold-pressed oil has a pleasant smell and nutty flavor and is edible. 6. Sunflower Oil - The seeds of the common sunflower (Helianthus annuus), a native of Peru, contain an oil that is used for varnishes and soap and for edible purposes. - The plant is cultivated for the oil in many parts of the world. 7. Poppy Oil - An important drying oil is obtained from the seeds of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). - The first pressing yields an edible white oil, while the second furnishes a reddish oil used for lamps, soap, and, after bleaching, for oil paints. 8. Niger Seed Oil - This pale-yellow oil is obtained from the seeds of Guizotia abyssinica; It is extensively cultivated in India, Germany, and the West Indies. - The higher grades have a pleasant aromatic odor and are used for food, while the poorer grades are used as  illuminants and for soap. Many other species furnish drying oils of some commercial importance. camelina oil (Camelina sativa) - grown in Holland, Germany, and other European countries and used for soap and as an illuminant hempseed oil (Cannabis sativa) also grown in Huropean countries for the oil, used for soap, paints, and varnishes lamp oil safflower oil (Carthamnus tinctorus) as the source of a dye, is extensively cultivated in Egypt, India, and the Orient and to some extent in the United States for its oil-containing seeds. The oil is used for soap and varnishes and as an edible oil and illuminant. The seeds that also yield drying oils of commercial importance. - Sapium sebiferum - Argemone mexicana - Hevea brasiliensis - Manihot Glaziovii 1. Cottonseed Oil - most important of the semidrying oils and is used as the SEMIDRYING OILS standard of comparison. - The United States is the chief producer - absorb oxygen slowly and - Cottonseed meal is important as a foodstuff and only in limited amounts. fertilizer - form a suft film only after prior to which time cotton seeds were waste products. long exposure. The seeds are carefully cleaned and freed from impurities and - Some of these oils are the linters and hulls are removed. edible; The kernels are then crushed and heated and are finally - used as illuminants or in subjected to hydraulic pressure. The oil is pumped into tanks where the impurities settle out. making soap and candles. The pure oil is of great value as a salad and table oil and for making oleomargarine and lard substitutes. The residue is the source of various products that have a wide range of industrial uses: Among these may be mentioned soap, washing powders, oilcloth, artificial leather, insulating materials, roofing tar, putty, glycerin, and nitroglycerin. 2. Corn Oil - The kernels of maize or Indian corn contain about 50% of oil present in the embryo. - Until recently the embryos were a waste product of the milling industries, but today the production of corn oil is of increasing importance. - It can be used for nearly all the purposes to which any oil is put. - Refining methods have made possible the utilization of 75% of the oil for edible purposes.  "Mazola" oil can be used for cooking, in bakeries, and for mixing with other oils. The crude oil has many industrial uses, such as the manufacture of rubber substitutes, soaps, and cheap paints. Like cottonseed oil, it is of little use as a lubricant. 3. Soybean Oil (Glycine Soja), - indigenous to Eastern Asia - a food plant that also yields a valuable oil, which is extracted from the seeds by expression or by treating ground seeds with some solvent. - It is midway between linseed oil and cottonseed oil in its characteristics and so is sometimes classed as a drying oil and sometimes as a semidrying oil. After refining, soybean oil can be used as a salad oil and for other edible purposes. Inferior grades are used in the manufacture of candles, soap, varnish, printing ink, etc. Its industrial uses are constantly increasing in this country and in Europe. 4. Sesame Oil - known also as gingelly oil, is the product of the seeds of an annual herb (Sesamum indicum.) - It is the chief oil of India and has been cultivated there from remote times. - Sesame oil was brought to the United States by the slaves, and Southern negroes grow the plant to this day. - The seeds contain about 50% oil, which is easily extracted by cold pressure. The finer grades are tasteless and nearly colorless and are used as a substitute for olive oil in cooking and in medicine. The poorer grades are used for soap, perfumery, and rubber substitutes, and to some extent as lubricants. In India the oil is used for anointing the body, as fuel for lamps, and as food. The oil cake is a good cattle food. 5. Colza and Rapeseed Oils The seeds of several species of Brassica; B. campestris, B. Napus, and B. Rapa, - yield oils with similar characteristics which are classified commercially as colza or rape oils. - The rapeseed oils (B. Napus) is extensively cultivated in Europe, and also in India and China, for its oil seeds - Refined colza oil is edible, and the crude oil is used in lamps, as a lubricant, in the manufacture of soaps and rubber substitutes, and for oiling woolen goods. - Cold-pressedrape oil is also edible and is much used for greasing loaves of bread before baking. - Its industrial uses are similar to those of colza oil.  6. Kapok Oil - The seeds of the kapok tree, already mentioned, are the source of a semidrying oil of some importance. - The higher grades are used for oleomargarine and the lower in soapmaking. 1. Olive Oil - obtained from the fruits of the olive (Olea europaea), is NON-DRYING OILS the most important of the nondrying oils. - The oil is squeezed from the pulp either by hand or - remain liquid at ordinary mechanically. temperatures and do not - The finest grades are obtained by the former method. form a film. These oils are golden yellow, clear and limpid, odorless, - These oils are edible and edible. - can be used for soap and - Inferior grades have a greenish tinge and are used for lubricants soapmaking and as lubricants. - The poorest grades are obtained by the use of solvents after several pressings. - Fully ripe olives give the largest yield. Olive oil is one of the most important food oils, as it will keep for a long time and becomes rancid only when exposed to the air. 2. Peanut Oil - obtained from the seed or "nut" of the common peanut (Arachis hypogaea) - The expression of the oil is carried out in Europe. - The nuts are shelled, cleaned, crushed, and pressed. Cold-pressed oil has the best flavor and is nearly colorless. - This is edible and is used as a salad oil, for packing sardines, for margarine, and as an adulterant for olive oil. Inferior grades, expressed at higher temperatures, are used for soapmaking, lubricants, and illuminants. - The cake is one of the best stock feeds as it has a higher protein content than any other öil cake. 3. Castor Oil - from the seeds of Ricinus communis, a coarse erect annual herb cultivated everywhere in temperate and tropical regions. - The seeds, which are very characteristically marked contain 25 to 40% of a thick colorless or greenish oil. - After expression the oil is boiled with water and filtered to remove the mucilage and proteins that are present. - The chief use of castor oil is in medicine, where it acts as a purgative. - Recently it has come into prominence as a lubricant for airplane engines. It is also used for soap, in preserving leather, and as an illuminant.  - The oil cake is poisonous, but makes a very good fertilizer. Other nondrying oils include; croton oil tea-seed oil from Camellia Sasanqua oil of ben from Moringa oleifera pistachio-nut oil from Pistacia vera rice oil from Oryza sativa. Nondrying oils are also obtained from almond fruits; the kernels of apricots Peaches Plums pili nuts and the seeds of; Grapes Tomatoes and black and white mustard Vegetable Fats 1. Coconut Oil FATS - one of the most extensively used of the fatty oils. - It is obtained from the dried meat of the coconut (Cocos - are solid or semisolid at nucifera). ordinary temperatures. - This oil is pale yellow or colorless and is solid below - They are edible 74°F. - useful in the manufacture of - Coconut oil has long been used for the best soaps, soap and candles. cosmetics, salves, shaving creams, shampoos, and other toilet preparations. It is also useful as an illuminant. ❖ After the nuts have been harvested, the husks are removed and the nuts split open and dried by either natural or artificial heat. ❖ The dried meat, or copra as it is called, is then easily removed. ❖ This is ground up and pressed by various methods. ❖ The cake is sometimes put through hydraulic presses and still more oil is removed. ❖ The yield is about 65 to 70 per cent. Recently, fresh meat has been utilized in the presses and this yields 80 per cent or more. The cold-pressed oil is edible and is now much used for food products, chiefly margarines. It is particularly well adapted for this purpose as it is solid at ordinary temperatures; many artificial butters prepared from it are now on the market. The cake is an excellent stock food.  2. Palm Oil - a white vegetable fat, solid at ordinary temperatures, which is obtained from the nuts of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). - The oil palm is a very productive tree. - It begins to bear at the age of 5 to 6 years, reaches full bearing at 15, and continues until 60 or 70 years of age. - Each tree bears 10 bunches of 200 nuts a year. The fibrous pulp of these fruits contains 55 to 60% of fat. The oil is obtained chiefly by crude native methods. - It is yellow-orange or brownish red in color, and, although eaten by the natives, it is used chiefly in the soap and candle industries. The kernels of the oil palm yield a different oil, which is white in color and more valuable. Palm-kernel oil - used in the margarine industry for it has a pleasant odor and nutty flavor. - It is also used for soap and candles. - The natives express a little oil for their own use, but the kernels are usually shipped to the oil mills of Europe and the United States where the oil is extracted by hydraulic presses or by solvents. - Palm-kernel cake is a good food for cattle. Vegetable Fats of Minor Importance. These include: 1. Cocoa Butter - This white or yellowish fat with a chocolate odor and flavor is expressed from the beans of the cacao or cocoa (Theobroma Cacao) during the process of making cocoa. - It is firm at ordinary temperatures. Although used somewhat in making chocolate, its chief use is for cosmetics and in perfumery and medicine. 2. Carapa Fat - thick white or yellow oil is obtained from the seeds of several species of the genus Carapa and is used for soap. - The South American natives use the oil from C. guianensis to grease their skins and drive off insects. C. moluccensis is a native of East Africa, India, Ceylon, and the Moluccas. Carapa oil is also used as an illuminant. 3. Shea Butter - seeds of Butyrospermum Parkii, an African tree, furnish shea butter - a greenish-yellow fat with a pleasant odor and taste. - The fat is edible, and is also used mixed with, or as a substitute for, cocoa butter in chocolate manufacture.  - Inferior grades are utilized for soap and candles. 4. Mowra Fat - several species of the genus Madhuca, M. indica, M. longifolia, and M. butyracea, are the source of various Indian products, which are known as mora fat, bassia fat, mahua butter, or illipe butter. - The trees grow wild and are also extensively cultivated. - The kernels contain 55 to 65 per cent of a soft yellow oil widely used locally for cooking and tallow. - The cake is unfit for food but makes a good fertilizer. 5. Borneo Tallow - This fat is obtained from Shorea aptera and several other species of the same genus native to the East Indies - The kernels, which contain 50 to 70 percent of fat, are dried and expressed by the inhabitants for their own use or are exported to Europe for soapmaking. 6. Chinese Vegetable Tallow. - This material occurs as a thick layer of hard white fat on the seeds of a Chinese tree, Sapium sebiferum. - After proper treatment the tallow is used in soap and candle manufacture. - The seeds of this tree contain a drying oil that is of some value. 7. Cohune Oil - The nuts of the cohune palm (Orbignya Cohune), a native of South and Central America, contain 40 percent of a firm yellow fat, similar to coconut oil in its characteristics. - In the past the difficulty of finding a suitable machine to crack and crush the extremely hard walls of the nut have prevented a more widespread use of the fat. - Recently effective machines have been devised and the fat is becoming of increasing importance in margarine manufacture and soap making. 8. Nutmeg Butter - seeds of the nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and allied species contain about 40 percent of a yellow fat with the flavor and consistency of tallow. - Nutmegs that are unfit for use in the spice trade are roasted and powdered and the oil is extracted between warm plates. Several varieties of nutmeg butter are on the market, all used for ointments or for candles. Mace yields a similar material.  Locally many other vegetable fats are of some importance. pongam oil from the seeds of Pongamia pinnata - used for illumination and medicine in India and Ceylon; macassar oil from the seeds of Schleichera oleosa - a soft yellowish-white fat used in India, Ceylon, and the East Indies for cooking purposes, as a hair oil, and for illumination. Chaulmoogra oil will be discussed under medicinal plants. WAXES Waxes are usually found on the epidermis of leaves and fruits - because of their impervious character, they serve to prevent too great loss of water through transpiration. - Waxes are harder than fats and have a higher melting point. - They do not become rancid and are less easily hydrolyzed. - In chemical composition waxes are quite similar to fats, but are esters of mono-hydric acids rather than glycerides. FEW ARE OF WITH COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE: CARNAUBA PALM (Copernicia cerifera) in Brazil. - This palm yields the most important vegetable wax. 1. Carnauba Wax - This is the most important wax and occurs as an exudation on the leaves of the wax palm (Copernicia cerifera) - Young leaves are gathered before they are fully open and are dried in the sun. - The powdery wax is scraped off and placed in boiling water. - The wax forms a layer on the surface and, after cooling, it is removed and formed into cakes for shipment. - Several grades are recognized. The crude wax is greenish gray in color and very hard and has a high melting point. It is used in the manufacture of candles, high-luster wax varnishes, phonograph records, and many other products. A similar wax from Ceroxylon andicola of the South American Andes is often used as a substitute. In this species the wax is deposited on the trunk rather than on the leaves. 2. Candelilla Wax - obtained from the stems of Pedilanthus Pavonis and Euphorbia antisyphilitica, desert shrubs of Mexico and Texas. - The wax is removed by hot water or solvents and is used for the same purposes as carnauba wax.  3. Myrtle Wax - The berries of the wax myrtle (Myrica cerfera) - bayberry (M. carolinensis) - both native to the castern United States, are covered with a thick layer of wax. - This is removed by boiling in water, and is used for candle manufacture. Commercial wax is also obtained from the berries of the; - Japanese wax tree (Rhus succedanea) and the leaves of the raphia palm, sugar cane, and esparto. SOAP SUBSTITUTES ❖ A considerable number of plants contain natural products that. can be utilized as soap substitutes. These are the; - saponins, a group of water-soluble glucosides. - Plants that contain saponins yield a soap froth in water, form emulsions with fats and oils, and are capable of absorbing large amounts of gases, such as carbon dioxide. - The use of these plants and their products in industry is correlated with the above properties. In addition to the few that are commercially important, there are numerous wild species that are used locally. The most important saponin-containing plants are: 1. Soapbark - The soapbark trec (Quillaja Saponaria) grows on the western slopes of the Andes in Peru and Chili. - The commercial material is the dried inner bark, which is removed after the outer bark has been shaved off. - The saponin content of the bark is 9%. Soapbark forms a copious lather in water and is used in washing delicate fabrics. In medicine it is used to some extent as an expectorant and emulsifying agent. However, it is a dangerous drug to take internally, as it is very toxic and tends to dissolve the blood corpuscles. For this reason its use to increase the foaming power of beer and other beverages, owing to its ability to dissolve gases, is being discouraged. Soapbark is also a good cutaneous stimulant and is much used in hair tonics. 2. Soapwort - The familiar old-time garden plant known as Bouncing Bet or soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) contains a considerable amount of saponin. - a native of Eurasia, is now naturalized in the United States. - When placed in water the leaves produce a lather which is utilized for washing silks and woolens. - It not only cleanses, but imparts a luster as well. 3. Soapberries - fruits of a tropical American tree, Sapindus Saponara. - They are used as soap substitutes and in the preparation of hair tonics. 4. Soaproot - The bulbs of the California soaproot (Chlorogalum pomeridianum) yield a good lather and are much used locally in washing fabrics.  Sugars, Starches & Cellulose Products Sugar- Green plants manufacture sugars so that they all contain some quantity of sugar. However, much of the manufactured product is used directly in plant metabolize that very little usually accumulates. Humans require sugar in their diet. It constitutes a perfect food, as it is a form that can be readily assimilated in the body. Its main value is as an energy producer, and it is especially well adapted for use after heavy exercise. Sugar is an especially valuable product derived from the plant world. Storage sugars are found Roots=beets, carrots, parsnips stems-= sugar cane, sorghum, maize and the sugar maple flowers= palm trees bulbs like the onion and in many fruits. There are several kinds of sugar, principal among which are sucrose or cane sugar glucose or grape sugar/dextrose ○ It is present in small amounts in many of the organs of higher plants and is especially characteristic of fruits. ○ However, commercial glucose is prepared from starch. fructose or fruit sugar/levulose ○ It is somewhat sweeter than cane sugar and is valuable because diabetics can consume it. ○ Commercial fructose is prepared from inulin, a polysaccharide that occurs in the tubers of the Dahlia, Dahlia pinnata, the Jerusalem artichoke (= sunchoke), Helianthus tuberosus, and some other plants Maltose or rice starch ○ Maltose is also rarely found in a free state in plants, but is easily produced from starch through the activity of the enzyme diastase. ○ It is used primarily in the brewing industry. ○ Maltose syrup is sometimes used as a substitute for glucose and in medicine. Maltose ○ Mannose does not occur free in nature so that it must be obtained by hydrolysis from several complex compounds. ○ It is readily oxidized from the juice of the Manna Ash, Fraxinus ornus ○ The juice oozes from slits made in the bark and dries into a very sweet flakelike material known as manna. Honey ○ usually produce a sweet substance called nectar.  ○ Nectar is composed mainly of sucrose with some fructose and glucose. ○ Honey contains 70-75 percent invert sugar along with proteins, mineral salts and water. Sugarcane Commercial sugar cane is a cultivar that is not known in the wild (Saccharum officinarum) state. The plant was most likely first domesticated in Southeastern Asia or the East Indies from some wild ancestor from that region. The name “sugar” is derived from Sanskrit “sarkara,” meaning gravel, and refers to the crude sugar, which was the only kind known for centuries ○ Ratoons- rhizomes normally give rise to two or three more crops ○ Defecation-separation of the insoluble materials ○ clarification-precipitation of the soluble nonsugars ○ Massecuite- sticky mass juice Sugar beet the 21st Century only about one-third as much beet sugar as cane (Beta vulgaris) sugar was being produced. Although sugar beet was known since before the Christian era it was not used as a source of sugar until modern times. The leaves are edible as a substitute for spinach and the cooked beet serves as a delicious vegetable. Sugar beet is a white-rooted biennial that grows best in regions where summer temperatures range around 70 deg. Fahrenheit. Sugar Maple The sap of maple trees is used in making syrup and sugar. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) Black maple ( A. nigrum) Palm sugar The yield of this sweet juice, known as toddy, amounts to 3-4 quarts per day for a period of several months. Wild Date, Phoenix It is boiled down to a syrupy consistency and poured into leaves to sylvestris, the Palmyra cool and then hardens into the crude sugar known as jaggary. Palm, Borassus flabellifer, the Coconut, Cocos nucifera, the Toddy Palm, Caryota urens, and the Gomuti Palm, Arenya pinnata Sorghum syrup The stem of the Sweet Sorghum, Sorghum vulgare var. ( Sorghum vulgare var. saccharatum, contains a juice that is used in making syrup. To saccharatum) differentiate between a true syrup and a molasses it is necessary to realize that syrup is the product obtained by merely evaporating the original plant juice so that all the sugar is present. Starch- One of the most important and widely available vegetable products, starch constitutes the principal type of reserve food for green plants. It is a complex carbohydrate. It is stored in thin-walled cells in the form of grains. Soluble starch is a form that is used in the textile industry to strengthen the fibers and cement the loose ends thus making a thread that is smoother and easier to weave. It serves as a mordant in calico printing, a thickener for the colors. Starch is also used as a sizing agent in paper industry, in laundry work, in medicine, in the preparation of toilet powders, as a binding for china clay and as a source of many other products. Sources of Commercial Starch Cornstarch- Maize or Indian corn is the source of over 80 percent of the starch that is made in the United States. The grains are soaked in warm water with a small amount of sulfurous acid to loosen the intercellular tissue and prevent fermentation. Potato Starch- Cull potatoes are utilized for making starch. These are washed and reduced to a pulp in graters or rasping machines. The resulting paste is passed through sieves to remove fibrous matter. After washing the solid starch is separated by sedimentation, the use of inclined tables, or centrifuging, and is then dried. Potato starch finds uses in the textile industry and as a source of glucose, dextrin and industrial alcohol. Europe is the principal producer Wheat Starch- oldest commercial sources of starch were from wheat. It was known to the Greeks and was widely used in Europe in the 16th Century in connection with the linen industry. The gluten in wheat makes the removal of the starch a difficult process. It is accomplished by extraction with water or by the partial fermentation of the grain. Wheat starch is used mostly in the textile industry Rice Starch- Rice grains that are broken or imperfect are used for making rice starch. These are softened by treating with caustic soda and are then washed, ground and passed through fine sieves. More alkali is added and after a time the starch settles out as a sediment. This is removed, washed and dried. Occasionally dilute hydrochloric acid is used to free the grains. Rice starch has found use in laundry and for sizing Cassava Starch- Cassava flour and tapioca are used in industry mainly as sizing materials and as the source of certain starch products. Arrowroot Starch- The tubers of several tropical plants provide a source for arrowroot starch. West Indian arrowroot is from Maranta arundinacea. Florida arrowroot is from Zamia floridana. Queensland arrowroot is from Canna edulis, and East Indian arrowroot  from Curcuma angustifolia. The tubers of these plants are peeled, washed and crushed and the pulp passed through perforated cylinders. A stream of water carries the starch into tanks where it settles out. Arrowroot starch is easily digested and thus is valuable as a food for children and invalids. Sago Starch- The stems of the Sago {alm, Metoxylon sagu, contain starch. Cultivation is in Malaya and Indonesia. The flowers appear when the trees are about 15 years old and just prior to this time the stems store up a large amount of starch. The trees are felled and the starch pith is removed. This is ground up, mixed with water and strained through a coarse sieve. The starch is freed from the water by sedimentation and washed and dried. This is known as sago flour. Commercial sago is prepared from this by making a paste and rubbing it through a sieve in order to cause granulation. The product is dried in the sun or in ovens and appears as hard shiny grains, known as pearl sago. Both sago starch and pearl sago are used almost entirely for human consumption Starch Products Soluble Starch Starch grains are insoluble in cold water but they readily swell in hot water until they burst to form a thin, almost clear solution or paste. This soluble starch has been used for finishing textiles and in the paper industry. Dextrin When starch is heated or treated with dilute acids or enzymes it becomes converted into a tasteless, white, amorphous solid known as dextrin or British Gum. Dextrin possesses adhesive properties and has been used as substitutes for mucilage, glue and natural gums. Glucose When starch is treated with dilute acids for a long time it becomes more completely hydrolyzed and is converted into glucose sugar. One of the common brands of corn syrup is “Karo Industrial Alcohol Starch is the source of an enormous quantity of industrial alcohol. Maize and potatoes constitute the chief sources, although the other starches and even cellulose, various products of the sugar industry and fruit juice may be utilized. The process converts the starch into sugar by means of diastase and the fermentation of the sugar by yeasts to yield alcohol. Nitrostarch Starch and cellulose are chemically very similar products. Cellulose reacts with nitric acid to form nitrocellulose while starch yields nitro starch. Nitrostarch is a very safe explosive if the ingredients are absolutely pure. Tapioca starch was originally imported for this purpose but during World War I cornstarch was used as a source. Cellulose Products The most complex of the carbohydrates, cellulose is present in the cell walls of all plants 1880, count de chardonnet made the first synthetic fiber and first artificial silk. The various kinds of rayon ○ Viscose rayon- this is the original rayon process and furnishes the greater of the rayon manufactured. It is treated with caustic soda and then with carbon bisulphide. ○ Cellulose acetate rayon- often called “celanese”. It is treated with acetic anhydride, acetic acid, and a little sulphuric acid as a catalyst. ○ Cuprammonium rayon- this process treated with ammoniacal copper hydroxide ○ Nitrocellulose rayon- This name is a misnomer, and the product should more properly be called cellulose nitrate rayon. It is often called Chardonnet silk, while the process is referred to as the Tubize process. Although it is the oldest type of rayon, only a small amount is made at the present time. Cotton linters are utilized. The cellulose is dissolved in nitric and sulphuric acids and the resulting pyroxylin is further dissolved in an ether-alcohol mixture or some other solvent. Cellulose Nitrate Products Treatment with concentrated nitric acid in the presence of sulfuric acid causes cellulose to change into several types of cellulose nitrate. These differ according to which concentration of nitric acid was used and the consequent degree of nitration as well as the temperature and the duration of the action. The higher cellulose nitrates are called guncotton, or in error nitrocellulose. The lower nitrates constitute pyroxylin, or collodion cotton. ] Guncotton ○ This is made from cotton linters during which process the cellulose is completely nitrated. It is used as an ingredient of many high explosives. Cordite, e.g., is a combination of guncottton and nitroglycerin, while smokeless powder is made from a mixture of guncotton and the lower nitrates. Guncotton is one of the safest of explosives to handle when properly manufactured. Pyroxylin- A partial nitration of cellulose produces pyroxylin. This is carried out under different conditions from those, which result in the formation of guncotton ○ Collodion is a solution of pyroxylin in a mixture of ether and alcohol. If a layer of collodion is spread out and exposed to the air, the solvents gradually evaporate and leave a thin, tough, impenetrable film. This characteristic makes collodion of value as a protective covering for wounds, and "New Skin" is familiar to everyone. ○ Celluloid is another well-known cellulose derivative. It consists of pyroxylin dissolved in camphor. Celluloid was first made in 1870 by John Hyatt. He mixed guncotton with camphor and placed the material in a hot press.. Its chief drawback is its inflammability. Countless other products of a similar nature, such as pyralin, are on the market.  ○ Artificial fabrics are now being made from cellulose nitrate. For many years oilcloth and linoleum were the only materials of this nature, and drying oils were necessary for their manufacture. Among them may be mentioned the fabrics used for automobile curtains and cushions, and the leather substitutes, which can be used for shoes, book- binding, and many other purposes. ○ The varnish industry has been revolutionized by the use of cellulose nitrate. The speed of modern automobile production required a varnish that would dry more quickly than those derived from the natural plant products. In answer to this demand the "lacquer paints," such as "Duco," were developed. Cottons linters are bleached and purified and converted into cellulose linters. Viscose product- best known is cellophane Hemicellulose Many tropical plants have seeds that are very thick, hard and have heavy walls consisting of hemicellulose. This is a modification of ordinary cellulose and constitutes a supply of reserve food for the plant. In young seeds the endosperm consists of a milky juice, but as the seeds mature this fluid is replaced by the harder material. hemicellulose cannot be used by animals as food. However, it does provide vegetable ivory of commerce. Vegetable Ivory The Ivory-nut or Tagua Palm, Phytelephas macrocarpa, of the Neotropics is the main source of vegetable ivory. The palm is a low-growing tree typically on riverbanks from Panama to Peru. The drupes like fruits have from 6-9 bony seeds with a thin brown layer on the outside and a very hard and durable endosperm. The natives collect the seeds that are shipped to Europe and the United States. Ecuador is the main exporter. This ivory may be carved and shaped into various objects, so it serves as a substitute for true ivory in the manufacture of buttons, poker chips, knobs, chessmen, dice, inlays, etc.  Medicinal Plants Drug Plants The purpose of economic botany is most interested in the branch of Pharmacology, which deals with drug plants. Pharmacognosy is concerned with the history, commerce, collection, selection, identification, and preservation of crude drugs and raw materials. The most valuable drugs and drug plants have been standardized as a result of Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, also referred to as Official Drugs. United States Pharmacopeia is one of the most important sources of descriptions and other important information regarding Drug Plants. The National Formulary published by the American Pharmaceutical Association, lists drugs of minor importance as well, but only those approved by the law. Standard Dispensatory and the National Dispensatory are other good reference works for all branches of materia medica. CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS Drugs Obtained from Roots and Other Underground Parts ACONITE Obtained from the roots of the monkshood (Aconitum Napellus) The plant is native to the Alps, Pyrenees, and other mountainous regions of Asia and Europe Widely cultivated in temperate countries both as ornamental and drug plant Most important of the several alkaloids that are present Used externally for neuralgia and rheumatism and internally to relieve fever and pain Collected in Autumn and Dried COLCHIUM Colchicum root is dried corn of Colchicum autumnale Perennial herb of Europe and Northern Africa The active principle of alkaloid which is used in the treatment of gout and rheumatism GENTIAN Gentania lutea, a tall perennial herb with conspicuous orang-yellow flowers, is the source of gentian root or bitter root. Very common in the Alps and other mountains of Europe Roots are dug in the Fall, sliced, and dried. Contain several glucosides which are valuable as a tonic for they can be used with iron salt GOLDENSEAL Hydrastis canadensis, common in rich woods of Eastern North America Favorite remedy of the Indians and the early settlers Extensively cultivated in the US, it has almost been exterminated as a wild plant. The roots and rhizomes contain several alkaloids Used as a tonic and for treatment of catarrh and other inflamed mucous membrane GINSENG One of the most important drugs in China, where it is  considered a cure for great varieties of disease True ginseng (Panax Ginseng), a plant of Eastern Asia \, was the first source of the drugs Some ginseng is used in the US as a stimulant and stomathic. IPECAC Small shrubs of the rich forests of Brazil and Columbia are the source of the well-known drug Dried rhizomes and roots of the Cephaelis Ipecacuanha are used Used chiefly as an emetic and expectorant JALAP Obtained from the tuberous roots of Ipomea Purga, a twining vine of the rich woodlands of Eastern Mexico Cultivated in Jamaica and India The active principle is a resin Used as purgative The roots are collected and dried over fires LICORICE Licorice plant (Glycyrrhiza glabra), a perennial herb that grows wild in Southern Europe and Western and Central Asia Spain is the largest producer of cultivated licorice root The roots are dried in sheds for several months and shipped in cylindrical pieces. Used in medicine as a demulcent and expectorant and to disguise the taste of nauseous preparation PHODOPHYLLUM Roots and rhizomes of the mandrake or May apple (Phodopyllum peltatum) yield the drug podophyllum The roots are collected in fall and spring and are cut into cylindrical segments and carefully dried. Contains resin which is the source of the cathartic principle RHUBARB Rheum Officinale is the source of the drug Rhubarb. Native to China and Tibet Extensively cultivated in China Roots are dug and cut into short pieces or slices. Used for indigestion and as a tonic and laxative SQUILLS Sea onions or Squills (Urginea maritima) is the source of this drug The bulbs are dug up and the outer seals are removed Used as an expectorant and stimulant MARSHMALLOW Dried roots of marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) are the source of nonpoisonous drug Native in of Eurasia but cultivated and naturalized in the US Perennial herb with very downy stems, leaves, and ornamental flowers Grows i wet, swampy places particularly salt marshes Used in beverages or in pills and troches Leaves sometime used as a poultice SCAMMONY Obtained from the dried root of Convolvulus Scammonia, a  perennial twining vine of Southeastern Europe and Asia minor. The active principle is resin Formerly obtained by removing the soil from around the roots and cutting off the top of the roots. Used chiefly in as a purgative SENEGA The senega snakeroot or milkwort (Polygala Senega), small herbaceous perennial of Eastern North America is the source of drug Obtained from dried roots Used as an expectorant, emetic, and stimulant Indians used the plant as cure for snake bite VALERIAN Dried rhizome and roots of the garden heliotrope (Valeriana officinalis) are the source of this drug Has been long cultivated in the US as ornamental species The active principle is an essential oil Used to relieve nervous affliction, such as pain, coughing and hysteria A Cool Gentleman gathers Golden Gins In Jalap Licoland, Preparing Remedies So Many Sore Souls Vanish. Drugs Obtained by Barks CASCARA Obtained from the bark of Western Buckthorn (Rhammus Purshiana) Early used by the Western Indians and by the pioneer Spanish settlers and called it cascara sagrada or sacred bark Cascara and Buckthorn bark from R. frangula used as a tonic and laxative QUININE One of the most important drugs known and has a great boon to mankind for it’s cure for malaria Several species of genus cinchona have a medicinal bark ○ C. Calisaya was the first to be utilized ○ C.Ledgeriana, C. Officinalis, and C. Succiruba were the chief source of commercial bark The bark contains several alkaloids, the most important of which is quinine has a very bitter substance Valuable as a tonic and antiseptic and for use in treatment of fever generally SLIPPERY ELM The inner bark of the slippery elm (Ulmus fulva), a large tree of Eastern North America, source of this non  poisonous drug EPHEDRINE An alkaloid that is obtained from Ephedra sinica, E. equisentina, and other Asiatic species of the genus. Low. dioecious, leafless shrubs with slender green stems The entire woody plant is used for extraction of the drug Under the name “ma huang”, ephedra has been used in China for over five thousand years In US, ephedrine has been used extensively in the treatment of colds and for other medicinal purposes GUAIACUM Or gum guaiac is a hard resin that exudes naturally from stem of the lignum vitae trees (Guaiacum officinale and G, sanctum) hardens as round, glassy, greenish-brown tears Obtained from incision, from the cut end of logs, or from pieces of the wood Used as a stimulant and laxative Also good chemical indicator as it is very sensitive to oxygen Lignum trees are native to West indies and South America QUASSIA Obtained from two different sources ○ Jamaican quassia comes from Picraena excelsa, a tall tree of Jamaica and other West indian islands ○ Surinam quassia is the product of Quassia amara, which grows in tropical America as well as West indies ○ Has a very bitter taste and used as a tonic and in the treatment of dyspepsia and malaria Cats Quietly Sleep Every Good Quotation Drugs Obtained from Leaves ALOE Barbadoes aloe come from Aloe vullgaris Socotrine aloes from Aloe ferox Tropical plants with succulent leaves and showy flowers Frequently cultivated in greenhouses Leaves contain a resinous juice in which there are several glucosides Used chiefly as purgative BELLADONNA Obtained from the dried leaves and tops, and to some extent othe roots of Atropa Belladonna Coarse herb, native to Central and Souuthern Europe and Asia Minor Extensively cultivated as a drug plant in US, Europe, and India Leavse are collected during flowering season nad dries  Contains several alkalloids, chief among hysoscyamine nad atropine Used externally to relieve pain and internally to check excessive perspiration, coughs Atropine used to dilate the pupil of the eye COCAINE Leaves of coca shrub (Erythroxolyn Coca), a native of Peru and Bolivia Extensively cultivated in South America where the leaves are used in masticatory, and also in java and Formosa Leavse mature in 4 years and can be picked 3 - 4 times per year. Used in local anesthetic Also employed as tonic for digestive and nervous system BUCHU Obtained from dried leaves of Barosma betulina, B. serratifolia, and B. crenulata, shrubs of the hot dry mountains of South Africa Used as a disinfectant to stimulate excretion, and also in the treatment of indigestion CAJEPUT Fresh leaves of Melaleuca Leucadendron, a small tree of southern Asia Yields an essential oil that is universal remedy of the East Greenish oil is aromatic with a camphorlike odor Used as a counterirritant and antiseptic in the treatment of skin disease, rheumatism, and bronchitis Extensivel used in Europe than in US DIGITALIS Almost indispensable in the treatment of heart disorder Obtained from dried leaves of the foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) Beautiful herbaceous perennial with tufted basal leaves and a singlle erect, leafy stem which bears spike or purpllish flowers EUCALYPTUS Scythe-shaped leaves of the older growth of the blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) Contains essential oil that is widely used in medicine The tree is tallest known reaching 200-300 ft, native in Australia Extensively cultivated in California,  FLorida, and Meditteranean region Eucalyptus tree aids in ridding a country of malaria Obtained from dried leaves Used in treatment of nose and throat disorder, malaria, and other fevers HAMAMELIS Common withc hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), a shrub of Eastern North America which are the source of this product Official source is the dried leaves and the commercial supply comes from the Southern Appalachians Used as an astringent and to stop bleeding HENBANE Hyoscyamus niger, a coarse evil-smelling herb native of Europe and Asia Its leaves and flowering tops contains several poisonous alkaloids Cultivated for the drugs, used for sedative HOARHOUND Marrubion vulgare is a native of Europe and Central Asia but thoroughly naturalied in America A small herbaceous perennial with white flowers in dense axillary whorls Dried leaves and flowering tops are used medicinally Administered as an infusion or in the form of candy or lozenges Remedy for breaking up colds, and also used for rheumatism, dyspepsia and other ailments LOBELIA Obtained from the dried leaves and tops of the Indian tobacco (lobelia inflata) which is a small annual with numerous blue flowers The active principle is an alkaloid Used as an expectorant, antispasmodic, ad emetic PENNYROYAL Hedeoma pulegioides is a small aromatic common in poor soil throughout Eastern United States Contains essential oils that has some use in internal medicine Often used as ingredients of liniments because of their counterirritant action Insect repellent Oil is obtained commercially from the dried leaves and tops SENNA Obtained from the dried leaflets, and also the pods, of several species of Cassia Alexandrian senna comes form C. acutifolia and Indian senna from C. angustifolia Both of them are cultivated in India Used as cathartic STRAMONIUM Jimson weed or thorn apple (Datura stramonium) one of the most poisonous plants which is the source of this drug Cultivated in the United States and Europe for the alkaloid starmonium Used as a substitute for belladonna for relaxing the bronchial musclein treatment asthma In many parts of the world, it is used for its narcotic effect WORMWOOD Artemisia Absinthium is native of Europe, Northern Africa, and Northern Asia which are sources of an essential oil used in medicine The dried leaves and tops of the plant are steeped in alcohol and distilled Used in treatment of fevers Chief use of the essential oil is to flavor liquer known as absinthe Drugs Obtained from Flowers CHAMOMILE Old-time remedy obtained from Matricaria chamomilla Daisy-like plant native of Eurasia and cltivated in the US Dried flower heads contains an essential oils Infusion of chamomile are ud\sed as tonics and gastric stimulants The flower heads of the Russian or garden chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) are also used ni poultices for sprains, bruises, and rheumatism HOPS Humulus lupulus is a native of North temperate regoin of both hemisphere Known for Romans and grown in some part of Europe since ninth century Extensively cultivated in the United States, England, and germany pmmmmmmm SANTONIN Levant wormseed - Artemisia cina Dried unopened flower heads  Intestinal worms Drugs Obtained from FRUITS AND SEEDS CHAULMOOGRA OIL HOPSCOLOCYNTH CUBEBS CROTON OIL NUX VOMICA OPIUM PSYLLIUM STROPHANTHUS WORMSEED