Man, Family, and Environment Final Lecture Notes PDF

**NSC 314: MAN, FAMILY AND HIS ENVIRONMENTAL** The course is designed to examine the effects of environmental factors such as waste, air, noise, and biological, socio-cultural, and socio-economic on the health of the community. The method of assessing these factors and steps taken to improve the qu...

**NSC 314: MAN, FAMILY AND HIS ENVIRONMENTAL** The course is designed to examine the effects of environmental factors such as waste, air, noise, and biological, socio-cultural, and socio-economic on the health of the community. The method of assessing these factors and steps taken to improve the quality of the environment will be discussed. **COURSE OUTLINE** This course "Man and his Environment" comprises fifteen topics namely: 1. Origin and Nature of Man 2. Man, and His Cosmic Environment 3. Scientific Methodology 4. Science and Technology in the Society and Service of Man 5. Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources 6. Man, Technology, and Resources. 7. Environmental Effects of Chemical Plastics 8. Environmental Effect of Textiles, Wastes, and Other Materials 9. Chemical and Radiochemical Hazards 10. Elements of Environmental Studies 11. Energy and Business Development 12. Nature and Resources 13. Meaning and Value of Resources 14. Natural Resources Scarcity and indicators of Scarcity, 15. Components/ Elements of Environmental Studies 16. Types of Environments. 17. Reasons To Protect the Environment 18. Benefits From the Environments. 19. Ways Man Can Impact Negatively on The Environment 20. Ways Man Can Impact Positively on The Environment 21. Human Behaviour and The Environment 22. Environmental Factors That Impact Negatively on Human Health 23. Benefits Of Environmental Health 24. Impact Of Environment on Human Behaviour 25. Protecting The Environment in Our Everyday Lives 26. How The Natural Environment Shapes Our Happiness 27. The Future: Way Forward **COURSE OBJECTIVES** At the end of this course students should be able to: ∙ understand the role of man in an environment ∙ identify the behavioural patterns of human beings compared to the animal world ∙ develop the skills and knowledge required in solving problems in an environment ∙ understand environmental risks and chemical hazards in the immediate surroundings ∙ understand the role of renewable and non-renewable resources in an environment. Assignment/Exercises: In each unit, you will find exercises that you are expected to do as it will enable you to understand better what you have learned. **DEFITION/MEANING OF SOME CONCEPTS** **MAN** Man is a bipedal primate mammal (Homo sapiens) that is anatomically related to the great apes but distinguished especially by notable development of the brain with a resultant capacity for articulate speech and abstract reasoning and is the sole living representative of the hominid family (Webster, 2022). **FAMILY** A family is a group of one or more parents and their children living together as a unit (a group of individuals related by blood, marriage, or adoption. They live together under common household authority and especially have reciprocal duties to each other. **ENVIRONMENT** The environment is the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates. It is the natural world, as a whole or in a particular geographical area, especially as affected by human activity (Webster, 2022) It is important to point out that the environment is the place where man lives in. It constitutes his dwelling place. **MAN, FAMILY AND HIS ENVIRONMENT** **INTRODUCTION** Man, and the environment were created to interact with each other on a balanced basis. Man is functionally related to his environment. Each is adjusted to the other in such a way that one could say the environment is the lock and the man is the key. The relationship between the environment and human beings cannot be separated from one another. The environment has affected human beings right from his evolution. Man lives in the environment and acquires knowledge and skills from it. Man modifies his environment because of his growing needs. He can modify it according to his need to live a comfortable life. Humans learn new ways to use and change the environment and as a result, invented many things. Consequently, man tries to settle himself in his environment, both social, economic, and physical, to be able to live productively and efficiently. Therefore, man and the environment have a symbiotic relationship and significant connection which entails that man cannot be detached from the environment. It is not easy to make a proper classification of the environment, looking at the diversity of the world in which we live. In simple words, the environment is the surroundings in which we live - it includes both the biotic and abiotic factors around us. We live in an environment, which may be a natural, social, or built environment. These are the surrounding conditions in which humans, plants and animals live. Every individual existing in the environment has an impact on it because the environment also influences an individual's behaviour. Thus, it can be clearly stated that individuals and the environment are related and are complementary to each other. The existence of the environment is significant because not only human life, but any living being cannot survive without it. It provides natural beauty, maintains the balance of life, supports the food chain, and benefits living lives and their various activities. Man is a product of his environment means his beliefs, values, mood, attitude, mannerisms, habits are responsible for his actions. He becomes exactly what he surrounds himself with, it is a human inevitability that he will be influenced by his surroundings, which is why it is important to choose who or what he surrounds himself with very carefully. The connection between human beings and the environment is quite unique and completely like that of the animal world with remarkable differences. The existence of human beings follows a specific phenomenology which is more paramount to them only and this provokes questions on the natural habitat in which they live. In the context of the phenomenological discussion - Human beings can adapt to one another based on understanding and intention. - Language provides a mechanism where human beings communicate with each other through universal and symbolic forms. - Human beings have the innate ability to develop abstract thoughts relevant to their instructive life. - Human beings can predict and transform the environment with respect to their needs and acquisition of knowledge. - Human beings can produce culture from a religious dimension and this attribute placed human beings ahead of animals. - Human beings acquire knowledge, awareness, and experience from their immediate surroundings, which is its environment. This led to Aristotle\'s definition which defines human beings as \"rational animal\". It should be noted that the historical reconstruction of the appearance and development of human beings generated different shades of debate particularly from the angle of religion and science that deals with the origin of man. It is important to point out that the environment is the place where man lives in. It constitutes his dwelling place. Therefore, man and the environment have a symbiotic relationship and significant connection which entails that man cannot be detached from the environment. Human beings acquire knowledge, awareness, and experience from the immediate surroundings, which is the environment. 1. **ORIGIN AND NATURE OF MAN** **Introduction** Man is functionally related to his environment. Each is adjusted to the other in such a way that one could say the environment is the lock and the man is the key. The relationship between environments and human beings cannot be separated from one another. The environment has affected human beings right from their evolution. Man lives in the environment and acquires knowledge and skills from it. Consequently, man tries to settle himself in his environment, both social, economic, and physical, to be able to live productively and efficiently. **Objectives** At the end of this course, students should be able to: ∙ understand and explain the origin of man ∙ understand and explain the nature of man ∙ explain the complex relationship between man and the environment. **ORIGIN OF MAN** Whenever one is seeking to find out the origin of something, one may be tempted to ask the following questions such as: **\"when did it start?\", \"how did it start?\" and \"where did it start?** Our major concern here is to find out about the origin of man. How did man start? How did the man race start off? Who are man\'s ancestors? Additional questions that might bother the minds of every man, woman, boy or girl are that **\"where did human beings come from?\" and** **how did man originate?** The answers to these questions are not far-fetched. If you ask a boy or a girl, where he/she comes from, the boy or girl would say he/she comes from his/her parents and originate from them. But one may be tempted to ask further where do the parents come from? Truly, one may say they came from grandparents. Again, where do the grandparents come from? They came from great-grandparents. All these answers are correct, but they do not truly reflect the origin of man. The puzzle which requires an answer is \"has man always been in existence?\" "Has mankind been around forever?\" Is man eternal, or was there a time when man was not here? Specifically, there was a time when there was no man on earth and a time when there was no earth. But today, there are billions of men, women, and children on the planet earth. The question is how do these people get there? Where do they originate from? The origin of man can be explained under three basic ideas. A. **HUMAN EVOLUTION** The first idea is that man evolved from evolutional theory. The second idea of man\'s origin is that man owes his existence to \"unidentified flying objects\"(UFOs). UFOLOGISTS explained the origin of man in different ways. These people do not believe in biblical and evolutionist explanations of man\'s origin. Evolution theory teaches that man gradually evolved from lower animals (such as ape-like creatures) in a bit-by-bit changing process. Therefore, evolutionists say that man is nothing more than a highly intelligent animal. Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates in particular genus Homo and leading to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes. The study of human evolution involves many scientific disciplines, including physical anthropology, primatology, archaeology, pale ontology, neurobiology, ethology, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, embryology, and genetics. Genetic studies show that primates diverged from other mammals about 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period, and the earliest fossils appear in the Palaeocene, around 55 million years ago. Within the Hominoid (apes) super family, the Hominidae family diverged from the Hylobatid (gibbon) family some 15--20 million years ago; African great apes (subfamily Hominine) diverged from orangutans (Ponginae) about 14 million years ago; the Hominine tribe (humans, Australopithecines and other extinct biped genera, and chimpanzee) parted from the Gorillini tribe (gorillas) between 9 million years ago and 8 million years ago; and, in turn, the sub-tribes Hominine (humans and biped ancestors) and Panina (chimps) separated about 7.5 million years ago to 5.6 million years ago. Human evolution is an age-long phenomenon. Scientists have established that the physical and behavioural traits of human beings shared by all people originated from ape-like ancestors. Human **traits** are categorized as: - Ability to walk on two legs. - Ability to reason appropriately. - Ability to produce and use tools and equipment. - Ability to communicate effectively with language. - Ability to develop complex symbolic expressions. - Ability to develop culture and other forms of arts. Humans belong to the group of mammals which have apes and monkeys as members. They developed gradually, especially from a simple to a more complicated form in Africa. The remains of early humans who lived between 6 and 2 million years ago come entirely from Africa. Scientists recognized distinct species of early humans but there was no unanimity of agreement whether the species are related or which among the species died out. Scientists also faced the challenge of how to identify and classify species of early humans, and what factors influenced the evolution and extinction of each species. Evidence have shown that early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia. They found their way into Europe and other parts of the world. B. **THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION** The process of evolution requires biological transformation that causes natural change in human species. Mammals reproduce themselves sexually and as such called Homo sapiens. Evolution occurs when there is change in the genetic material (DNA) which is inherited from the parents. Gene is a branch of DNA that affects the process of mutation; body development and behaviour of an organism during its lifetime and this also affects the likelihood of whether an organism will survive and reproduce. Evolution does not have any impact on individual behaviour. Instead, it transforms the inherited means of growth and development of a group of individuals of similar species living in a particular habitat. Parents in most cases pass adaptive genetic changes to their offspring, and ultimately these changes become common throughout a population. The offspring therefore inherit those genetic characteristics. The genetic characteristics may enhance the offspring chances of survival and ability to give birth. The evolution process is given below: a. **Anatomical changes** Human evolution from its first separation from the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees is characterized by a few morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioural changes. The most significant of these adaptations are bipedalism, increased brain size, lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), and decreased sexual dimorphism. The relationship between these changes is the subject of ongoing debate. b. **Bipedalism** Bipedalism is the basic adaptation of the hominin and is considered the main cause behind a suite of skeletal changes shared by all bipedal hominins. The earliest hominin, of presumably primitive bipedalism, is either *Sahelanthropus* or *Orrorin*, both of which arose some 6 to 7 million years ago. The non-bipedal knuckle-walkers, the gorilla and chimpanzee, diverged from the hominin line over a period covering the same time, so either of *Sahelanthropus* or *Orrorin* may be our last shared ancestor. *Ardipithecus*, a full biped, arose somewhat later. The early bipeds eventually evolved into the australopithecines and still later into the genus *Homo*. There are several theories of the adaptation value of bipedalism. It is possible that bipedalism was favoured because it freed the hands for reaching and carrying food, saved energy during locomotion, enabled long distance running and hunting, provided an enhanced field of vision, and helped avoid hyperthermia by reducing the surface area exposed to direct sun; features all advantages for thriving in the new savanna and woodland environment created as a result of the East African Rift Valley uplift versus the previous closed forest habitat. A new study provides support for the hypothesis that walking on two legs, or bipedalism, evolved because it used less energy than quadrupedal knuckle-walking. However, recent studies suggest that bipedality without the ability to use fire would not have allowed global dispersal. This change in gait saw a lengthening of the legs proportionately when compared to the length of the arms, which were shortened through the removal of the need for brachiation. Another change is the shape of the big toe. Recent studies suggest that Australopithecines still lived part of the time in trees because of maintaining a grasping big toe. This was progressively lost in Habilines. Anatomically, the evolution of bipedalism has been accompanied by many skeletal changes, not just to the legs and pelvis, but also to the vertebral column, feet and ankles, and skull. The femur evolved into a slightly more angular position to move the centre of gravity toward the geometric centre of the body. The knee and ankle joints became increasingly robust to better support increased weight. To support the increased weight on each vertebra in the upright position, the human vertebral column became S-shaped, and the lumbar vertebrae became shorter and wider. In the feet the big toe moved into alignment with the other toes to help in forward locomotion. The arms and forearms shortened relative to the legs making it easier to run. The foramen magnum migrated under the skull and more anterior. The most significant changes occurred in the pelvic region, where the long downward facing iliac blade was shortened and widened as a requirement for keeping the centre of gravity stable while walking; bipedal hominids have a shorter but broader, bowl-like pelvis due to this. A drawback is that the birth canal of bipedal apes is smaller than in knuckle-walking apes, though there has been a widening of it in comparison to that of australopithecines and modern humans, permitting the passage of new-borns due to the increase in cranial size but this is limited to the upper portion, since further increase can hinder normal bipedal movement. The shortening of the pelvis and smaller birth canal evolved as a requirement for bipedalism and had significant effects on the process of human birth which is much more difficult in modern humans than in other primates. During human birth, because of the variation in size of the pelvic region, the foetal head must be in a transverse position (compared to the mother) during entry into the birth canal and rotate about 90 degrees upon exit. The smaller birth canal became a limiting factor to brain size increases in early humans and prompted a shorter gestation period leading to the relative of human offspring, who are unable to walk much before 12 months and have greater neoteny, compared to other primates, who are mobile at a much earlier age. The increased brain growth after birth and the increased dependency of children on mothers had a big effect on the female reproductive cycle, and the more frequent appearance of all parenting in humans when compared with other hominids. Delayed human sexual maturity also led to the evolution of menopause with one explanation providing that elderly woman could better pass on their genes by taking care of their daughter\'s offspring, as compared to having more children of their own. c. **Encephalization** The human species eventually developed a much larger brain than that of other primates typically 1,330 cm^3^ in modern humans, nearly three times the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of encephalization started with *Homo habilis*, after a hiatus with Anamnesis and Ardipithecus species which had smaller brains because of their bipedal locomotion which at approximately 600 cm^3^ *Homo habilus* had a brain slightly larger than that of chimpanzees, and this evolution continued with *Homo erectus* (800--1,100 cm^3^), reaching a maximum in Neanderthals with an average size of (1,200--1,900 cm^3^), larger even than modern *Homo sapi*ens. This pattern of brain increase happened through the pattern of human postnatal brain growth which differs from that of other apes (heterochrony). It also allows for extended periods of social learning and language acquisition in juvenile humans which may have begun 2 million years ago. However, the differences between the structure of human brains and those of other apes may be even more significant than differences in size. The increase in volume over time has affected areas within the brain unequally i.e., the temporal lobes, which contain centres for language processing, have increased disproportionately, and seems to favour a belief that there was evolution after leaving Africa, as has the prefrontal cortex which has been related to complex decision-making and moderating social behaviour. Encephalization has been tied to an increasing emphasis on meat in the diet, or with the development of cooking, and it has been proposed that intelligence increased as a response to an increased necessity for solving social problems as human society became more complex. The human brain was able to expand because of the changes in the morphology of smaller mandibles and mandible muscle attachments to the skull allowing more room for the brain to grow. The increase in the volume of the neocortex also included a rapid increase in size of the cerebellum. Traditionally the cerebellum has been associated with a paleocerebellum and archicerebellum as well as a neocerebellum. Its function has also traditionally been associated with balance, fine motor control and more recently speech and cognition. The great apes including humans and its antecessors had a more pronounced development of the cerebellum relative to the neocortex than other primates. It has been suggested that because of its function of sensory motor control and assisting in learning complex muscular action sequences, the cerebellum may have underpinned the evolution of human\'s technological adaptations including the preadaptation of speech. The reason for this encephalization is difficult to discern, as the major changes from Homo erectus to Homo heidelbergensis were not associated with major changes in technology. It has been suggested that the changes have been associated with social changes, increased empathic abilities, and increases in size of social groupings. d. **Sexual Dimorphism** The reduced degree of sexual dimorphism is visible primarily in the reduction of the male canine tooth relative to other ape species (except gibbons) and reduced brow ridges and general robustness of males. Another important physiological change related to sexuality in humans was the evolution of hidden oestrus. Humans and bonobos are the only apes in which the female is fertile year-round and in which no special signals of fertility are produced by the body (such as genital swelling during oestrus). Nonetheless, humans retain a degree of sexual dimorphism in the distribution of body hair and subcutaneous fat, and in the overall size, with males being around 15% larger than females. These changes taken together have been interpreted because of an increased emphasis on pair bonding as a possible solution to the requirement for increased parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of offspring. - **Other changes** Several other changes have also characterized the evolution of humans, among them an increased importance on vision rather than smell; a smaller gut; loss of body hair; evolution of sweat glands; a change in the shape of the dental arcade from being u-shaped to being parabolic; development of a chin (found in *Homo sapiens* alone); development of styloid processes; and the development of a descended larynx. C. **BIBLICAL EVOLUTION** The third idea about man\'s origin and has been proven to be correct can be found in the Holy Bible, Genesis 1 verses 26-27, Genesis 2 verse 7 and Genesis 2 verses 21-23. Man's origin that has been proven to be correct can be found in the Holy Bible Genesis 1:27: "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them." In Genesis 2 verse 7 we find God creating humanity in God\'s image. God creates humanity in a way that is quite different from the way God created the physical world. Then the LORD God formed man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being. Gen. 1:27, Acts 17:25,28. states that man is a person and is therefore capable of making moral choices. Man is made in the image of God. God's unique role for humanity also sets us apart from the rest of creation. God gave humanity a role in God's creation. We are the caretakers of God's world. According to Psalm 8:3-9, God placed human- its slightly lower than God's self in the created world. D. **NATURE OF MAN** God created man and animals with both internal and external senses, but man has a more sophisticated sense of reasoning than the animals. Man has knowledge and will power. Man has a good sense of generalization, ability to coin out abstract ideas and possess intellectual truths. They will power that man has means that man has a powerful desire to compare two or more objects after consideration of their consequences and actions and ability to reason which among the objects are good. Animals cannot reason the way man does. There are four elements in man\' nature which produce four attributes in man. 1. Man can be so horrible, nasty, and unpleasant. This implies that man is an advanced animal, especially one that is large or dangerous, or one that is unusual. 2. Man can be brutal, violent, and cruel. Even the bible says that the heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked; Who can know it?" (Jeremiah 17:9) 3. Man is satanic and connected with the worship of the devil. 4. Man can be so connected with God or a god. Man\'s behaviour could be likened to the following animals, the pig, the dog, the devil, and the saint. The pig has an outlook causing a feeling of strong dislike, is very unpleasant, and eats too much. The dog is often kept as a pet or trained for work, barks, and bites, causing harm to others. The dog and pig\'s sense of reasoning is be-clouded by the devil from reasoning in a divine form. Divine reason, if properly positioned, would contain evil by exposing its character. But when a man cannot reason appropriately, the attributes of dog, pig, and devil prevail over him and cause his ruin. The pig's attributes result in shamelessness, lust, and slander. The dog's attributes result in pride, vanity, ridicule, wrath, and tyranny. The two attributes are controlled by the satanic power of deceit, treachery, perfidy, and self-centeredness but if divinity in man is more dominant, it produces knowledge, wisdom, faith, and truth. 2. **MAN, AND HIS COSMIC ENVIRONMENT** There is a symbiotic relationship between the environment and man. The environment impacted significantly on man. Man\'s development takes place in the environment. A better understanding of humans and the cosmic environment can be of help to equip our analysis of man\'s activities and with different components of environments. The explanation of human-cosmic environments will provide a clear understanding of the structure and functions of the universal environment. **Preamble** Cosmic refers to outer space or a part of the universe other than the earth. Man, and his cosmic environment constantly work together and are both affected by this interaction. The cosmic structure of man includes the earth, planets, and their satellites. The term environment can conceptually refer to all the sounding up which man lives and work and those supportive and inhibitive to his immediate existence. People in various parts of the world differ greatly in physical appearance, dress, manners, and ideals. They eat various kinds of food, build houses that range from grass huts to skyscrapers, and enjoy pleasures as divers, as skinning and cockfights. They differ specially in their way of work and the kinds of occupations by which they earn a living. Differences in language, government, education, and religion are obvious. Then, some people are active and inventive while other are passive, and they merely know how to copy their ancestors. Some of these differences are biological; people are born with certain complexion others are cultural because people have invented and developed certain ideas in some places and not in others. Some other differences also result from contrasts in the natural or physical environment. People can mine iron ore only when iron ore is in the ground. The geographer is interested in finding out how all sorts of human conditions are distributed over the surface of hearth and why they are distributed in that fashion. He finds that in many cases the distribution is directly connected with physical features such as oceans, mountains, rainfall, or forests. However, distribution depends upon factors, such as density of population, stage of civilization and policy of the government. Even where human conditions are solely responsible for the distinction of man\'s activities yet indirectly the geographical or physical or natural environment affects them. Environment may also be referred to as surroundings in which man lives and works or the place or surroundings in which people are living. The environment of all mankind is the surface of the Earth, the lands, the oceans, and the air are especially important parts of the environment of mankind. Without these, we would not be able to live at all. **STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF UNIVERSAL ENVIRONMENT** a. **The Universe** This refers to all of space and its contents. The space of the universe is dotted with galaxies. It is believed to be expanding because the galaxies are observed to be continuously moving apart from each other at a rate that increases with their distance apart. Cosmology, the study of the universe, is the main source of information in this direction. b. **The Galaxies** These are congregations of billions of stars held together by the force of gravity. Three types of galaxies can be identified: i. **Spiral Galaxies** These are flat shaped galaxies with bulging centers made up of old stars surrounded by a disc of young stars arranged in about three spiral arms. The Milky Way otherwise called ―The Galaxy is a good example. It is within the Milky Way that the solar system is found. Many types of spiral galaxies exist. Those which interest us are called the Barred galaxies. They are made up of spiral arms and a straight bar of stars across their Centre. At the ends of the bar there are spiral arms which contain gas and dust necessary for the continuous formation of new stars. That means as old stars wane and fade away, new ones are born within the spiral arms of the galaxy. ii. **Elliptical Galaxies** These have been observed to contain billions and trillions of old stars and little gas. They are also usually quite massive in size compared with the other galaxies. iii. **Irregular Galaxies** These cannot be classified because they have irregular shapes and sizes and are completely different from each other. 3. **SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY** **Introduction:** **The scientific method is a continuous process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive. They ask questions about things they see or hear and develop ideas about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, including making further observations about nature. In general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. The tests to be conducted must match the predictions of the phenomenon under observation. Otherwise, the test may reject the hypothesis. If a hypothesis is appropriately specified, then a general theory may be developed.** **Scientific inquiry varies from one discipline to another. The overall process of scientific inquiry involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions.** **A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question. The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments. Under modern interpretations, a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested. The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis.** **Definition:** **The scientific methodology is a technique used for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be scientific, a method of inquiry is based on empirical or measurable evidence, subject to specific principles of reasoning. The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment.** **Schematic Method of Scientific Methodology: The scientific method of research enquiry begins with** - **Critical observation of the object of study.** - **The researcher needs to ask questions or identify problems regarding the object of study.** - **Search for existing answers or solutions to the problems identified. After identifying the research answers, the researcher then.** - **Formulate the likely hypothesis relating to the object of study. Experimentation any hypothesis testing stage follows. The hypothesis is either accepted or rejected based on statistical exposition. The last stage of scientific research methodology.** - **Preparation of results for analysis/assessment. Below is the schematic method of scientific methodology.** **Scientific Method of an Enquiry process** **The alternative process of explaining scientific enquiry is given below:**  **Conclusion:** **This topic treats scientific methods on the on-going phenomenon. It discusses the scientific methodology in conducting research work.** 4. **SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE SOCIETY AND SERVICE OF MAN** **Introduction:** **This topic improves on the last topic. Our focus here is the scientific methodology of conducting research work. This unit explains the role of science and technology in societal development. The importance of science and technology in national development cannot be overemphasized. It is a known fact that no nation can develop without science and technology. Developed nations of the world like America, Germany, France, etc. boast of several scientific inventions which make them be rated as world powers. Science and technology are the pivot of any nation\'s development. A nation without science and technology is a backward nation. Such a nation will be considered undeveloped. Science and technology are associated with modernity, and it is essential for rapid development.** **MEANING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY** **Science and technology are often used interchangeably. Science aims at pursuing knowledge for its own sake while the goal of technology is to create products that solve problems and improve human life. In a simple explanation, technology is the practical application of science. Science is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as the organized body of knowledge gained through such research. The way science is defined here is sometimes termed pure science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species\' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species\' ability to control and adapt to its environment. In human society, it is a consequence of science and engineering, although several technological advances predate the two concepts. Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines: ∙ Natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life) ∙ Social sciences, which study human behaviour and societies. These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.** **ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN SOCIETY** **From the beginning of time, man has strived to improve his way and quality of life. The caveman discovered how to make and use tools, developed a logical sequence for activities, and evolved processes that added value to his life. The totality of the use and application of his knowledge, skills, tools, and materials constitutes what we today describe as technology. Every nation endeavour to attain development. Everyone desires development. What is development? Development‖ may mean a lot of different things to a lot of different people. Therefore, the nature and character of that development and the meaning we attach to it need to be carefully spelt out. To many countries, development is simply becoming the future of what industrialized countries are today. Development is the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, the eradication of absolute poverty. However, development is not purely an economic phenomenon. In an ultimate sense, development must encompass more than the material and financial side of people 's lives. The role of science and technology in development should be directed toward reduction of inequalities between advanced and the developing countries and between various sections of population within a country. In doing so, science and technology should make the natural and social environment harmonious, without seriously endangering the future. Science and technology should not be inserted as separate packages of development techniques implemented in isolation from the rest of the national evolution whether material or otherwise failure to integrate development programs based on science and technology into national concepts and ways of life may lead to their total rejection. The role of science and technology for development must be directed within the framework of the fundamental social, cultural, and economic rights in a peaceful and cooperative world.** **CONDITIONS FOR APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT** **The application of science and technology is a fundamental factor that influences the pace of economic development. Material and social benefits enlarge through the proper application of science and technology.** **The effective application of science and technology implies the existence of certain prerequisites, among which are the following:** - **Creation of a social climate favourable to the application of science and technology.** - **Role and responsibilities of the universities in the implantation of science.** - **Technical and technological education and training.** - **Promotion of technological sciences and applied research.** - **Agricultural education and research.** - **Infrastructure of auxiliary services.** 5. **RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES** **Introduction:** **We have discussed the meaning of science and technology and their role in modern society. In this topic, our focus will be on energy resources. Nature has given us varieties of resources but the ability to transform them remains a question to be worked out. Today, we might say that we are developed, but it would not have been possible without the gifts that nature has provided us. Virtually all resources from nature are used by human beings. Some resources are infinite, and some are limited. Some resources can be used again while some will lie around unused and simply unutilized.** **There are two categories of energy resources.** - **Non-renewable** - **Renewable.** **Non-renewable resources are resources that cannot renew itself over a given time frame.** **Renewable resources are sometimes called natural resources. They are resources that are replaced by natural processes and forces persistent in the natural environment.** **Objectives:** **At the end of this topic, students should be able to: ∙ understand and explain the meaning of natural resources ∙ identify which resources are renewable and non-renewable ∙ explain the usefulness of resources in energy generation.** **ENERGY RESOURCES** **The power by which human body or material body uses to do any form of work is called energy. This implies that everything that works needs energy. Plants and animal are also included in our discussion. Plants and animals do one form of work or the other. They all need energy which exists or manifests in different forms. For example, from fire can be derived heat and small amount of light energy. Enormous quantity of light and heat energy comes in the form of solar illumination. Plants use the light energy to manufacture their food which is stored up as chemical energy; when burnt, the chemical energy turns into heat energy. When herbivorous animals eat the plants, they also inherit the energy from the plants. So also do carnivores derive energy by eating other animals. That means energy can be transferred. It can also be converted from one form to another but cannot be destroyed. Dead plants and animals have their energy returned to the earth. But every time energy changes form some heat of low-level form is lost into the atmosphere or the central pool. Energy can be converted from one form to another, but the total quantity remains the same in accordance with the conservation law. Energy derived from position is potential energy (P.E.). The stretched spring, for example, has elastic potential energy. Water in the overhead tank has potential gravitational energy. Fossilized plants which come in the form of petroleum, lignite, anthracite and graphite among others and oxygen necessary for combustion have chemical potential energy due to relative positions of the atoms in them. Waves that strike the coastal rocks, running water that erode the soil and wind that bend the trees have mechanical energy. Different forms of energy therefore exist around us. The most enduring source of energy is the sun. The earth also has an enormous storehouse of energy: fossil fuel (coal, petroleum, natural gas), mineral energy (uranium), and heat or geothermal energy, among others, which are either directly or remotely related to the sun: the ultimate source of all energy forms.** **Classification of Energy Sources: Energy sources can be either renewable or non-renewable.** i. **Renewable resources:** **Renewable resources are those resources which can be renewed or replaced over time. Great examples of infinite, renewable resources are wind, sunlight, tides, biomass, etc. Some of the renewable resources are supposed to have continuous supplies, such as wind energy and solar energy, while some others take a greater time in their renewal like wood, oxygen, etc. Geothermal energy is another good example of renewable resources. It is the source of energy which is extracted from the heat which is stored under the surface of the Earth. This source is cost-efficient and mostly sustainable. It is found in the form of inactive volcanic sites and hot springs. This form of energy may be utilized in heating, generating electricity, and heat pumps. Geothermal energy is a sustainable source as the hot water seeps down into the crust again.** ii. **Non-renewable resources** **Non-renewable resources are those natural resources which cannot be renewed once they are completely consumed. The resources that are replenished very slowly are also considered non-renewable resources. This is because these resources will not be available again or available only after a long time. The best examples of non-renewable resources are fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases. Fossil fuels are produced by the decay of animal and plant matter. Their rate of production is very slow compared to the rate of their extraction and consumption. Another example of a non-renewable resource is our lifetime. Once used up, any individual cannot get back lost time. Other good examples of non-renewable resources are nuclear fuels, minerals, and shale. Water is a controversial resource which can be categorized as both a renewable and non-renewable resource. The cyclic change of water makes it a renewable resource while its unmanaged usage is making it a non-renewable resource.** 6. **MAN, TECHNOLOGY AND RESOURCES** **Introduction:** **Man plays a unique role in the overall scheme of resource development. He acts both as a resource as well as a resource-creating factor. As a resource, man is an inexhaustible store of energy and skill. Most of the animate energy is supplied by man and animals. In the preindustrial era, man served more as a resource than resource resource-creating factor. Human labour was a key factor in the production process and the rate of economic development was related to the population or human resources of a particular region. Many regions remained economically backward on account of scarcity of population. In this respect, man was no better than an animal. He had only natural wants and natural capacities; therefore, he commanded only natural resources and was exposed to natural resistances. He was \'submerged\' in an ocean of \'neutral stuff, i.e., matter, energy, conditions, relationships, etc., of which he was unaware, and which affected him neither favourably nor otherwise. But such a man is unknown today. Now the role of man as a resources-creating factor is particularly important. As already stated, nature provides most of its endowments in the form of \'neutral stuff\'. It is the man who by his ingenuity, skill and initiative turns this neutral stuff into resources. Coals are no doubt, found in nature. But coal readily accessible and available for human use is rare indeed. Most of the coal would have remained mere \'neutral stuff but for the power-driven machinery, human inventions, and man-made appliances. In fact, resources are the result of human ingenuity aided by slowly, patiently painfully acquired knowledge. Knowledge is truly the mother of all resources. With the help of knowledge, man finds new resources and makes old ones more useful e.g., Coal is no longer the only source of inanimate energy. Inanimate energy is now derived from many other sources like petroleum, gas, and waterpower as well. Similarly, one ton of coal today is more useful than one ton of coal 50 years ago.** **MAN PLAYS A DUAL ROLE** **Man is both the most dynamic agent of production and the beneficiary of the entire process of resource development and utilization. As an agent of production, man contributes his labour, mental and physical; he builds culture to make his productive efforts more effective and to lessen the impacts or resistances; he discovers new ways and new arts. In fact, the history of human civilization is the story of man\'s increasing role as a producer of resources. Man has been endowed with mental faculties not granted to other living beings. Thus, he can rise above the status of an animal. He has the unique capacity to act as the director, planner, and aspirer. Aided by nature and culture, he creates resources which, in turn make his life more comfortable and worth living. But to perform this role properly, man must be physically fit and healthy. He must be properly educated and trained; therefore, resource development is possible only through a planned scheme of public health education and technological development. In the process of resource creation, man\'s role as a consumer is also of great importance. In fact, the human wants are the basis of all resource creation. Man wants and wants to initiate the process of resource creation. Resources have been defined as the means of attaining given ends (i.e., satisfaction of human wants) and as end (wants) change, means must change also. Thus, resources must reflect every change in the purpose of the aspirer. Human wants may be divided into two categories:** - **Basic wants** - **Cultural wants.** **Basic wants relate to the necessities of life such as: food, clothing, and shelter. These basic wants are the starting point of economic comforts and luxuries also. These are his cultural wants. There is no end to such want, and they always keep on changing. Thus, resource is dynamic and change in response to every change in human wants. The prehistoric person was concerned mainly with the satisfaction of his basic needs. His activities were confined mainly to hunting, fishing or primitive type of agriculture. He mainly exploited the things provided by nature on the surface of the earth. Thus, his resources were only a few, and were confined mainly to the surface of the earth, but a modern man is not satisfied merely with the satisfaction of his natural basic wants. He wants something more. He wants comforts and luxuries. These cultural wants are ever expanding. So, he is always busy discovering added resources and inventing new techniques for making his life more comfortable. His resources are no longer confined to the surface of the earth. As culture is not the only occupation. He is now engaged in mining, manufacturing, trade, banking, transportation, and many other activities. He is busy on finding new resources both material and nonmaterial, and in finding new uses of the resources already known. As he wants to live in peace, he is striving for international co-operation, an important non-material resource.** **TECHNOLOGY AS AN AID TO RESOURCE CREATION** **Man, alone cannot create resources:** **Resources are not created out of the vacuum. Nature provides the basis of all resource creation. It is with the help of culture and technology that man working on nature created resources. Nature provides coal in the form of \'neutral stuff. But to turn it into a resource, man requires power-driven machinery and other appliances, i.e., culture and technology without the assistance of these elements; therefore, man cannot turn coal found in the form of \'neutral stuff\', into resource. Similarly, if nature has not provided coal in any region, any amount of labour and human ingenuity cannot create coal in that area. Thus, nature is the base, and technological culture represents the tool in the process of resource creation. At first, there was Nature in the form of earth, rocks, water, sunshine, energy etc, and then came man. The man had the power and skill to make use of the things provided by nature in their original form. But he had to struggle hard to get the right things from nature. Man, therefore, developed technology to help in his struggle with nature. According to Zimmermann, technology which he referred to as \"culture\" is the total of all the devices produced by man, with the aid, advice, and consent of nature, to assist him in the attainment of his objectives.** **Some of these objectives are as follows:** - **The survival of the race in the wake of limited availability of supplies and various resistances.** - **Provision for the increasing number of people.** - **Provision of greater comforts and better living.** - **The Drive to acquire knowledge and a high place in society.** **Man, alone can build technology because he has the capacity to invent art and elevate art to the level of science. The superior skill and intellectual capacity of man give him this power to build culture enabling man to occupy or inhabit every continent of the world. With the aid of technology, man developed the systems of air-conditioning, telecommunication etc. which enabled him to inhabit hot tropical lands or cold lands of the temperate regions.** **Technology as a Derived Factor:** **This is a joint product of nature and man, the original resource factors. Man creates technology with the aid, advice, and consent of nature out of substances and products found in nature and with the aid of energies supplied by nature, e.g., Man produces machinery, which helps him in manufacturing activities. In producing machines man requires various substances like iron, iron, coal, and power, which are provided by nature. Nature in this way aids man in developing culture. In the resource creation process, man takes the help of culture, and he can convert various neutral stuff into useful resources. Man is naturally economical; Man works hard to get the utmost for his efforts.** **This takes the following forms:** - **Fight against resistance: He does not always fight against the resistance of nature, rather if nature provides certain alternative courses man generally adopts them and tries to adjust with nature.** - **He economizes in his effort and choose products with the aid and suggestion of nature.** - **Nature advises man to produce those products, which can be easily produced under given natural conditions.** - **Man adapts to Nature on the other hand, the tropics favour the growth of rice. As such, people of the Monsoon Africa take rice as staple. So, man completely adapts his habits and himself to nature.** **Functions of Technological Culture** **As a Resource Factor, nature possesses definite defects, which are as follows:** - **Insufficient production,** - **Production in the wrong place** - **Production at the wrong time.** **Thus, technological culture helps to commit this factor as follows:** - **Corrective measure on insufficient production: Man seeks to correct these defects by technological improvements, e.g., he raises agricultural production by increasing the fertility of soil, putting chemical fertilizers and manures, by putting irrigated water where natural water supply is inadequate. Animals are domesticated to raise their output of milk and meat. Industrial production is increased using modern machines and scientific knowledge. In this manner, sufficient production is achieved for increasing population.** - **Corrective measure on production at wrong places: Another technological cum cultural improvement seeks to move products of nature from \'wrong place\' of occurrence to \'right place\' of consumption. To achieve this, means of transportation were developed by man. Meat and dairy products from Australia and New Zealand move to countries of Western Europe, Cotton and iron-ore from Tropics and the USA to Japan. Oil from the Middle East and Africa to industrial countries of Europe and North America. A vast network of transportation automobiles, railways, ships, tankers, and aeroplanes are engaged in the world to perform the task of bringing things to right places at almost right prices.** - **Corrective measure on production at the wrong time: The third defect of nature, viz, production of things at wrong time, has been corrected by man by the erection of warehouses, elevators and cold storage and refrigeration systems. Nature produces a few things in certain seasons only according to climatic and environmental conditions, e.g., food grains or vegetable and fruits etc, are produced in a part of the year only, whereas they are required for human consumption throughout the year. Hence, they are preserved safely in storehouses so that they may be provided at right time of consumption to human beings. However, all these corrective efforts to improve the defects of nature, mentioned above, call for great risk and finance. To meet this difficulty, man has developed E-insurance and E-banking systems and E-commerce organizations dealing in wholesale and retail businesses.** **TECHNOLOGICAL CULTURE AS AN AID TO MAN AND NATURE** **Technological Culture differs in form and function according to the character of the natural environment. Natural environment in its original form is not extremely useful to man. Technology and culture are an aid to both man and nature. Techno-cultural devices like labour saving machines and other scientific and technical discoveries aid man in increasing his productivity. Similarly, the art of terracing, chemical fertilizers, grafting and hybridizing help nature in increasing production and productivity. Besides labour saving, devices and intangible like efficient management, group cooperation, recreation, intellectual pursuits, education, training, improved health, and sanitation are also cultural devices, which aid man in raising productivity. In this way, technically advanced countries of the West have been able to reduce the effects of scarcity by this form of technological contribution to nature.** **TECHNOLOGY AND RESISTANCE, HUMAN AND NATURAL RESOURCES** **Just as nature had both resources as well as resistances, in the same way technology also has got both resources and resistances. Good transportation arrangement is an example of technology resources whereas transport bottleneck or problem of distance, which is a resistance can be removed by provision of a good and well-coordinated transport system in addition technology plays the following roles: (a) Technology plays a dual role on the one hand, it helps in enlargement of resources and, on the other, in reduction of resistances. (b) Technology helps in reducing the impact of natural resistance like floods, earthquakes, and other natural calamities on man. It cannot abolish this natural resistance altogether. By various scientific devices, and radio apparatus, aero plane pilots or captains of ships are warned of the possibility of danger. This helps them to become cautious in voyage and avoid disaster by adopting safe course. (c) Technology does not remove or reduce the impact of natural resistances only, but also removes the human resistances like illiteracy and poor health by providing proper education, sanitation, public health training, good government, and so on.** **TECHNOLOGY AS AN EQUALIZING AGENT** **Technology is an equalizing agent and provides what is lacking at a particular place. Man lives amidst nature surrounding him and amidst culture created by him. Human economic activities are determined by the interaction of resources and resistances. Modifications and adjustments are required to make it more useful. In Asia, man has introduced irrigation systems, terracing of rice fields and such other improvements on land are designed to raise productivity of land. This is an example of how technology acting as an equalizing agent. Finally, where labour is scarce, man introduces mechanization and, with the aid of inanimate energy, production increases.** 7. **ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL PLASTICS** **Introduction:** **In this topic, our focus is on environmental issues with special attention on environmental effects on chemical plastics, Environment means surrounding external conditions influencing development or growth of people, animal, or plants, living, or working together conditions. In the environment, a lot of activities takes place, and this have significant effects on the organisms living in it. This is called environment effect.** **Environment issues are of different kinds. This includes human overpopulation, hydrology, intensive farming, land use, natural disaster, nuclear issues, and ocean trash. Similarly, environmental effects are in the form of climate change, environmental degradation, environmental issues with health and energy, overpopulation, pollution, resource depletion, toxicants, and wastes.** **PLASTIC POLLUTION; DEFINITION AND MEANING** **Plastic pollution involves the accumulation of plastic products in the environment that adversely affects human habitat. Plastics pollution categorized into micro, meso or macro debris, based on the size pollution they generate. Plastic pollution has negative effect on land, waterways, and oceans. Living organisms, particularly marine animals are also affected. Direct inhaling and ingestion of plastic waste, or through exposure to chemicals within plastics may result into biological mal function of the body system. Humans are also affected by plastic pollution, such as through the disruption of the thyroid hormone axis or hormone levels.** **EFFECTS OF PLASTICS POLLUTION ON THE ENVIRONMENT** **The distribution of plastic debris is influenced by a few factors such as wind and ocean currents, coastline geography, urban areas, and trade routes. Human population is another critical factor. Plastics are more likely to be found in enclosed regions such as the Caribbean and West African and Nigeria. It serves as a means of distribution of organisms to remote coasts that are not their native environments. This could potentially increase the variability and dispersal of organisms in specific areas that are less biologically diverse. Plastics can also be used as vectors for chemical contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals.** i. **Land: Chlorinated plastic can release harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil, which can then seep into groundwater or other surrounding water sources and the ecosystem. This can cause serious harm to the species that drink the water. Landfill areas contain many different types of plastics. In these landfills, there are many microorganisms which speed up the biodegradation of plastics. The microorganisms include bacteria such as Pseudomonas, nylon-eating bacteria, and Flavobacteria. These bacteria break down nylon through the activity of the nylonase enzyme. Breakdown of biodegradable plastics releases methane is a very powerful greenhouse gas that contributes significantly to global warming.** ii. **Ocean: In 2012, it was estimated that there was approximately 165 million tons of plastic pollution in the world\'s oceans. One type of plastic that is of concern in terms of ocean plastic pollution is nurdles. Nurdles are manufactured plastic pellets (a type of micro-plastic) used in the creation of plastic products and are often shipped via cargo ship. Many billions of nurdles are spilled into oceans each year, and it has been estimated that globally, around 10% of beach litter consists of nurdles. Plastics in oceans typically degrade within a year, but not entirely. In the process, toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A and polystyrene can leach into waters from some plastics. Polystyrene pieces and nurdles are the most common types of plastic pollution in oceans, and combined with plastic bags and food containers make up most oceanic debris. One study estimated that there are more than 5 trillion plastic pieces (defined into the four classes of small micro-plastics, large microplastics, meso- and macro-plastics) afloat at sea. The litter that is being delivered into the oceans is toxic to marine life, and humans. The toxins that are components of plastic include diethylhexyl phthalate, which is a toxic carcinogen, as well as lead, cadmium, and mercury. Plankton, fish, and ultimately people, through the food chain, ingest these highly toxic carcinogens and chemicals. Consuming the fish that contain these toxins can cause an increase in cancer, immune disorders, and birth defects.** **iii. Marine animals: Sea turtles are affected by plastic pollution. Some species are consumers of jelly fish, but often mistake plastic bags for their natural prey. This plastic debris can kill the sea turtle by obstructing the oesophagus. So too are whales; large amounts of plastics have been found in the stomachs of beached whales Some of the tiniest bits of plastic are being consumed by small fish, in a part of the pelagic zone in the ocean called the Mesopelagic zone, which is 200 to 1000 metres below the ocean surface, and completely dark. Not much is known about these fish, other than that there are many of them. They hide in the darkness of the ocean, avoiding predators and then swimming to the ocean\'s surface at night to feed. Plastics found in the stomachs of these fish were collected during Malaspina\'s circumnavigation, a research project that studies the impact of global change on the oceans. The most popular mesopelagic fish is the lantern fish. It resides in the central ocean gyres, a large system of rotating ocean currents. Since lantern fish serve as a primary food source for the fish that consumers purchase, including tuna and swordfish, the plastics they ingest become part of the food chain. The lantern fish is one of the main bait fish in the ocean, and it eats large amounts of plastic fragments, which in turn will not make them nutritious enough for other fish to consume.** **iv. Birds: Plastic pollution does not only affect animals that live solely in oceans. Seabirds are also greatly affected.** **In 2004, it was estimated that gulls in the North Sea had an average of thirty pieces of plastic in their stomachs. Seabird\'s often mistake trash floating on the ocean\'s surface as prey. Their food sources often have already ingested plastic debris, thus transferring the plastic from prey to predator. Ingested trash can obstruct and physically damage a bird\'s digestive system, reducing its digestive ability and can lead to malnutrition, starvation, and death. Toxic chemicals called polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) also become concentrated on the surface of plastics at sea and are released after seabirds eat them. These chemicals can accumulate in body tissues and have serious lethal effects on a bird\'s reproductive ability, immune system, and hormone balance. Floating plastic debris can produce ulcers, infections, and lead to death. Marine plastic pollution can even reach birds that have never been at the sea. Parents may accidentally feed their nestlings plastic, mistaking it for food. Seabird chicks are the most vulnerable to plastic ingestion since they can\'t regurgitate like the adult seabirds. After the initial observation that many of the beaches in New Zealand had high concentrations of plastic pellets, further studies found that different species of prion ingest the plastic debris. Hungry prions mistook these pellets for food, and these particles were found intact within the birds\' gizzards and proventricular. Pecking marks like those made by northern fulmars in cuttlebones have been found in plastic debris, such as Styrofoam, on the beaches on the Dutch coast, showing that this species of bird also mistakes plastic debris for food. An estimate of 1.5 million Laysan albatrosses, which inhabit Midway Atoll, all have plastics in their digestive system (Midway Atoll is halfway between Asia and North America, and north of the Hawaiian archipelago). In this remote location, the plastic blockage has proven deadly to these birds. These seabirds choose red, pink, brown, and blue plastic pieces because of similarities to their natural food sources. As a result of plastic ingestion, the digestive tract can be blocked resulting in starvation. The windpipe can also be blocked, which results in suffocation. The debris can also accumulate in the animal\'s gut and give them a false sense of fullness which would also result in starvation. On the shore, thousands of bird's corpses can be seen with plastic remaining where the stomach once was. The durability of the plastics is visible among the remains. In some instances, the plastic pills are still present while the bird\'s corpse has decayed. Like humans, animals exposed to plasticizers can experience developmental defects.** - **Adverse Health Effects of Plastics:** **In the process of production, chemicals are used. There is no doubt that chemicals have serious problems. For example, many chemical additives that give plastic products desirable performance properties have negative environmental and human health effects. These effects include: ∙ Direct toxicity, as in the cases of lead, cadmium, and mercury ∙ Carcinogens, as in the case of diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) Endocrine disruption, which can lead to cancers, birth defects, immune system suppression and developmental problems in children.** - **Chemical Migration from Plastic Packaging into Contents:** **People are exposed to these chemicals not only during manufacturing, but also by using plastic packages, because some chemicals migrate from the plastic packaging to the foods they contain. Examples of plastics contaminating food have been reported with most plastic types, including Styrene from polystyrene, plasticizers from PVC, antioxidants from polyethylene, and Acetaldehyde from PET. Among the factors controlling migration are the chemical structure of the migrants and the nature of the packaged food. In studies cited in Food Additives and Contaminants, LDPE, HDPE, and polypropylene bottles released measurable levels of BHT, Chimassorb 81, Irganox PS 800, Irganox 1076, and Irganox 1010 into their contents of vegetable oil and ethanol. Evidence was also found that acetaldehyde migrated out of PET into water.** - **Recommendations for plastic usage:** **Find alternatives to plastic products whenever possible. Some specific suggestions: ∙** **Buy food in glass or metal containers.** **Avoid polycarbonate drinking bottles with Bisphenol A.** **Avoid heating food in plastic containers or storing fatty foods in plastic containers or plastic wrap.** **Do not give young children plastic tethers or toys.** **Use natural fibre clothing, bedding, and furniture.** **Avoid all PVC and Styrene products.** **Buy food in glass or metal containers.** **Avoid heating food in plastic containers or storing fatty foods in plastic containers or plastic wrap.** **BIODEGRADABLE AND DEGRADABLE PLASTICS** **The use of biodegradable plastics has many advantages and disadvantages. Biodegradables are biopolymers that degrade in industrial composters. Biodegradables do not degrade as efficiently in domestic composters, and during this slower process, methane gas may be emitted. There are also other types of degradable materials that are not considered to be biopolymers, because they are oil-based, like other conventional plastics. These plastics are made to be more degradable using different additives, which help them degrade when exposed to UV rays or other physical stressors yet, biodegradation-promoting additives for polymers have been shown not to significantly increase biodegradation. Although biodegradable and degradable plastics have helped reduce plastic pollution, there are some drawbacks. One issue concerning both types of plastics is that they do not break down very efficiently in natural environments. There, degradable plastics that are oil-based may break down into smaller fractions, at which point they do not degrade further. Incineration Up to 60% of used plastic medical equipment is incinerated rather than deposited in a landfill as a precautionary measure to lessen the transmission of disease. This has allowed for a large decrease in the amount of plastic waste that stems from medical equipment. If plastic waste is not incinerated and disposed of properly, a harmful amount of toxins can be released and dispersed as a gas through air or as ash through air and waterways. Many studies have been done concerning the gaseous emissions that result from the incineration process.** 8. **ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF TEXTILES, WASTES AND OTHER MATERIALS** **Introduction:** **Environment means surrounding external conditions influencing development or growth of people, animal, or plants, living, or working together conditions. The aim of this unit is to give students an in-depth understanding of environmental effects of textiles and other materials. It is expected that the knowledge in this unit would equip students with the various concepts relating to environmental effects of chemical plastics, textiles and other materials and provide broad guide on how to manage environmental impact of pollution. In this unit, our focus is on environmental issues with special attention on environmental effects on textiles, wastes and other materials.** **TEXTILE WASTE** **Definition, Meaning and Types:** **Textile waste is a material that is deemed unusable for its original purpose by the owner. Textile waste can include fashion and textile industry waste, created during fibre, textile and clothing production, and consumer waste, created during consumer use and disposal.** **Pre-consumer textile waste is waste generated in the fashion supply chain before the textile reached the consumer.** **Textile swatch waste is leftover textile samples.** **Cut-and-sew textile waste is textile scraps generated during garment manufacturing.** **End-of-roll textile waste is factory surplus textile waste leftover on the textile rolls from garment manufacturing.** **Sampling yardage waste is factory surplus that have been left over from textile sample manufacturing. Damaged textile waste is unfinished textiles that have been damaged, for example colour or print defects. Finished clothing waste is unsold finished clothing waste that has not yet been worn.** **Clothing sample waste is partly finished or finished clothing samples from the design and production of clothing, which have not been worn by consumers.** **Post-consumer textile waste is waste generated and collected after the consumer has used and disposed of it.** **Second-hand clothing waste popularly called okrika or Tokunbo in Nigeria is clothing or fashion accessories that have been used and discarded by consumers.** **Second-hand textile waste is any textile waste (such as home furnishings or any non-clothing waste) that have been used and discarded by consumers.** **Producing textiles is an environmentally damaging process. Textiles consume vast quantities of natural resources, like water, oil, and land, they use toxic chemicals and generate large amounts of carbon dioxide. It is not just what we put into textile and fashion production, but it is also what comes out during the processes of production and consumer use.** **Unfortunately, millions of tons of textiles are discarded every year. In Europe and America, it is estimated that 10 million tons of textiles are discarded every year. In China the total annual production of pre- and post-consumer textile waste is estimated to be over 20 million tonnes. Not only does this textile waste pollute our environment and clog landfills around the world, but the precious resources that went into making these textiles are wasted. The good news is that by reusing textile waste, designers can divert textile waste away from landfill and prolong the lifecycle of the textile material.** **PROCESSES OF MANAGING TEXTILE WASTE** - **Contact factories and textile mills as they may have an endless supply of surplus textiles.** **Target factories and textile mills that produce the specific type of material that you are looking for. If you get in contact with the right one at the right time, this could be a goldmine of high-end textile waste, sold at a fraction of the price due to possible irregular shapes, sizes and quantities.** - **Visit trade fairs.** **This to get a better understanding of what types of textiles are available and how to get hold of them. Speak to the devastators directly to see what they do with their textile waste. Startup conversations --- you may get more than you can handle! Depending on where you live, there are textile shops and markets selling end-of-roll textiles and samples. Regardless of where you live, contact textile shops, and ask them if they have any samples available.** - **Go online Research, research, research.** **Dig online to discover where textile waste is existed, who is selling it and who is buying it. Many companies and consumers sell samples, stock clothing, textiles, and second-hand clothing online. Check ebay.com and taobao.com in your country. Check out source4style.com to find more information about sourcing sustainable textiles and check out their selection of textile waste available for online purchase. Also check out ethical fashion forum.com for tips and tricks to sourcing sustainably.** - **Reach out to your network.** **Reach out to other designers and ask for their waste. Beautiful waste can be found at your friend's studio or even on the floor of your university design studio. Look around you and you might be surprised at what you can find.** - **Raid wardrobes:** **Investigate your own, your friends' and your family´s wardrobes to see what is hanging around and not being used anymore. This textile supply may be varied, but on the upside, it may not cost you a dime! Go to second-hand stores and markets to find an endless supply of textiles. Be specific on what type and quality of textiles you are looking for. If you are looking for high quality and luxury textiles, then go to vintage and consignment stores. If you are looking for large quantities of second-hand jeans, then visit a charity shop or flee market.** - **Go to second-hand stores and markets:** **Textile recyclers get an endless supply of textile waste in all shapes and sizes. Often high-quality clothes are resold in charity shops and lower quality goods are sold to developing countries. Find out where the waste you want goes to and ask around at ways that you may access some of it. Contact the recycling companies to see if they are willing to sell you any of the clothing and textiles.** - **Get in touch with recyclers:** **Get in touch with brands to see what they are doing with their textile waste. They may have end-of- roll textiles and samples that are too small for them to mass produce, which they may be interested in passing on. Target the brands that are in your area and that have textiles that you like using. Be realistic and think of brands that might be open to selling or giving away their textile waste. Brands that have textiles with iconic patterns or logos will not usually be interested in this type of reuse by a third party.** - **Set up a clothing collection:** **Take back' programs are becoming the hot topic in sustainable fashion. High-street brands, such as H&M, M&S, Esprit and Uniqlo, all have taken back containers in-store around the world to encourage their customers to return unwanted clothes. Why not organise your own take back programme? Collect from your customers or organise a clothing collection in your community and work with what you get. Many people have overflowing wardrobes and they have no idea what to do with their unwanted clothes. Remember to let your potential clothes' donors know what you will do with their donated clothes and textiles.** **TEXTILE INDUSTRY:** **Textile processing industry is characterized not only by the large volume of water required for various unit operations but also by the variety of chemicals used for various processes. There is a long sequence of wet processing stages requiring inputs of water, chemical and energy and generating wastes at each stage. The other feature of this industry, which is a backbone of fashion garment, is large variation in demand of type, pattern and colour combination of fabric resulting into significant fluctuation in waste generation volume and load. Textile processing generates many waste streams, including liquid, gaseous and solid wastes, some of which may be hazardous. The nature of the waste generated depends on the type of textile facility, the processes and technologies being operated, and the types of fibres and chemicals used. The textile industry is a significant contributor to many national economies, encompassing both small and large-scale operations worldwide. The textile manufacturing process is characterized by the high consumption of resources like water, fuel, and a variety of chemicals in a long process sequence that generates a significant amount of waste. The common practices of low process efficiency result in substantial wastage of resources and a severe damage to the environment. The main environmental problems associated with textile industry are typically those associated with water body pollution caused by the discharge of untreated effluents. Other environmental issues of equal importance are air emission, notably Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) 's and excessive noise or odour as well as workspace safety.** **ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES:** **Most processes performed in textile mills produce atmospheric emissions. Gaseous emissions have been identified as the second greatest pollution problem (after effluent quality) for the textile industry. Speculation concerning the amounts and types of air pollutants emitted from textile operations has been widespread but, generally, air emission data for textile manufacturing operations are not readily available. Air pollution is the most difficult type of pollution to sample, test, and quantify in an audit.** **Air emissions can be classified according to the nature of their sources:** - **Point sources** - **Boilers** - **Ovens** - **Storage tanks** - **Diffusive** - **Solvent-based** - **Wastewater treatment** - **Warehouses** - **Spills Textile mills usually generate nitrogen and sulphur oxides from boilers.** **Other significant sources of air emissions in textile operations include resin finishing and drying operations, printing, dyeing, fabric preparation, and wastewater treatment plants. Hydrocarbons are emitted from drying ovens and from mineral oils in high temperature drying/curing. These processes can emit formaldehyde, acids, softeners, and other volatile compounds. Residues from fibre preparation sometimes emit pollutants during heat setting processes. Carriers and solvents may be emitted during dyeing operations depending on the types of dyeing processes used and from wastewater treatment plant operations. Carriers used in batch dyeing of disperse dyes may lead to volatilisation of aqueous chemical emulsions during heat setting, drying, or curing stages. Acetic acid and formaldehyde are two major emissions of concern in textiles.** - **Air pollution** **Most processes performed in textile mills produce atmospheric emissions. Gaseous emissions have been identified as the second greatest pollution problem (after effluent quality) for the textile industry. Speculation concern have the amounts and types of air pollutants emitted from textile operations has been widespread but, generally, air emission data for textile manufacturing operations are not readily available. Air pollution is the most difficult type of pollution to sample, test, and quantify in an audit. Air emissions can be classified according to the nature of their sources.** **Other significant sources of air emissions in textile operations include resin finishing and drying operations, printing, dyeing, fabric preparation, and wastewater treatment plants. Hydrocarbons are emitted from drying ovens and from mineral oils in elevated temperature drying/curing. These processes can emit formaldehyde, acids, softeners, and other volatile compounds. Residues from fibre preparation sometimes emit pollutants during heat setting processes. Carriers and solvents may be emitted during dyeing operations depending on the types of dyeing processes used and from wastewater treatment plant operations. Carriers used in batch dyeing of disperse dyes may lead to volatilization of aqueous chemical emulsions during heat setting, drying, or curing stages. Acetic acid and formaldehyde are two major emissions of concern in textiles.** - **Water pollution:** **The textile industry uses high volumes of water throughout its operations, from the washing of fibres to bleaching, dyeing, and washing of finished products. The large volumes of wastewater generated also contain a wide variety of chemicals, used throughout processing. These can cause damage if not properly treated before being discharged into the environment. Of all the steps involved in textiles processing, wet processing creates the highest volume of wastewater. The aquatic toxicity of textile industry wastewater varies considerably among production facilities. The sources of aquatic toxicity can include salt, surfactants, ionic metals and their metal complexes, toxic organic chemicals, biocides, and toxic anions. Most textile dyes have low aquatic toxicity. On the other hand, surfactants, and related compounds, such as detergents, emulsifiers and dispersants are used in almost each textile process and can be an important contributor to effluent aquatic toxicity, BOD, and foaming.** - **Solid waste pollution:** **The primary residual wastes generated from the textile industry are non-hazardous. These include scraps of fabric and yarn, off-specification yarn and fabric and packaging waste. There are also wastes associated with the storage and production of yarns and textiles, such as chemical storage drums, cardboard reels for storing fabric and cones used to hold yarns for dyeing and knitting. Cutting room waste generates a high volume of fabric scraps, which can often be reduced by increasing fabric utilization efficiency in cutting and sewing.** **ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON WASTES DISPOSALS** **The old saying "out of sight, out of mind" does not apply when it comes to getting rid of personal waste. For many people, though, sending old items including electronics made with potentially harmful metals to the garbage bin is done without thinking of the impact the trash will have on the environment. Garbage, though unseen, can have real impacts on the environment when it is not properly disposed of. Chemicals contaminating soil: When waste ends up at the landfill, chemicals in the trash can leech out into the soil, contaminating it. This will hurt plants, along with animals and even humans who encounter the soil. Once polluted, contaminated soil can be very hard to clean, and will likely have to be dug up to clear the area. Surface water Chemicals do not just run from garbage into the soil. They can also reach nearby surface water, such as rivers and lakes. This will change the levels of chemicals in the water for the worse. The result? The ecosystems such as fish habitats in the water get harmed, as do any creatures that drink from the water source. Air pollution Garbage can create air pollution due to gases and chemicals evaporating from the waste. This air pollution can occur in open-air dump sites, where a lot of our waste and electronic trash goes, and through incinerators used at garbage disposal sites. The air pollution from incineration can be so bad, in fact, that it can even release toxic substances that can contribute to acid rain. Other garbage will release methane as it wastes away, and methane is one of the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and can also be ignited to cause an explosion. Remember, much of our stuff these days is made with chemicals. These chemicals do not just disappear when they end up in the dump, they will continue to exist and cause environmental problems for a long time.** 9. **CHEMICAL AND RADIOCHEMICAL HAZARDS** **Introduction:** **A chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazard caused by exposure to chemicals in the workplace. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can cause acute or long-term detrimental health effects. There are many types of hazardous chemicals, including neurotoxins, immune agents, dermatologic agents, carcinogens, reproductive toxins, systemic toxins, asthmagens, pneumoconiotic agents, and sensitizers. These hazards can cause physical and/or health risks. Depending on chemical, the hazards involved may be varied, thus it is important to know and apply the PPE especially during the lab. Long-term exposure to chemicals such as silica dust, engine exhausts, tobacco smoke, and/or lead (among others) have been shown to increase risk of heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure.** **Objectives:** **At the end of this course students should be able to:** - **Explain the types of hazards chemicals created.** - **Identify the routes of exposure of chemical hazards.** - **Understand and explain the symbols of chemical hazards.** - **Explain ways of treating chemical hazards.** **Types of Hazards:** - **Liquids such as acids, solvents especially if they do not have a label.** - **Vapours and fumes.** - **Flammable materials Chemicals can change the physical state depending on temperature or pressure.** **Thus, is it important to identify the health risks as these states can determine the potential route the chemical will take. For example, gas state chemicals will be inhaled, or liquid state chemicals can be absorbed by the skin.** **Routes of Exposure:** - **Ingestion.** - **Inhalation from fumes.** - **Poisoning.** - **Explosion** **Symbols:** **Hazard pictographs are a type of labelling system that alerts individuals efficiently at a quick glance if there are hazardous chemicals present. The symbols help identify if the chemicals that are going to be in use may potentially cause physical harm or hard to the environment. The symbols are distinctive as they are shaped like a diamond with red borders.** **These signs can be divided into: ∙** - **Explosive (exploding bomb).** - **Flammable (flame).** - **Oxidizing (flame above a circle).** - **Corrosive (corrosion of table and hand).** - **Acute Toxicity (skull and crossbones).** - **Hazardous to environment (dead tree and fish).** - **Health Hazard/ Hazardous to the ozone layer (Exclamation mark.** - **Serious Health Hazard (Cross on a human silhouette).** - **Gas Under Pressure (Gas cylinder).** **First Aid:** **First Aid In case of emergency, it is recommended to understand the first aid procedures to minimize any damages. The different types of chemicals will cause a variety of damages but most sources 53 recommend that it is best to rinse any contacted skin or eye with water for at least 15 -- 20 minutes. Currently, there is insufficient evidence of how long the rinsing should be done as the degree of impacts will vary for substances such as corrosive chemicals.** **However, the recommended flush time is as follows:** - **5 minutes - non to mild irritants.** - **15 -- 20 minutes - moderate to severe irritants and chemical that cause acute toxicity.** - **30 minutes - most corrosives.** - **60 minutes - strong alkalis such as sodium, potassium or calcium hydroxide immediately flush the affected area.** **Additionally, transporting the affected person to a health care facility is important depending on the victim\'s condition. In the case that the victim needs to be transported before the recommended flush time, then flushing should be done during the transportation process. It is to note that some chemical manufacturers may state the specific type of cleansing agent that is recommended.** **Cardiovascular Disease:** **A 2017 SBU report found evidence that workplace exposure to silica dust, engine exhaust or welding fumes is associated with heart disease. Associations also exist for exposure to arsenic, benzopyrenes, lead, dynamite, carbon disulphide, carbon monoxide, metalworking fluids and occupational exposure to tobacco smoke. Working with the electrolytic production of aluminium or the production of paper when the sulphate pulping process is used is associated with heart disease. An association was also found between heart disease and exposure to compounds which are no longer permitted in certain work environments, such as phenoxy acids containing TCDD (dioxin) or asbestos. Workplace exposure to silica dust or asbestos is also associated with pulmonary heart disease. There is evidence that workplace exposure to lead, carbon disulphide, phenoxyacids containing TCDD, as well as working in an environment where aluminium is being electrolytically produced, is associated with stroke.** 10. **ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES** **Introduction:** **In this unit we shall discuss the element of environment studies as a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises of many branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc. It also embraces the science of physical phenomena in the environment.** **Objectives:** **At the end of this course students should be able to: ∙ understand and explain the meaning and types of environments ∙ explain the scope and elements of environment.** **Meaning and Types of Environments:** **The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturity of living 61 organisms.** **There are three types of environments which influences the personality of an individual. These include:** - **Physical Environment** - **Social and Cultural Environment, and** - **Psychological Environment. Physical environment refers to geographical climate and weather or physical conditions that affects individual lives.** **The human races are greatly influenced by the climate. Social environment explains an individual's social, economic, and political condition wherein he lives. The moral, cultural, and emotional forces influence the life and nature of individual behaviour. Every individual has his own psychological environment, in which he lives. The psychological environment enables us to understand the personality of an individual. Both the person and his goal form psychological environment.** **Scope of Environment:** **The environment consists of four segments namely:** - **Atmosphere** **The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the earth:** **(a) It sustains life on the earth.** **(b) It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.** **(c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun.** **(d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue damaging ultraviolet waves below about 300 nm. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. Besides, argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases.** - **Hydrosphere:** **The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water. (i) Nature 97% of the earth 's water supply is in the oceans, (ii) About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers. (iii) Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water fit to be used for human consumption and other uses.** - **Lithosphere:** **Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the earth' s crusts and the soil e.g., minerals, organic matter, air, and water. iv. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.** **Elements of Environment:** **Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological, and cultural elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements may be explained as under i. Physical elements: Physical elements are space, landforms, water bodies, climate soils, rocks, and minerals. They determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations. ii. Biological elements biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and men constitute the biosphere. iii. Cultural elements Cultural elements such as economic, social, and political elements are essentially manmade features, which make cultural milieu. Conclusion: This unit has explained the meaning, types, scope, and elements of environment. The units have also established that the environment describes in totality the external forces, influences, and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behavior, and growth of living organisms.** 11. **ENERGY AND BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT** **Nature of Energy:** **Energy is the name given to the ability or capacity to do work. Energy provides the power to progress. Most of the energy on the earth comes from the sun through its rays. The sun 's rays are essential in the growth and ripening of plants that provides food for man and feed for animals. Animal and human beings to operate their bodies use energy found in food. Energies from the sun are also stored in coal. Wood and oil, which are burnt by man to produce energy for him and produces other energy that man can use for productive purposes, are essential energy sources.** **Types of Energy:** **All energy available to man can be classified as animate or inanimate energy. Animate energy as already mentioned above, are those energy which function through living organism such are those which are derived from non-living matters especially fossil, fuels, coal oil, natural gas and from failing waters. From the early stages, man tried to use wind as an inanimate source of energy. He utilized the force of wind for sailing boats and later for moving machines in case of windmill. Afterwards, the Romans also discovered water wheel. Then running water was made to provide energy for lifting waters and grinding cereal. Wind and water provided inanimate energy up to about 1750. The development of steam engines by James Watts in 1776 was a real landmark in the use of inanimate energy. Thus, with steam engine man started an unending age of invention and technical development. Many new sources of energy have been developed since that day and man falling waters is used to drive turbines connected to generators, electric energy is provided for hundreds of purposes. Burning fuels in which case it\'s called thermal electricity when it is generated from falling waters can also generate electricity. It is called hydroelectricity. The energy thus released provides power for homes, factories, agriculture, and transportation purposes. It must be noted that coal is not a direct source of energy but merely it is fuel, which is burnt to produce stream power or electric power. Coal is an induce source of energy or power. On the other hand, moving wind, falling waters provides energy or power directly.** **The Chief source of energy are summed up to be thus:** **(a) Human power** **(b) Animal power** **(c) Wind power** **(d) Fossils fuel and** **(e) Falling** **The Chief fossils fuels that are utilized to provide energy are:** **(a) Wood** **(b) Coal** **(c) Oil and** **(d) Natural gas.** **(f) Nuclear energy** **(g) Solar energy** **(h) Tidal energy** **(i) Geothermal energy.** **At present, coal, oil, and natural gas are the most important indirect source of inanimate energy while falling water is the most important direct source for inanimate energy. These indirect sources of energy viz\... coal, oil and natural gas are exhaustible sources and once used up cannot be replaced or renewed (unless through discovered of new coal mines or oil wells) they are \'fund resources\" on the other hand, falling water, wind power solar energy tidal and geothermal e.g., water can be used repeatedly. The force of water, which yields hydroelectric power, is permanent. A new source of energy ---nuclea