International Relations-PSC 201 Past Papers PDF

International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 19 NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT (CONTINUED FROM LECTURE 18) NAM’s Role in International Relati...

International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 19 NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT (CONTINUED FROM LECTURE 18) NAM’s Role in International Relations NAM played a limited role in supporting the OPEC price rise, in the formation of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the formation of the Group of 77 and articulating the New International Economic Order. NAM has grown in size and can potentially be very influential but it has been unable to fulfill its lofty objectives and thus stands discredited. Most of the member states, which are a part of it, do not use the NAW platform to resolve disputes nor do they contribute much effort to making it more effective. Yet the need for peaceful coexistence and better North-South relations makes the need for NAM even more urgent with its visionary blend of idealism and realism. Criticism of NAM NAM has failed to help promote peace and many of its members have been involved in bloody internal and external violence (for example the civil war in Cambodia, or the war between Iran and Iraq). NAM has also been unable to bear on lingering disputes like the ME conflict and the problems in Kashmir causing tensions between Pakistan and India and in the Cyprus which is resulting in tensions between Turkey and Greece. There is a dichotomy between what NAM leaders preach and practice; often they have adopted stances in the UN at variance with consensus developed in NAM. NAM and Pakistan Pakistan could not join NAM due to its membership in CENTO and SEATO. However by the 1970s, Pakistan realized the need for a broader approach to IR than seeking support of the US, so it withdrew from SENTO in 1972. India opposed Pakistan’s membership in NAM since Pakistan had done the same to India seeking entry into Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC). When CENTO winded up in 1979, Pakistan became a regular member of NAM in the Havana Summit and has been attending all subsequent summits. Pakistan can play an important role in NAM given that it is the only declared Muslim nuclear state in the world and seeks non-hegemonic but respectful coexistence in the globalizing world. Suggested Readings © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 47  International Relations-PSC 201 VU Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 10 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan. Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: NAM official website http://www.nam.gov.za © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 48 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Lesson 20 THE COLD WAR AND ITS IMPACTS - INTRODUCING THE COLD WAR PHENOMENON What does the Cold War refer to? The Cold War refers to the phenomenon that overshadowed world politics from the end of WWII until the fall of the former Soviet Union. It is one of the most significant events from the perspective of students of international relations. Implications of the Cold War The term Cold War signifies the state of affairs in which bitter relations, hostility and confrontation between the two post-WWII superpowers (US and USSR). The Cold War did not result in outbreak of war between the superpowers. The Cold War did result in an arms race, diplomatic confrontation, proxy warfare, ideological competition which engulfed the entire world order. The Cold War resulted in formation of eastern and western power blocks and corresponding alliances and institutions under the Communist and Capitalist power blocks. The United States accused the Soviet Union of seeking to expand their version of communism throughout the world. The Soviets, meanwhile, charged the United States with practicing imperialism and attempting to stop revolutionary activity in other countries. Cold War tensions increased the likelihood of a third world war, which could have led to devastating consequences due to the possibility of nuclear conflict. The Korean War, the Vietnam War and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan were some of the violent conflicts indirectly fueled by the Cold War. Another manifestation was in the propaganda wars between the United States and the USSR. Indeed, it was far from certain that a global nuclear war wouldn't result from smaller regional wars, which heightened the level of concern for each conflict. This tension shaped the lives of people around the world almost as much as the actual fighting did. One major hotspot of conflict was Germany, particularly the city of Berlin. Arguably, the most vivid symbol of the Cold War was the Berlin Wall. The Wall isolated West Berlin (the portion of the city controlled by West Germany and the Allies) from East Berlin and the territory of East Germany, which completely surrounded it and was supported by the Soviets. Formation of Power Blocks The eastern (communist) power block led by the Soviets and the western (capitalists) power block by the US also formed alliances. The communist nations were held together by the Warsaw Pact and the capitalist power block formed NATO. Communist Ideology and Practice © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 49  International Relations-PSC 201 VU The common ownership of means of production and distribution provided the political and economic basis for the spread of communism, based on Marx’s philosophy of empowering the proletariat. Communism in practice resulted in dominance of a single political party and centralized decision making. The bureaucracy became the new bourgeoisie under communism in practice. Capitalist Ideology and Practice Capitalism is based on the notion of individual liberty and the right to own private property. At the political level, capitalism emphasized the need for democratic government, multiparty politics, the independence of the judiciary, and freedom of press. In practice capitalism has caused problems for minorities, growing inequalities and arguments concerning the role of the state in managing the economy. Relevant Vocabulary Centralized: controls resting with the central government instead of with regional authorities Proletariat: the working class Bourgeoisie: the elite Empowering: the process of enabling a given segment of people the capacity to yield more political and economic power Superpower: very powerful state, like the US in the current world politics circumstances Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 6 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: The Cold War Museum www.coldwar.org © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 50 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 21 THE COLD WAR AND ITS IMPACTS (CONTINUED) Cold War in Europe The October Revolution of 1917 had sowed the seeds of Communism in Europe. The Soviet Union’s ambitions were checked by the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany. The Soviets agreed to join France, Britain and the US to check the power of the fascists during WWII. At the end of WWII however, tensions grew between the former Allies over dividing the spoils of war. The Soviets were reluctant to grant Poland independence and did not want to vacate their troops from eastern Germany. Communism spread to Poland and led to East Germany. The Cold War intensified in the next few years and the Soviets managed to install Communist regimes in Bulgaria, Hungary and in Romania. Thereafter, Albania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia also came under the influence of the Soviets and Finland’s coalition government was also dominated by the Communists. Europe was thus divided into two blocks: the Eastern block controlled by the Soviets and the Western block backed by the US. The post-WWII outbreak of conflict in Greece between the government and the Communist guerillas was a turning point in US foreign policy, when President Truman vowed to check the Soviet influence and to actively protect its foreign interests abroad. Truman Doctrine The Truman Doctrine was meant to fill the vacuum in power politics created by the weakening of Britain so as to prevent the global domination of Communism. The Truman Doctrine offered direct assistance to Greece and to Turkey to check Communist influence and bypassed even the UN mechanism (a trend which was to reoccur in later years). Marshal Plan The Marshal Plan (named after the US Secretary of Defense) was an extension of the Truman Doctrine to protect (western) Europe from economic collapse and communist domination. Aid under the Marshal Plan was used to reconstruct war ravaged Europe and it became the basis for lending for development to newly independent countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Expansion of the Cold War Arena Communism also spread to China with the initial backing of Soviets. The disposed Chiang Kai Sek government was exiled to Formosa, which is now Taiwan. The spread of Communism to China also lent support to North Korea, where the US backed the South Koreans. Soviet support to the North Vietnamese led to more serious US engagement in the conflict, due to the fear that Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Thailand could also become Communist. Despite sending up to 600,000 troops to Vietnam by 1965, the North Vietnamese won the battle with support of China and the Soviets. In the M.E, the US provided active support to the Israelis but the Soviets were not able to influence the ME conflict to its advantage. In Latin America, the Soviet influence in Cuban and Nicaragua made the US very © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 51  International Relations-PSC 201 VU nervous and it supported brutal regimes like that of Pinochet in Chile to prevent its fall to communist influence. The Congo, Ghana and Gold Coast got military and financial aid from the Soviets, which also led the US to take counter measures in Africa. In South Asia, besides Indian leaning towards the Soviet and the Pakistani inclination towards the US, the invasion of Afghanistan became a major Cold War arena for a proxy war between the Superpowers. Relevant Vocabulary Exiled: expelled, being thrown out of a country Regime: government Counter measures: measures taken in reaction to those of the opponent Fascist: totalitarian, dictatorial (for e.g. Italy and Germany around the WWII period) Bypass: to sideline or ignore Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 6 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: The Cold War http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 52 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 22 THE COLD WAR AND ITS IMPACTS (CONTINUED) Reconciliation Even at the height of the Cold War, there were efforts to prevent an outbreak of all out conflict as that could have brought an end to human civilization as a whole. Khrushchev and Eisenhower yet at Camp David and commenced the trend towards disarmament. A Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) was signed in 1962, a hotline was established between the heads of states in 1963 and the Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was signed in 1968. From 1969 to 1978, a period of détente remained, where both sides accepted the status quo in view of the mutually assured destruction (MAD) capacity of the superpowers and as the realization concerning costs of nuclear arsenals was becoming apparent. Nixon visited USSR and signed a Limitation on Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Systems and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms, indicating adoption of a defensive rather than offensive posture by both superpowers. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks continued from 1969 to 1979. The US proposed ban on using mobile land sites and the superpowers also reached an agreement on a Seabed Treaty, banning use of sea-beds as nuclear launch sites End of the Cold War The process that brought the Cold War to an end began in the second half of the 1980s. It led to the Malta Summit between President Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. The Washington Summit in 1990 between the same leaders resulted in signing of number of nuclear, chemical and conventional arms reduction agreements. Resurgence of tensions The invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 fanned the embers of the Cold War again. The USSR’s interference in Angola was also another irritant and the new US administration was also less tolerant and it wanted to begin building bridges with China, which Soviets were now opposed to, these moves simultaneously ended the period of détente. Jimmy Carter used the human rights agenda to criticize Soviet backed regimes, the US discovered a Soviet brigade in Cuba and withdrew from SALT II, it boycotted the Olympic games in Moscow in 1980 and imposed a grain embargo on the USSR. The Soviets in turn banned the LA Olympics in 1984 and shot down a South Korean air liner and by 1983 they pulled out completely from bilateral arms talks with the US after the Cruise and Pershing 2 missiles were found deployed by three west European countries. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 53  International Relations-PSC 201 VU The overthrow of the Shah of Iran in 1979 also impelled the US to secure bases in Oman, Kenya and Somalia to obtain a strategic stronghold and protects its interests around the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. On the other hand, the Soviets, Cubans, Nicaraguans and even the Ethiopians were accused by the US of supplying arms to insurgents El Salvador in Central America. While the Cold War ended practically with dismantling of the 35 km Berlin Wall in 1989, it wasn’t until the London Summit a few years later that the Cold War was formally announced to be over London Summit. The London Summit emphasized the need for the US to reduce the number of nuclear weapons it had deployed in Europe. It obtained a pledge to withdraw the 1470 nuclear tipped artillery shells from West Germany and for the Soviets to withdraw troops from Central and Eastern Europe. It redefined NATO’s new role from strength seeking alliance to a peace keeping mission. The World after the Cold War The balance of power shifted drastically after the Cold War and its effects were felt the world over (Consider the case of Pakistan for e.g. which felt abandoned by the US after the fall of the Soviets). The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the emergence of new states and the change of governments in several countries (Breakup of Yugoslavia for e.g.). Unresolved conflicts, in Korea, Vietnam and Germany, complicated by the interference of the superpowers came to a quick end. A new world order emerged at the end of the Cold War, which was influenced by multilateralism and a unilateral superpower. The end of the Cold War called for a new focus in IR which could better analyze and anticipate the realties of a new world order. The end of communism also had economic implications which boosted the legitimacy of the market mechanism. Communism in practice resulted in dominance of a single political party and centralized decision making. The bureaucracy became the new bourgeoisie under communism in practice. The Capitalist Ideology Capitalism is based on the notion of individual liberty and the right to own private property. At the political level, capitalism emphasized the need for democratic government, multiparty politics, independence of the judiciary, and freedom of press. In practice capitalism has caused problems for minorities, growing inequalities and arguments concerning the role of the state in managing the economy. Relevant Vocabulary Reconciliation: removal of differences or tensions between states Conventional weapons: normal as opposed to nuclear Accuse: to blame Bourgeoisie: the rich and powerful elite © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 54 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 6 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: The Cold War International History Project cwihp.si.edu/default.htm © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 55 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 23 DISARMAMENT AND ARMS CONTROL Justifications for Armament Weapons are not the causes but the consequences of conflictive relations. A historical survey of the arms race indicates that during the past two centuries this form of international competition often ends peacefully in recognition of the military superiority of one side or the other. Countries which have no adequate defense tempt aggressors and therefore preparing for war is the best way to achieve peace. Arguments for disarmament Arms and arms races are costly and potentially very bloody. Arms reduction can curtail defense burden and allow economic investment for more productive purposes. The unchecked growth of armaments without economic means can lead to internal repression and external aggression. Arms Controls Arms reduction implies partially disarmament based on mutually agreed set of arms levels between given groups of nation states. Arms limitation includes a wide variety of international accords to limit impact of potential wars or to prevent their accidental outbreak (exchange of information to prevent misunderstanding or banning acquisition of particular types of weaponry). History of Disarmament Disarmament attempts can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which stipulated against the need for building fortifications. In 1816, the Czar of Russia proposed to the British government the reduction of armaments, a call that was not well received however. In 1863 and in 1869, France made similar calls for disarmament in Europe, but it too was ignored. In 1898, the Tsar of Russia called on European powers to gather at Hague to discuss disarmament, a suggestion which was well received, leading to the First Hague Peace Conference attended by 28 states. In 1907, another conference was held at the Hague for the same purpose. Both conferences called upon military and naval experts to propose reducing military expenditures through disarmaments, but the major powers were not ready for such moves in practice. Disarmament after WWI The devastation caused by WWI impelled statesmen of the world to give serious thought to disarmament. Woodrow Wilson in one of his famous fourteen points asserted armament should be reduced to ‘the lowest point consistent with domestic safety’. The Treat of Versailles (1919) also recognized that ‘the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments’. The League of Nations was given the specific duty to secure a general agreement on disarmament and the covenant of the League stated that only those countries will be allowed membership who accepted the proposed agreement. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 56 International Relations-PSC 201 VU A permanent advisory commission was established in the League, but being comprised of military personnel, it failed to make much progress in a path of disarmament. The Council of the League appointed another commission in 1920, the Temporary Mixed Commission, with a fixed four year mandate and comprised primarily of civilians. This temporary commission of the League was asked to identify limitation of land and naval forces for various countries according to their national security needs, the commission also proposed compulsory arbitration and proposed international aid to victims of aggression. Unfortunately, the commission’s recommendations were not accepted by members of the League of Nations. In 1926, the League set up another preparatory commission for disarmament which prepared a draft of a treaty considered at the Geneva conference of the League in 1932 by 61 states. Discussions on this draft continued for 2 years but then the Japanese attack on Manchuria and the German withdrawal from the treaty in 1933, dashed the hopes for disarmament. Relevant Vocabulary Conflictive: conflicting or tense Armament: the process of acquiring weaponry Impelled: compelled, obligated Arbitration: resolution of disputes Fortifications: building up of defenses Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 7 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: Websites on disarmament and non-proliferation www.disarm.igc.org or www.ndf.org © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 57 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 24 DISARMAMENT AND ARMS CONTROL (CONTINUED) Disarmament after WWII The devastation unleashed by WWII again led to calls for disarmament. The UN charter laid much emphasis on the need for disarmament. The UN established a Military Staff Committee to assist the Security Council to regulate armaments and explore means for disarmament. Disarmament efforts by the UN The UN established the Atomic Energy Commission consisting of all five Security Council members and Canada. The Commission was meant to explore mechanisms for peaceful transfer of nuclear technology, to identify safeguards by way of inspections for compliant states to prevent hazards of violation and to eventually work towards elimination of nuclear weapons. While both superpowers agreed to cooperate, their divergent stances (the US arguing that control take precedence over disarmament and the USSR arguing the reverse) on the Commission goals led to its ineffectiveness. The General Assembly of the UN also established a Commission on Conventional Armaments, which also felt victim to Cold War divergences, ultimately the USSR pulled out of both Commissions due to China’s representation on them. Atoms for Peace Plan In 1953, President Eisenhower of the US proposed establishment of a pool of fissionable materials donated by declared nuclear states to the Atomic Energy Commission, which could be provided to other countries strictly for peaceful purposes. The Soviets opposed this plan arguing that an agreement on prohibiting nuclear weapons was first necessary prior to disseminating nuclear technology. Other Disarmament Efforts Many disarmament and arms control efforts were undertaken through bilateral means between the two superpowers, the biggest proliferations of armaments in the post-WWII period (NTBT, NPT, SALT I and II). The six nation summit held in New Dehli in 1985 is indicative of the growing concern amongst developing countries about arms race, particularly nuclear weapons (Ironically, India too is now a declared nuclear state). CTBT The NTP review conference was held in Geneva in 1995 which recommended infinite extension of the NTP. Israel, Pakistan and India were criticized for not acceding to the NPT nor to the subsequent CTBT, which even forbids tests required for developing nuclear weapons. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 58  International Relations-PSC 201 VU Even France signed the CTBT after conducting its last nuclear test in the South Pacific. India and Pakistan remain reluctant and argue that the advanced nuclear states can keep their weaponry safe and updated by tests stimulated in lab settings. Relevant Vocabulary Compliant: agreeing or accepting Reliant: reliable Divergent: differing or opposing Reluctant: hesitant Stimulated: replicated or duplicated in different conditions Subsequent: thereafter Proliferation: spread or dissemination Forbid: prohibit or does not allow Elimination: removal or destruction Regulation: to provide guidelines or parameters Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 7 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: CTBT Website www.clw.org/coalition/ctbindex.htm © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 59 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 25 THE RELEVANCE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS What is International Law? International laws are rules which relate to the functioning of individuals, institutions and states in the international arena. International law has various ingredients including general principles of law and justice, which are equally suited to regulating the conduct of individuals, organizations within a state and states themselves. Evolution of International Law Formulation of international law can be traced back to the third and fourth millenniums B.C. Early rulers had made international rules to safeguard emissaries, initiation and cessation of hostilities and arrangement of truces, and maritime laws. To aid governance, the Romans devised principles of just gentrium or law of the people. By the time the Roman Empire fell, application of these laws was widely accepted. European states also contributed to international laws at a later stage in history. By the 14th century, scholars were writing about international law. Hugo Grotius, for example, produced a momentous work on laws concerning war and peace, emphasizing the independent nature of law. During the eighteenth century, three prominent schools of thought concerning international law were evident; the positivists, the naturalists and the Grotians. The naturalists believed in upholding morality through laws. The positivists focused on practicalities and the consensual nature of these laws. The Grotians combined both naturalists and positivist elements. In the past century, the League and the UN system, and subsequently the International Court of Justice have made important contributions to international law. Other institutions like IMF or WTO influence laws concerning trade economic laws. Different Types of International Law Private and Public Laws: private law concerns individuals, whereas public law concerns the behavior of organizations and even states. Procedural and Substantive Laws: Procedural laws define types of permitted behavior whereas substantive laws concern territorial rights of states. Laws of War and Peace: There are laws governing behavior of states in a state of war (concerning rights of prisoners of war) and those meant to prevent outbreak of violence and promote peace. Particular and General Laws: General or universal laws are applicable to all sovereign states, whereas particular laws are defined by bilateral or regional agreements. Relevant Vocabulary © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 60 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Maritime: concerning the sea and its navigation Bilateral: between two parties Momentous: major or significant Consensual: seeking agreement Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 11 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: Foreign and International Law www.washlaw.edu/forint/forintmain.html © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 61 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 26 THE RELEVANCE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (CONTINUED) Another Perspective on International Laws Another viewpoint through which one can consider the topic of international law is to focus on the laws of power, coordination and reciprocity. Laws of power regulate master-slave relations. Those of coordination regulate relations amongst members of the same group. Laws of reciprocity refer to the intermediary interaction which implies mutual benefit. Naturalists vs. Positivists Naturalism and positivism developed side by side. Naturalists argued that Divine authority was the source of all laws. They argued that such laws had international validity as they were relevant for all humans and were consistent with logical deductions concerning our natural state. There is not much evidence of wide bodies of natural laws being accepted just because of their logical consistency or because of consistent obedience to Divine authority (St. Augustine was a prominent naturalist). Positivists argued that only those international laws had validity, which were adopted by consent of sovereign states. Consent is therefore considered the basis for the sense of binding obligation implied by international laws. The Grotians or the eclectics treaded the middle path between the positivists and naturalists, conceding to the relevance of both morality and consent. Sources of International Law Article 38 of the ICJ recognizes natural laws, general laws, custom and legal commentaries as the basic sources of international law. Based on principles of universal acceptability, some natural laws are applicable across the world. Based on the implicit or explicit consent of states, customary laws are mainly based on customs or treaties. General laws defined with reference to terms like justice or rights, enables jurists to fill in the gaps left by positivist laws. Legal commentaries help clarify, elaborate upon and apply the broad nature of laws to specific circumstances. Formulation & Implementation of International Laws There is no formal institution to make international laws, so they are made outside of formal institutions. Treaties, for example imply signatory states to accept certain conditions concerning a particular issue. Some treaties are made by international institutions but they only come into effect after ratification by sovereign states. If a sufficient number of states follow a customary practice, it becomes an international custom. The International Court of Justice (ICJ), which is composed of UN member states recommended by the Security Council, has an advisory capacity to interpret treaties, but it lacks the authority of national courts. International tribunals also lack the authority of national judicial institutions. There is no international institution to implement international laws. Individuals and states are treated as objects of international © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 62  International Relations-PSC 201 VU laws. War crime tribunals were after WWII and after the massacres of Rwanda, the former president of Serbia is being prosecuted for war crimes against the Muslims of Bosnia by the ICJ. International versus National Laws National laws have much greater legitimacy than international laws. While individuals rarely have recourse to self-help within nations, states rely on self-help as a matter of norm lest they are bound by a treaty of some sort. With the passage of time, international laws are becoming more accepted and complex and sanctions and international censure ensure states to oblige to them. Relevance of International Laws Despite its limitations, international law helps give shape to international order. It influences and channels bilateral or even multilateral economic, social and political cooperation. It provides the normative background based on which independent states can make their decisions. Relevant Vocabulary Multilateral: operating at multiple levels Normative: ethical or moral Censure: criticism or denouncement Validity: acknowledgement or legitimacy Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 11 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: International Court of Justice www.icj-cij.org © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 63 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 27 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS What are International Organizations? International organizations include Inter-governmental Organizations (IGOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). IGOs have official delegates appointed by member nations. NGOs, on the other hand, are comprised of private individuals or institutions. Need for IGOs IGOs provide a less binding sense of regulation in comparison to national governments, yet their presence is significant in an increasingly integrated world. While some contend that international organizations ensure compliance to wishes of powerful nations, others view them as deterrents to hegemonic designs. Categorizing IGOs IGOs can be placed into four distinct categories: i IGOs can have a general membership and a general purpose (UN system) ii IGOs can have a general membership and a limited purpose (World Bank) iii IGOs can have a limited membership and a general purpose (OIC, EU) iv IGOs can have a limited membership and a limited purpose (NATO) History of International Organizations The Greek city states like Sparta and Athens developed military and defense organizations like NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Twelve city states also formed the Amphictyonic League to protect the Temple at Delphi. The Romans developed administrative, legal and military structures which aided international organization at a later stage in history. In 1305, Pierre Dubories, a French lawyer proposed alliances between Christian powers, which led to several such formations, the Hanseatic League most prominent amongst them. Subsequently, the ‘Grand Design’ of 1603 comprised of 15 Christian republics, it aimed to end violence and settle disputes peacefully, yet it too was an overtly Christian organization confined to Europe. Establishment of a world government and enduring peace did begin to preoccupy prominent thinkers though, like the Italian poet Dante (13 century) and the philosophers, Rousseau and Kant (18 century). The European Congress in Westphalia in 1648, which ended 30 years of a bloody war, was not able to establish a formal organization but it did promote diplomatic ties amongst many prominent states. The French Revolution of 1789 similarly brought wide recognition of the right of self determination. Then the Congress of Vienna in 1815 provided principles for navigation of international rivers and identified provisions for abolishing slavery. The US Monroe Doctrine of 1825 also set the stage for international cooperation by issuing a strong proclamation against external interventions. The Brussels Congress of 1874 provided a code of land warfare approved by 15 nations. The Hague Commissions of 1899 &1907 stressed on arbitration to avoid violence and on the equality of all independent states. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 64  International Relations-PSC 201 VU Also public international unions like the International Telegraphic Union (1865), the Universal Postal Union (1847) and the Rhine River Commission (1804) became prototypes for international organizations formed in the 20 century, like the League of Nations and the UN system. Relevant Vocabulary Proclamation: declaration Overt: Obvious or explicit Intervention: interference Preoccupy: predominant concern Enduring: long lasting Abolishing: to put an end to, or to eradicate Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 12 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: Monroe Doctrine www.law.ou.edu/hist/monrodoc.html © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 65 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 28 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (CONTINUED) The League of Nations The League of Nations was a general membership, general purpose IGO. The League was formed in 1919 to prevent war through collective security and settling disputes through negotiations and diplomacy; and to improve global welfare. Despite these bold aims, it could not prevent aggression by the fascist powers in late 1930s.The UN replaced the League after WWII. United Nations The UN is a general membership and general purpose IGO. The UN was established in 1954 and is now made up of 191 states. UN membership is open to all "peace-loving states". The General Assembly determines admission upon recommendation of the Security Council. The term UN was coined by Roosevelt during WWII, to refer to the Allies. The name was transferred to the UN as it was founded by the victorious powers in the war as a condition of the Atlantic Charter and other wartime agreements. The UN system is financed in two ways: assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The General Assembly is a principal organ of the UN and it includes representatives from all member states. The UN Security Council is the most powerful UN organ, which passes resolutions, determines the need for sanctions and is comprised of China, Russia, US, UK and France, all of whom have veto powers. There are also non-veto non-permanent members appointed to the Security Council, which are brought onto the Council from the General Assembly. Criticism of the UN The UN provides a platform to discuss global security concerns and highlights development and environmental needs. There are charges that the UN is increasingly attempting to usurp or conversely not doing enough to override national sovereignty. In general, the UN has shown a reluctance to act upon its resolutions. Others say the UN gives precedence to government authority over individual liberty. They point to the inclusion on the UNCHR of Sudan, Cuba and Libya, which have poor records on human rights. These above countries however, argue that Western countries, with their history of colonialist aggression, have no right to point fingers. There are also internal institutional failures of the UN such as allegations of mismanagement and corruption regarding the Oil for Food Program. Some point to the UN failure to act (or succeed) in security issues such as the ethnic cleansing campaign in Rwanda or its failure to successfully deliver food to starving citizens of Somalia, which was usually seized by local warlords instead of reaching those who needed it. It is said that being in majority Arab states have an unfairly large influence which has enabled a large number of UN resolutions condemning Israel. Alternatively, some argue that the UN is ruled by a "tyranny © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 66  International Relations-PSC 201 VU of the rich". Critics point out to the repeated use of the veto to protect Israel, and the failure of the UN to enforce its resolutions on powerful countries like the US while enforcing them on weaker states like Iraq or Syria. Given the above criticism there is often talk of abandoning or of reforming the UN (including the expansion of the Security Council, since it does not include many of the prominent powers of the world like Germany and Japan. Since the UN was formulated after WWII and it is therefore criticized as no longer reflecting realities of the current world order). Relevant Vocabulary Aggression: hostility Seize: usurp or take by force Assessed: determined Condemning: criticizing or blaming Tyranny: injustice implemented by use of force Abandoning: to leave, or to let go of Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 12 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: United Nations website www.un.org League of Nations www.althist.com/league_of_nations.htm © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 67 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 29 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (CONTINUED) Organization for Islamic Conferences The OIC is a limited membership and general purpose IGO. The OIC is an inter-governmental organization with a Permanent Delegation to the UN. OIC groups 57 mostly Islamic nations in Middle East, North and West Africa, Central Asia, Southeast and South Asia. The OIC is dedicated to serving the interests of the world's 1.3 billion Muslims. The OIC was set up in Rabat, Morocco in 1969 in reaction to an arson attack against the Al-Aqsa Mosque earlier in the same year. The primary goals of the OIC are: - To promote solidarity among all member states; - To consolidate cooperation among member states in economic, social, cultural, scientific, and other fields of activity; - To endeavor to eliminate racial segregation and discrimination - To oppose colonialism in all its forms; - To support the Palestinian people in their struggle to regain their national rights and to return to their homeland; - To support all Muslim people in their struggle to safeguard their dignity, independence and national rights European Union EU is a limited membership and general purpose IGO. The European Union or EU is a supranational organization of European countries, which currently has 25 members. The Union was established in 1992. However, many aspects of the EU existed before that date through a series of predecessor organizations, dating back to the 1950s. The European Union's activities cover all policy areas, from health and economic policy to foreign affairs and defense. A key activity of the EU is the establishment and administration of a common single market, including a customs union and a single currency (adopted by 12 of the 25 member states), a common agricultural and fisheries policy. In 2004, European heads of state signed a treaty establishing the first constitution for the European Union, which is currently awaiting ratification by its member states. World Bank World Bank is a general membership and limited purpose IGO. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, better known as the World Bank, It came into existence on 1945 following international ratification of the agreements reached at the Bretton Woods Conference. World Bank is an international organization whose original mission was to finance the reconstruction of nations devastated by WWII. World Bank operations are maintained through payments as regulated by member states. The World Bank's activities are currently focused on developing countries, to which the World Bank provides loans at preferential rates to finance development. The Role of MNCs in IR © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 68 International Relations-PSC 201 VU A multinational corporation (MNC) or transnational corporation (TNC) is one that spans multiple nations; these corporations are often very large. Most MNCs have offices and/or factories in different countries. They usually have a centralized head office where they coordinate global management. Large multinationals have budgets that exceeding those of many countries. Multinationals often make use of subcontractors to produce certain goods for them. They produce employment and bring in investment to poor countries. They can also take away more wealth than they leave behind and influence global and local politics to ensure their own interests. Worldwide Fund for Nature WWF is a private international NGO with operations in countries. The WWF is a global organization, which acts locally through a network of country offices to halt the accelerating destruction of the natural environment. It is funded by both bilateral and multilateral agencies. Relevant Vocabulary Ratification: endorsement Halt: stop or prevent Discrimination: unfair difference in behavior towards different people Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 12 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: Official World Bank website www.worldbank.org Official WWF website www.panda.org Official OIC website www.oic-oic.org © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 69  International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 30 THE ROLE OF DECISION MAKING IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS What is Decision Making? Decision making implies a conscious choice of one form of behavior alternative. Decisions are implied in policy making and in implementation of policy strategies. Decision making determines a course of action which has important consequences. While the most important decisions are referred to leaderships at the top, various cadres of decision makers are needed in all institutional structures. In IR, decisions are made concerning foreign policies which formulate directions for socio-economic activities and defense needs of individual states. Types of IR Decisions Programmatic decisions: these are taken after careful deliberation of stated goals and consideration of alternatives. Crisis decisions: these are decisions taken in times of grave threat for which there has been no preplanning, with little luxury of time crisis decisions can require ad hoc responses. Tactical decisions: these decisions are derived from programmatic decisions. Tactical decisions are subject to revision, revaluation and reversal depending on outcomes. Prominent Approaches to Decision Making Decisions taken in IR can be located within methodological and historical frameworks. A traditional or historical approach to decision making is essentially descriptive. It focuses on the external behavior of states based on its particular historical, social, geographic imperatives. The traditional approach assumes that decisions are made by designated decision makers, and that the decision making process itself influences decision making alternatives. The scientific approach seeks to identify coherent variables which effect the decision making process. The scientific approach has identified five crucial variables in this regard: i) Idiosyncratic variables: focus on individual personality characteristics of decision makers (greatest importance in crisis decisions where little planning and advice can be accommodated). ii) Role variables: focus on defined expectations of decision makers and opinion makers (diplomats, politicians, and media) who influence their output. Roles are most important in programmatic decisions. iii) Bureaucratic variables: focus on processes and structures of government institutions and how they influence foreign policy. iv) National variables: geographic location, size, natural resources, population characteristic of individual nations also influence decisions. For example, a strategically located nation must be assertive itself or ensure protection of a bigger power; an insular state tends to avoid alliances; and populist states tend to be expansionist. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 70  International Relations-PSC 201 VU v) Systematic variables: external variables like the prevailing world order, international regulatory frameworks, power balances are also considered vital in terms of foreign policy. Political parties, pressure groups, public opinion are recognized to influence decision making processes much more in democratic than authoritarian states. Relevant Vocabulary Alternatives: other available options Idiosyncrasies: peculiarity Strategy: on a carefully thought plan Framework: structure, outline or context Vital: important or crucial Authoritarian: dictatorial Prevailing: existing Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 8 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: Decision making: Individual and Group Influences on Foreign Policy http://www.wwnorton.com/web/ir/chapters/ch6/critical-thinking.htm © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 71 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 31 DECISION MAKING (CONTINUED) Decision Making Processes Astute decision making requires: Identification of shortfalls Clarification of feasible objectives Obtaining relevant facts and identification of alternative Obtaining feedback during implementation to make policy modifications Decision makers must avoid getting so preoccupied with mechanics of policy making that they ignore policy content. Actual results emerging from a policy can differ from perceived objectives but it is difficult to take all variables into account while formulating a policy decision Decision Making Theories Organizational Process Model: views the state as an organization obtaining input from different units to reach a decision. Following this model can result in a bounded rather than a comprehensive viewpoint due to the splitting up and compartmentalization of problems. Rational Actor Model: considers states as monolithic entities whose leaders try to maximize national interests as a whole (Kissinger amongst others has favored this model of how states should make decisions). Group Politics Model: uses a bureaucratic framework in which different departments/agencies pursue their own vested interests as well as collective national interests. Personality Process Model: in addition to information and processes, the personality model focuses on cognitive and emotional factors in reaching decisions. Difficulties in Decision Making Cognitive nearsightedness and the urge to make decisions to satisfy immediate needs must be overcome for more sustainable outcomes. Oversimplification can lead to dealing with symptoms instead of problems resulting in immature and inadequate decisions. Myopic perspectives without consultation and accommodation of different views lead to narrow minded policies. Preconceived notions or distortion of facts can be used to justify favored decisions. Prioritization is necessary given the numerous problems contending for a decision maker's attention. Making a right choice after through consideration of all relevant facts and alternatives is not easy. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 72 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Avoiding biases is also difficult given that vested and divergent interests are often prevalent amongst decision making units. Showing flexibility in view of divergent policy options and perceptions is needed to devise a sound policy that will be implemented by all instead of being opposed to the point of causing ineffectiveness. Comparative analysis of decisions made in similar circumstances and candid and competent institutional support is vital for decision making in an increasingly complicated international environment. Relevant Vocabulary Divergent – varying Relevant – important Myopic – narrow Prioritization – ranking in order of importance Candid – honest Vital - crucial Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 8 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: http://www.wwnorton.com/web/ir/chapters/ch6/critical-thinking.htm © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 73 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 32 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO IR What is Systems Theory? System theory is the attempt to understand international relations as a set of observable, understandable patterns between the actors that are elements of the international system. Basic Definitions System: a collection of elements related to each other by some pattern of behavior and actions System Theory: explanation of observed patterns in international events by attributing those patterns to the characteristics of the international system Underlying Assumptions There are patterns that can be observed in international events. Actors in international relations comprise a system. The patterns we can observe in international relations are due (in part) to the characteristics of the international system. Elements of the System National Actors Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGO's) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO's) Multi-national Corporations (MNC's) Other Groups (organized or not) Individuals Rules of the System Rules are statements which define actions which are required, forbidden or permitted. Patterns in the system are often due to the generally accepted rules about how to conduct IR (when it comes to alliance behavior for example). There are also a range of acceptable or expected responses enabling states to predict the behavior of other states. System Poles The term pole comes from the concept of polarity in electrodynamics. A system pole can be a single country (USA), a single country with its client states (USSR + Eastern Europe), or a group of actors (NATO or the EU) © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 74 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Relevant Vocabulary Polarity - two opposing points Conduct - carry out Characteristics - defining features Patterns – things done in similar ways Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Section on Systems Approach in Chapter 1 of ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: The Comparative World Systems Approach www.irows.ucr.edu/cd/courses/125/readings/chap2.htm © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 75 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 33 SYSTEMS BASED APPROACH (CONTINUED) – DISTINCT SYSTEMS IN IR Three Distinct Systems in IR Unipolar System implies one dominant power and it occurs when one actor conquering all others of note, or by institutional means, or by hegemony (rule by one dominant leader through the establishment of norms and behaviors that are acceptable in the system. Examples of a unipolar system include Roman, Chinese, & other empires; also the rule by a central power within a bipolar bloc like USSR in Eastern Europe or USA in the West. Bipolar System Two roughly equal coalitions of actors often formed around one strong actor in each coalition. Other important actors like the UN do not really threaten bipolar coalitions particularly if they are based on ideology. Multi-polar System Poles are roughly equivalent and there is a fluid and competitive system of shifting alliances. Relatively free of ideology and run by politics not ideology. Each actor is interested primarily in its personal power and wellbeing. There is a tendency to form counter-alliances since any one country or alliance that is too strong is a threat to all other actors. Another approach to World System Analysis World Economy Perspective has 3 major components: 1 Historical development of core-periphery division of labor 2 Episodic rise and fall of hegemonic power – a 1800-1914: Pax Britannica 3 Gradual geographic expansion of world economy coupled with periodic growth and stagnation Changes in a system Systems can be either stabilizing or destabilizing forces in international relations. Systems - even if they are stabilizing systems - have dynamics of their own. Most systems have some sort of self perpetuating process. Systems often are - equilibrating - that is, they respond to changes by absorbing the changes and moving to a new stabilizing equilibrium. Sometimes systems respond to change by evolving into new systems Factors which affect international systems are: © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 76  International Relations-PSC 201 VU 1 Change in the number of actors 2 Change in the power distribution between actors 3 Change in technology 4 Change in characteristics of the actors Relevant Vocabulary Relatively – comparatively Equilibrium – balance Stabilizing – balancing Perpetuating – further promoting Suggested Readings Students are advised to visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: About Systems www.jameskay.ca/about/systems.html © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 77 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 34 LIBERALISM AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY Defining Liberalism Liberalism clusters several historical and present-day ideologies claiming that defense of individual liberty is the most basic purpose of government. Since WW II, liberalism and its many offshoots have become prominent schools of thought in the west and in increasingly large sphere of economies and societies influenced by them. Liberalism typically favors the right to dissent from orthodox tenets or established authorities in political or religious matters. In this respect, it is sometimes held in contrast to conservatism. Since liberalism focuses on the ability of individuals to structure society, it is opposed to totalitarianism and collectivitis ideologies like communism. The word "liberal" derives from the Latin "liber" ("free"). Liberals of all shades tend to value freedom instead of government control. Some adherents of liberalism sympathize with some of the aims and methods of social democracy arguing that the government should provide some form of health services and basic education for which taxation is needed. Since liberalism is broad, and generally pragmatic in its orientation, there is no hard and fast list of policy prescriptions which can be universally assumed to be "liberal". In some circumstances there will be tax increases, in others tax decreases. In some cases there will be the creation of a quasi-public entity to perform a function, in other cases privatization or the creation of a government program. The ideas of universal human rights, transparency of government, popular sovereignty, national self- determination, the rule of law, fundamental equality are often linked to the more obvious liberal principles of notion of private property, non-interference of state in economic processes, although there is a wide gap between statements and reality. Neoliberalism Neoliberalism is an economic ideology rather than a broader political ideology. The swing away from government action in the 1970s led to the introduction of this term, which refers to a program of reducing trade barriers and internal market restrictions as a way towards a more free market capitalist system. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 78 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Neoliberalism accepts some government involvement in the economy, particularly the need for a central bank and national defense, but it seeks to reduce government regulation as much as possible. While neoliberalism is sometimes described as overlapping with Thatcherism, many prominent economists and institutions, like the World Bank are influenced by the "neoliberal" philosophy. This economic agenda is not necessarily combined with a liberal agenda in politics. An extreme example was the Pinochet regime in Chile, but even the US President Regan was being neo-liberal. Neoliberals support big business and try to promote it as a sure route to economic growth and ‘trickling down’ economic prosperity. Relevant Vocabulary Notion – idea Regulation - to guide Route – way or means Overlapping – cutting across Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 79 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 35 LIBERALISM AND SOCIAL DEMOCRACY (CONTINUED) Social Democracy Social democracy is a political ideology emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from supporters of Marxism who believed that the transition to a socialist society could be achieved through democratic evolutionary rather than revolutionary means. During the early and mid-20th century, social democrats were in favor of stronger labor laws, nationalization of major industries, and a strong welfare state. Over the course of the 20th century, most social democrats gradually distanced themselves from Marxism and class struggle. At present, social democrats don’t see a conflict between a capitalist market economy and a socialist society, so they support reforming capitalism to make it more equitable through creation of a welfare state. In the past, social democrats were often described as reformist socialists (since they advocated the implementation of socialism through gradual reforms). They were contrasted with revolutionary socialists, who advocated socialism through a workers' revolution. Today, democratic socialists carry on the reformist socialism legacy and desire a fully socialist system through electoral means. But most social democrats want capitalism to be more equitable, not abolished. Social democratic parties are amongst the largest in most European countries, and in European-influenced parts of the world (with the notable exception of the US). Social democrats are politically centre of left. Liberalism vs. Social Democracy The fundamental difference between liberalism and social democracy, besides the difference in origins, is in their views regarding the role of the state in the economy. Social democracy seeks to achieve a certain extent of equality of outcomes, and upholds egalitarianism as the source of its moral values. Social democrats support a large public sector and nationalization of utilities like gas and electricity to avoid private monopolies, achieve social justice, and raise living standards for all. Liberalism, instead prefers much less state intervention. In the 1990s, many social democratic parties adopted neoliberal economic policies like extensive privatizations and open markets, much to the dismay of their own voters. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 80  International Relations-PSC 201 VU This has led these parties to become de facto neoliberal, and often resulted in a drastic loss of their popular support. For example, critics of the German Social Democratic Party and the British Labour Party accuse them of pursuing neoliberal policies. Relevant Vocabulary Abolish – to declare illegal Adopted – applied Intervention - interference De facto – in effect Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 81 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 36 INTEGRATION IN IR What is Integration? Integration seeks to build a relationship between individual units, in which they are mutually interdependent and jointly produce system properties, which they would separately lack. Several scholars (Deutsch, Haas and Nye etc.) have argued for supranational integration Dimensions of Integration The domain of integration is the entire population of an integrated geographic area (Whales and England are integrated in the UK). The scope of integration implies the specific areas in which integration occurs (telegraphic services amongst several nations coordinated through International Telecommunications Union). The range of integration implies what the constituent units gain or lose as a result of integrating. Integration into the US enabled smaller states to gain independence from the British. The weight of integration implies the ability of an integrative relationship to remain cohesive despite disruptive elements. Purposes of Integration Maintaining peace between political units Attaining multipurpose capabilities through combination of economic power and resources Creating a new sense of identity Preconditions for Integration I Mutual relevance based on prevailing patterns of transactions and communication between different political units II Joint benefits for all concerned units III Mutual responsiveness and political will to integrate IV Objective compatibility or consonance of major values of participating population, permitting corporation amongst them to obtain legitimacy Functionalism Functionalism implies partial or gradual amalgamation. Functionalism can help avoid premature amalgamation and can provide a chance to understand the habits and skills of more far reaching, stable and rewarding integration. Assessing Integration Regional or global governance could prevent the traditional rivalry between states, which is counter- productive and dangerous. Besides the willingness of nations to let go of their sovereignty and the challenge of sustainability, there is a danger of hegemonic designs dominating integrated government systems. Relevant Vocabulary Mutual – involving both parties Dominating – dominant or © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 82 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Amalgamation – joining or lumping together Premature – not yet mature or ready Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Relevant sections in Chapter 13 and all of Chapter 16 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan In addition, students are advised to read the following to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: IR and European Integration Theory aei.pitt.edu/archive/00000401/ © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 83 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 37 GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS Globalization implies increased flow of information and interaction around the world. To say more things are flowing does not mean that they are flowing more equitably or that all the flows are beneficial. While flows among developed states may be increasing dramatically, increases are far less dramatic for developing states. Advocates of Globalization Globalization is promoted by governments of rich countries and major international organizations dominated by rich countries: - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), intergovernmental think tank from world’s 29 richest countries. OECD states produce 2/3 of world’s goods and services - International Monetary Fund, which makes loans to countries facing bankruptcy - World Bank, which makes loans for development projects - World Trade Organization, which oversees world trade and aims to promote it further Why is the World Globalizing? Technological changes, particularly in communications (phone and Internet connections) and transportation (cars, ships, planes) move not only ideas but also money and services now. Technology makes access to new markets possible and also enables flexible productions processes. Transnational linkages are not driven by economics but by bonds forged across countries both directly by immigration and indirectly by transnational loyalties and allegiances. Deliberate policy choices (Liberalization of trade, foreign direct investment, and capital) are pursuing a more global economy and culture. Reconsidering Globalization Globalization involves a major change in where power is located in the world. Globalization involves a change in how much states can control these flows of people, information, etc. International institutions and regimes like WTO, EU, NAFTA, ILO, and other international organizations can, within limits, restrict the freedom of states. Globalization is a complex phenomenon, which is likely to lead to greater concentrations of power in some cases and, at the same time, empowering of some who are not yet empowered. Relevant Vocabulary Flexible – enabling use of different options Regimes – rulers in power Enables – allows or promotes Transnational – across several nations Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Globalization and its challenges in the 21st Century www.bisa.ac.uk/bisanews/0109/Globalization.htm © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 84 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 38 THE GLOBAL DIVIDE The difference in per capita income between the world’s poorest and richest countries has more than doubled over the last 25 years. According to UN estimates, merely 3% of the annual increase in the world’s wealth is needed to eradicate poverty. Yet developed countries have been hesitating to meet pledges made two decades ago to devote 0.7% of the value of their annual GDP to aid for poorer nations. World Social Forum World Social Forum was formed in 2001 by a coalition of Brazilian trade unions, charities and left-wing political and environmental groups. Over the past four years, it has expanded into a loose coalition of such organizations from around the world. Instead of believing that big business can change the world for the better, the World Social Forum demands that both the corporations and the governments of rich countries must change the way that they deal with the people and nations of the developing world. The World Social Form considers economic forces, if left unchecked, often contributes to the marginalization of the weakest. Often described as a ‘Carnival of the Oppressed’, the World Social Forum puts forth suggestions to fight poverty, disease and environmental damage and it hopes to replace the prevailing inequities of globalization by a fairer, healthier, cleaner version of global trade in which poorer countries have better opportunities to grow. Can the Global Divide Be Bridged? Conventional economic wisdom maintains that an average annual growth rate of about 7% is enough to alleviate poverty in developing countries. But even if some countries like China or India can actually achieve such growth, it is unlikely that all developing countries would be able to grow this much without completely depleting the already strained natural resource reserves of the planet. Even economically, the gap between worldwide savings and necessary investments is simply too wide to achieve so much global growth anytime in the near future. Of course, economic growth is important for reducing poverty, but growth itself does not guarantee equity. To ensure equity it is essential to look at how the benefits of growth are distributed not just within but also between countries. Relevant Vocabulary Equity – just or equal outcomes Inequality – lack of equality or divide between the haves and have nots Conventional – traditional © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 85 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Coalition – alliance or union Suggested Readings Students are advised to visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: The Digital Divide www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/define/davos.htm Bridging the Global Divide observer.guardian.co.uk/ global/story/0,10786,591598,00.html © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 86 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 39 FOCUS ON FOREIGN INVESTMENTS Investing in poor countries Many scholars agree that foreign investments can potentially help poor countries progress. Channeling foreign investments to improve the lives of the poor requires multidimensional efforts by a range of stakeholders to counterbalance the urge of profit maximization with the need to achieve more benevolent growth. How Foreign Investments Aid Poor Countries The conventional argument states that foreign investments can help poor countries acquire the technology, management skills and exposure to market mechanisms which are vital requirements to kick-start economic development. Developing countries are encouraged by international financial institutions to provide the essential legal, institutional and physical infrastructure necessary to attract foreign investments. Yet the contribution of foreign direct investments and multinational activities in helping develop poor countries remains limited, except in some resource rich African and Asian countries, where too benefits are unevenly distributed. Partnership with supranational agencies, like the World Bank or with the UN system, has inculcated a sense of social responsibility in multinational organizations. Prominent initiatives including the UN’s Global Compact which led to articulation of the Millennium Development Goals, as well as the proposed Marshall Plan for Africa, have explicitly aimed to collaborate closely with multinationals to help poor countries develop. Contentions Concerning Foreign Investments Conceding the utility of making capitalism more inclusive and pro-poor, it is also important to realize that foreign investment can also have seriously adverse impacts on industries where the very poor work. Foreign investments in the informal economy including sectors like forestry, agriculture and textiles can be particularly problematic. When multinationals set up plants and factories or when smaller farms or companies enter into partnerships with large corporations, it often leads smaller businesses to shut down. Multinational intrusion in the formal economy can lead to a loss of jobs which has compelled poor workers, including women, to enter the casual workforce. Poor people cannot upgrade their skills to meet requirements of working in an increasingly sophisticated marketplace. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 87 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Pro-poor Foreign Investments If multinationals were to provide training within the informal sector, many marginalized workers could enter the formal economy and boost their incomes. Governments in developing countries need to also upgrade skills and invest in the infrastructure of the informal sector. NGOs are trying to fill this existing gap. Relevant Vocabulary Multinational – involving several nations Counterbalance – to balance an uneven position by a countering move Upgrade - improve Infrastructure – structure of communications, road and rail, etc. Suggested Readings Students are advised to visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: International Trade and Investment www.iie.com/research/trade.htm FDI: The Overstretched Myth www.foreignaffairs.org/20050301facomment84201/david-h-levey-stuart-s-brown/the-overstretch- myth.html © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 88 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 40 CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION Conflicts in IR Conflict in the sense of visible incompatibility of policies and interests of different states is a permanent and continuous feature of IR. A traditional and persistent issue causing conflict between states is territorial disputes. A crisis is the first stage of conflict and a crisis may erupt due to actions of citizens of one nation against another (hijacking) or due to hostile actions at the state level (border incursion). Components of a Conflict There are four distinct ways of categorizing conflicts: 1 Number of parties involved: Depending on the nature and/or gravity of a conflict it can involve two or more parties (WWI or Cold War for e.g.) 2 Issues Field: A range of issues can trigger conflicts including territorial, ideological or economic interests. Conflicts can also have multiple reasons 3 Attitudes: Different attitudes are important in conflict situations including the perception of threat, amount of suspicion concerning opponents intensions, symbolic interests involved in conflict, perception about available alternatives 4 Actions: denials, rejections, protests, and international pressure are actions which can defuse conflicts. On the other hand, actions like escalating steps like withdrawal of diplomatic staff, economic blockades, ban on travel and limited use of force instigate all out conflict. Causes of Conflicts Given the perpetual problem of conflict, what causes conflicts merits careful attention. Sometimes conflicts become the origin of conflicts, other times conflicts occur due to security concerns or religious or ideological reasons. Some scholars categorize international conflicts in the following manner: Conflicts can be traced to individual reactions of decision makers Conflicts can also be caused by the prevailing world order, like the polarization witnessed during the Cold War Conflicts caused at the state level can include focus on national character, ideological beliefs, imperialist or hegemonic tendencies © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 89 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Potential Outcomes of Conflict Conflict outcomes can vary significantly: Avoidance of hostile action and adopting a compromising position is a common outcome of conflict Conquest: often implies overwhelming use of force and even then requires concessions by the victor to secure an end of resistance Surrender: the losing party withdraws from previously held position, value or interest Compromise: where both parties agree to a partial withdrawal from the initial stance that brought about the conflict Award: instead of mutual bargaining, acceptance of a binding decision by third part arbitration to end the conflict Passive Settlement: lingering conflicts which are not ended compel parties to accept the status quo instead Relevant Vocabulary Compel – to obligate Status quo – the way things are Lingering – ongoing Gravity - seriousness Partial – only in part, or not complete Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 17 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: Centre for International Conflict Resolution http://sipa.columbia.edu/cicr/ © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 90 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESS0N 41 CONFLICT RESOLUTION What is the importance of Conflict Resolution in IR? International conflict resolution is an interdisciplinary field of study that allows students and practitioners to examine and formulate effective approaches to deadly conflict. Conflict Resolution is linked to development, human rights, security policy and social psychology. Conflict resolution requires understanding of root causes, conflict dynamics, and seizing opportunities for conflict transformation. Issues concerning modern conflicts Modern conflicts often involve intrastate rather than the more traditional interstate struggles, presenting new challenges to policymakers and peacemakers alike. The intended result of conflict resolution is a reduction of despair, an enrichment of alternatives, and the empowerment of all dimensions conducive to fair, sustainable, lasting and satisfactory agreements. Some basic steps for resolving conflicts 1. The win/win approach Identify attitude shifts to respect all parties' needs 2. Creative response Transform problems into creative opportunities 3. Empathy Develop communication tools to build rapport. Use listening to clarify understanding 4. Appropriate assertiveness Apply strategies to attack the problem not the person 5. Co-operative power Eliminate "power over" to build "power with" others 6. Managing emotions Express fear, anger, hurt and frustration wisely to effect change 7. Willingness to Resolve Name personal issues that cloud the picture 8. Mapping the conflict Define the issues needed to chart common needs and concerns. 9. Development of options Design creative solutions together 10. Introduction to negotiation © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 91 International Relations-PSC 201 VU Plan and apply effective strategies to reach agreement 11. Introduction to mediation Help conflicting parties to move towards solutions 12. Broadening perspectives Evaluate the problem in its broader context Relevant Vocabulary Dimensions – various angles or factors Empowerment – a process leading to increased ability Conducive – something which proves to promote, support or encourage Transformation - change Dynamics – factors behind a phenomenon Resolution – to resolve or solve a problem Practitioners – those involved in the practice of Intrastate – within a state Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Chapter 17 in ‘“A Study of International Relations” by Dr. Sultan Khan Internet Resources In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following web-pages for this lecture, which provide useful and interesting information: Gateway on International Conflict Resolution www.colorado.edu/conflict/ © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 92 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 42 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT Population and the Environment Today, there are over 6 billion people in the world, and by the year 2025, the global population would be at least 8.5 billion. The bulk of population growth is projected to be in the developing world. The link between population growth and environmental degradation is complex, as reflected in the several competing theories. However, a larger population generally translates into greater demands on the Earth's resources. Population size that exceeds local carrying capacity of the ecosystems can cause soil depletion, deforestation, and desertification. Agriculture demands have raised important environmental concerns. Irrigated crop land for food production is being eroded by water logging and made less productive by salinization (cumulative build-up of salts left by evaporation of irrigation water). Fresh water is a critical resource. Besides water-quality problems of surface waters, new concern has emerged concerning depleting groundwater resources. If we multiply projected population increases by the substantially higher standard of living that equity requires for impoverished communities today and for future populations, the potential demands on the environment are dramatic. Global Concern for the Environment Scientists and environmentalists have convinced world leaders that environmental protection is a global concern, dealing with which is beyond the scope of national governments. New international pacts, conventions and protocols rooted in a common commitment to sustainable development are the right response. Today, there are several hundred international environmental regimes. Yet many of these agreements are very recent. History of Environmental Cooperation International environmental law dates back to 1972, when countries gathered in Stockholm for UN’s Conference on the Human Environment and United Nations Environment Program was formed. At the turn of the 20th century there were hardly any multilateral or bilateral environmental agreements. Prior international laws were based on the principles of unfettered national sovereignty over natural resources and absolute freedom of the seas beyond the three-mile territorial limit. International agreements which dealt with the natural environment largely addressed issues concerning boundary waters, navigation, and fishing rights along shared waterways. By the 1930s and 1940s, conservation and preservation had emerged as conceptual approaches to natural resource management. This led to agreements to protect fauna and flora like the 1933 London Convention on Preservation of Fauna and Flora in Their Natural State (focused primarily on Africa). During the 1950s © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 93  International Relations-PSC 201 VU and early 1960s, agreements governing international liability for nuclear damage were negotiated, as was the 1954 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil. Relevant Vocabulary Conservation - maintenance, upkeep Natural Resources – resources of land, air and the sea Prior – previous Liability – responsibility or binding obligation Depleting – diminishing or reducing Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out: Global Environment Facility www.gefweb.org/ Global Environment Outlook www.unep.org/geo/geo3/ © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 94 International Relations-PSC 201 VU LESSON 43 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT Current Scope of Environmental Cooperation Since 1970, hundreds of international environmental instruments have been concluded. Including bilateral and multilateral instruments (binding & non-binding), there are almost 1,000 international legal instruments with one or more environmental provisions. Most countries are signatories to some or many of these agreements. Relevant stakeholders concerning environmental laws include not only states but corporations, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. At the 'Earth Summit' in Rio in 1992, the international community affirmed that current patterns of economic and social development are not sustainable. The subject-matter of international environmental agreements has expanded significantly from the focus in the first half of this century on facilitating navigation, guaranteeing fishing rights, and protecting particularly valued animal species. The duties have also become more comprehensive: from a focus on research and monitoring to provisions for reductions in pollutants. The scope of international agreements has expanded greatly from transboundary to global pollution agreements; from preservation of designated species to that of ecosystems; from control of direct emissions into lakes to comprehensive river-basin-system regimes; from agreements taking effect beyond national borders to ones that constrain activities within national borders, such as those for world heritages and wetlands. Individual countries have also negotiated many global agreements. For e.g., the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer provides a framework for ozone protection but also calls for research, monitoring, and exchange of information between countries. The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer; and Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change are other significant global climate protection agreements. Then there is the Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal and the London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade. In Asia, ASEAN has concluded the Convention on the Conservation of Nature, which provides ecosystem protection and controls on trade in endangered species. Environmental Concerns and IR The relationship between economic development and environmental protection complicates the situation. National interest has traditionally meant the identification of interests of one country that are distinct from or even contrary to those of another. Increasingly we recognize that the global environment has interests that are common to all countries. In the case of ozone depletion, for instance, at the most basic level the US interest is not contrary to that of England or Germany rather there is a common interest in controlling ozone depletion. For controlling marine pollution, the transport of hazardous waste, or the concentrations of greenhouse gases, global cooperation is vital. Some Other Issu