LNGS 401 Lecture 4 Phonological Processes: Assimilation PDF

Dr. Fusheini Hudu LNGS 401 Lecture 4 November 26, 2024 Phonological processes: Assimilation  Last year, in LNGS 301, we noted that phonological rules are expressions of phonological processes.  In other words, every phon...

Dr. Fusheini Hudu LNGS 401 Lecture 4 November 26, 2024 Phonological processes: Assimilation  Last year, in LNGS 301, we noted that phonological rules are expressions of phonological processes.  In other words, every phonological process produces at least one phonological rule, and every phonological rule (except default rules) reflects a phonological process. You can't have one without the other  Many phonological processes also produce variants/allophones of a phoneme.  As we noted last year, the allophones are typically not noticed by the native speaker, even though they are produced. We perceive phonetically different sounds as one, we even sometimes perceive things that are not there.  Examples are illustrated below, showing some (not all) of the different realisations of English [t]. Different realisations of English /t/: Plain [t]: stem [stɛm] Aspirated [t]: ten [tʰɛn] retroflexed [t]: strip [sʈɻip] flapped [t]: atom [aɾəm] (in North American dialects) nasal flapped [t]: panty [paɾɪ]̃ (in North American dialects) glottalised [t]: hit [hitˀ] (in some British and North American dialects) glottal stop: bottle [bɒʔl] (in some North American dialects) zero: pants [pans]  There is at least, one rule to account for each of the above, but our focus today is on one category of phonological rules: assimilation. ASSIMILATION  A process by which a sound becomes more like another neighbouring sound. The assimilating sound takes on a new feature originally not part of the sound.  Thus, when sound A undergoes assimilation, it adopts a new phonological feature from a neighbouring sound B without sound B losing that feature.  Which features are involved in assimilation? Which features can a sound assimilate to? Virtually every feature we come across from our description of sounds.  For instance, from the 3-term label, we get three categories of features in our description of each of the following: /p/, /t/ /g/ etc. (place of assimilation features, manner of assimilation features, voicing features (or more generally, laryngeal features).  Any sound can assimilate to any feature belonging to any of these feature categories.1 1 Consult Chapter 4 of Hayes (2009) for details on features. The feature chart in that chapter is what we will be using in this course. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 1 of 5 November 26, 2024   We will illustrate assimilation involving features under each of these categories using English data. Assimilation to place of assimilation features 1. Assimilation of alveolar consonants: General rule: When an alveolar consonant precedes a non-alveolar segment, a place of articulation assimilation is likely to take place. A. Dentalisation: An alveolar consonant [ t̪ , d̪, n̪, l̪ ] becomes dental before a dental consonant like /θ, ð/ /widθ/→ [wid̪θ]; /hɛlði/→ [hɛl̪ ði]; /iːt ðis/→ [iːt̪ ðis]; /ðat θɪŋ/ → [ðat̪ θɪŋ] /ɡɛt/ → [ɡɛt̪ ðoʊz]; / tɛnθ/ → [tɛn̪θ]; B. Labial articulation: In many native dialects of English, an alveolar becomes labial before a labial in casual speech. /miːt paɪ/ → [miːp paɪ]; /laɪt blu/ → [laɪp blu]; /waɪt peɪpə/ → [waɪp peɪpə] C. Velar articulation: Before velar consonants, alveolars become velar in casual speech /kʷaɪt ɡud/→ [kʷaɪk ɡud]; /braɪt kʌlə/→ [braɪk kʌlə]; /ðat ki/→ [ðak ki] D. Palatalisation: Before [ʃ] and [j], [s] and [z] become [ʃ] and [ʒ] /hɔːs ʃu/ → [hɔːʃ ʃu] /miːs ju/ → [miːʃ ju]; /ʤɔnz ʃɔts/ → [ʤɔnʒ ʃɔts] Velar and labial consonants (k, g, p, b) also become palatalised before [i]. /kiːn/ → [kʲiːn] /ɡiːv/ → [ɡʲiːv] /piːl/ → [pʲiːl] /biːt/ → [bʲiːt] E. Labialisation: Before round vowels consonants of different places of articulation, are rounded /kuːl/ → [kʷuːl], /bum/ → [bʷuːm] /tuː/ → [tʷuː] F. Nasal place assimilation/homorganic nasal assimilation: Nasals assume the same place of articulation as following consonants. ʌn-dizɛvɪn in-desɛnt im-pɔsɪbəl ʌm-peɪd iŋ-ɡɹatitud ʌŋ-ɡratefʊl iŋ-kuɹəbl  All these are examples of nasals in prefixes assimilating to the place of the following consonant. But we also see nasal place assimilation when the nasals occur in non-affixes. undə, intervʲu, umbilikəl, umbrelə, uŋkɛmpt, iŋkɹiz  Note that in some languages, nasal place assimilation or homorganic nasal assimilation takes place when the nasal comes after another consonant, unlike in English, where the nasal comes before the consonant. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 2 of 5 November 26, 2024  MOA Assimilation Stop articulation: Sometimes a fricative is produced as a stop when following/preceding a stop, especially in casual speech. /giːv miː/ → [giːm miː]; /gɛt ðɛm/ → [gɛt dɛm]; /riːd ðiz/ → [riːd diːz] Laryngeal Assimilation. Assimilation of plural and third person suffixes.  Certain English suffixes assimilate to the voicing specification of the final sound of the word to which they are added. Two of them are the plural marker and the third person singular suffix.  Below, the data on the left column show cases where these two suffixes surface as voiced [-z]; those in the middle column show cases where these suffixes surface voiceless [-s].  The data on the right column show that sometimes these morphemes surface as [-əz], but they do not illustrate voicing assimilation.  For the purpose of analysing the various allomorphs of these morphemes, they are important. But for the purpose of analysing voicing assimilation, you can ignore them and focus on those in the first two columns. beɪð-z maʊθ-s dʒʌdʒ-əz bɔɪ-z goʊt-s mætʃ-əz skɪl-z stik-s bʊʃ- əz dɔg-z buk-s noʊs-əz hand-z map-s briz-əz hoʊm-z hoʊp-s bɛntʃ-əz dʒɔb-z seif-s loʊv-z kʌf-s weɪv-z mɔθ-s sɪŋ-z brif-s Practice exercises on assimilation 1. Describe the category of sounds that precede the various allomorphs of the plural and third person singular suffixes ([s] and [z]) shown above. Based on the sounds preceding each allomorph, which of these sounds is the main phoneme? Which of them is the allophone2. 2. Using the data on the various patterns of assimilation in English presented in the preceding sections, provide data on similar patterns of assimilation in your mother tongue or any language you can speak fluently. More on the concept of assimilation  Let us now move on to look at some key issues central to assimilation. First, there is the fundamental question regarding how assimilation takes place. 2 This exercise is meant to get you to revise your study of phonemes and allophones in Level 300. Get help from your TAs if you cannot answer this question Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 3 of 5 November 26, 2024   How does assimilation take place? The idea is that, it is a case of co-articulation between two adjacent segments. Remember that in articulating a segment, there are three fundamental phonetic components: the place of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing.  The idea is that, when two adjacent segments are different with respect to any of these phonetic components, articulating each segment using its unique place, manner of voicing specification is a tedious task. To make it easier, the place, manner or voicing specification of one sound is sacrificed, so that that sound is articulated using the specification of the other.  For instance, when the underlying representation of a nasal is [n], and the following sound is velar [k] (as in the word in-kəɹɛkt), it is difficult to articulate the nasal at the alveolar ridge and immediately reposition the tongue to make a velar articulation for the next sound. What most languages in the world do is to sacrifice the unique place of articulation of the nasal and articulate it alongside the following [k].  In the process, the two are co-articulated. In other words, the two sounds are produced with one articulatory gesture, instead of two different articulatory gestures: iŋ-kəɹɛkt. That is why assimilation is also known as (phonetic) co-articulation.3  There are four fundamental issues in assimilation. Addressing each of them is needed for a complete analysis of any assimilatory process. 1. The feature involved 2. Trigger and target 3. direction of assimilation 4. domain of assimilation 1. Features  We have already discussed features in assimilation. The only bit of information to be added is that, sometimes assimilation results in completely identical features between the two sounds involved, such that one sound becomes the exact copy of the other.  When that happens, the assimilation is said to be complete assimilation (e.g. /giːv miː/ → [giːm miː], /ʌn-mask/→ [ʌm-mask]).  In other instances, the two sounds involved do not become completely identical due to assimilation. Even though, one features takes the feature or features of another sound, they remain different sounds. Such cases are called partial assimilation (e.g. /un-peɪd/ → [um-peɪd]). 1. Triggers and targets  In every process of assimilation there is a sound which plays the role of trigger, and another which is the target of assimilation.  The segment that causes the change in the feature specification of another segment is the trigger of assimilation.  The segment that is affected or changes is the target of assimilation.  Thus, if within a sound sequence in a word, sound A and sound B are co-articulated in 3 You will see why this description is important when we come to look at harmony, which is also a form of assimilation. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 4 of 5 November 26, 2024  such a way that sound A maintains is original features whereas sound B changes its features to look like sound A. Sound A will be described as the trigger, and sound B the target. Practice exercise:  Go back and look through the data we've already seen and determine the trigger and target in each pattern of assimilation.  Also study the data below. First determine the pattern of assimilation in each word, then identify the trigger and target in each pattern of assimilation. Note that it is not the case that every word has an assimilatory process. Some of the words are meant to guide you to understand the assimilatory patterns found in others. twelve [twɛlv] twelfth [twɛlf-θ] eight [eɪt] eighth [eɪt̪ -θ] ten [tɛn] tenth [tɛn̪-θ] 2. Directionality:  This relates to the location of the target relative to the trigger.  When the target is to the left of the trigger, the sound becomes more like the one that follows it, we get progressive. It is also known as anticipatory assimilation.  When the target is to the right of the trigger, the sound becomes more like the one that precedes it, we get regressive assimilation. 3. Domain of assimilation:  This relates to the unit within which assimilation is restricted. In some instances, assimilation can only take place when the trigger and target are part of the same syllable (e.g. nasalisation of English vowels).  In such cases, the syllable is the domain of assimilation. Beyond the boundary of the syllable, assimilation will not take place. In other words, when the potential trigger is in one syllable and the potential target sound is in a different syllable, no assimilation will take place.  In other cases, the word is the domain. Still in others, it is the phrase. Practice exercise: Identify the domain of assimilation is each of the various patterns of assimilation shown in this handout. Also do the same exercise on the assimilation data that you come up on the languages you speak. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 5 of 5 November 26, 2024 Dr. Fusheini Hudu LNGS 401 Lecture 5 December 3, 2024 Phonological processes: Harmony  Harmony is a kind of assimilation, and all the issues central to assimilation are also central to harmony.  There are issues in harmony that do not apply in assimilation.  We will also practice analysing vowel harmony data on three languages: Kera, Dagbani and Akan.  Harmony is a process by which a sound becomes more like another sound that may not be adjacent, or a process by which non-adjacent sounds within a domain share one feature value.  As noted in the definition, the trigger and target sounds do not have to be adjacent, unlike assimilation.  The feature involved in harmony is called the harmonic feature.  Like assimilation, harmony affects both vowels and consonants, though vowel harmony is more common.  Which features can be harmonic features? Many features. ◦ All vowel features (height, backness, rounding, ATR). ◦ Some consonant features such as voicing and nasality. More on the concept of harmony  Because segments are not adjacent (next to each other), it is not phonetic co-articulation. Thus, another name for harmony is long distance assimilation. It is distinguished from assimilation, which is also known as local assimilation.  Harmony is more of phonology than assimilation, which is more phonetic. Thus, there are patterns of assimilation in every language, but not every language has harmony.  In other words, the mechanisms involved in assimilation are dictated by phonetic considerations while harmony is a choice a language makes to include in its phonology.  The phonetic mechanisms involved in sound articulation does not require that segments that are not adjacent share one feature.  Let us look at the central issues in harmony, most of which are also central to assimilation. There are four fundamental issues in harmony. 1. The harmonic feature 2. Trigger and target of harmony 3. Direction of harmony 4. Domain of harmony Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 1 of 4 December 3, 2024 1. The harmonic feature  We have already talked about the harmonic feature in the preceding discussion.  When vowel harmony takes place, it may involve one vowel sharing its height, backness, rounding or ATR feature with another vowel.  Similarly, consonant harmony may involve a nasal consonant sharing its [+nasal] feature with a [-nasal] consonant, a [+voice] consonant sharing its [+voice] feature with a [-voice] consonant etc. 2. Triggers and targets  Whatever was said about triggers and targets in assimilation also applies to harmony. However, there are some issues specific to harmony.  There is usually more than one target, unlike assimilation, where there is only one target.  The trigger and target do not have to be adjacent segments (as already noted).  There are other issues related to triggers and targets that apply in harmony systems, but not in assimilation. 1.1. Root-controlled harmony system  In many languages, trigger-target relation is conditioned by the morphology of the language. The rigger is always a root segment while the target may be another root segment or an affix segment.  In other words, a segment in the affix cannot serve as the trigger.  Such harmony systems are known as root-controlled harmony systems.  In a root-controlled harmony system, it does not matter what the value of the harmonic feature is. Whatever the value of the harmonic feature in the root segment is, determines the harmonic feature value of the entire domain  For instance, in root-controlled [ATR] vowel harmony, when the root vowel is [-ATR], all vowels in the domain become [-ATR]; when the root vowel is [+ATR], all vowels in the domain become. 1.2 Dominant-recessive harmony system  In some languages, one value of the harmonic feature is dominant, the other is recessive.  Within the harmonic domain, segments with the dominant feature value will serve as the triggers while segments with the recessive feature value are the targets.  Segments with the dominant feature value (the triggers) cause those with the recessive feature value (the targets) to change.  In such cases, it does not matter whether the triggers are located in the root or affix, and whether the targets are in the root or affix. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 2 of 4 December 3, 2024   Such harmony systems are known as dominant-recessive harmony systems.  For instance, in a dominant-recessive system where [-ATR] is the dominant value of the [ATR] harmonic feature, a vowel with a [-ATR] feature value will cause another vowel with a [+ATR] value within the harmonic domain to become [-ATR]. In this process, there are four possibilities: o The UR [-ATR] vowel (trigger) is in the root; the UR [+ATR] vowel (target) is in the affix. o The UR [-ATR] vowel (trigger) is in the affix; the UR [+ATR] vowel (target) is in the root. o Both vowels are root vowels o Both vowels are affix vowels. 2. Directionality:  Whatever was noted regarding directionality in assimilation also applies to harmony.  The only difference is that, bidirectionality is more likely/prevalent under harmony than assimilation.  As already noted, in many languages directionality of harmony depends on morphology. In root-controlled harmony, directionality becomes irrelevant if the language has only suffixes or only prefixes.  If a language is root-controlled, and has both prefixes and suffixes, yet only prefix vowels become targets, then directionality becomes important. Similarly, in such a language, if it is only suffix vowels that get affected, directionality becomes important.  In dominant-recessive harmony system too, directionality is irrelevant if the language has only prefixes or only suffixes. In a dominant-recessive system with both prefixes and suffixes, yet only prefix vowels become targets, then directionality becomes important. Similarly, in such a language, if it is only suffix vowels that get affected, directionality becomes important. 3. Domain of harmony: The issues regarding domain of assimilation also apply (in fact more strongly) to harmony.  An example of consonant harmony is shown below, from Kera, a Chadic language.  In this language, stops and affricates show agreement for voicing within the word, both root-internally and between roots and affixes, regardless of intervening vowels and sonorant consonants.  The data show that the nominal prefix is voiced when the base begins with a voiced obstruent, as shown in (a)  The nominal prefix is voiceless when the base begins with a voiceless obstruent, or a sonorant, as shown in (b).  The data in (c) shows that the voicing affects suffixes too, and can cross sonorant consonants to do so. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 3 of 4 December 3, 2024 Kera laryngeal harmony: the nominal prefix /k-/ Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture notes Page 4 of 4 December 3, 2024 Dr. Fusheini Hudu LNGS 401 Lecture 6 December 10, 2024 The nature of phonological rules  In the past few weeks, we have looked at phonological processes, focusing on important issues in assimilation and harmony. In today’s lecture, we will focus on writing rules for phonological processes.  There are two theories we will focus on in this course that use rules to account for phonological patterns: a. Linear rule-based phonology b. Autosegmental phonology.  Today’s class will focus on linear phonology. Phonological rules in Rule-based linear phonology.  Three weeks ago, we noted the general formula for rules in phonology as follows: /UR/ → [SR] / environment:  We noted that the rules can either be stated with segments or features, as below: 1. With segments: /V/ → [Ṽ] / ____[N] ] ]σ. 2. With features: [+syl] → [+nasal] / __[+nasal] ]σ.  Rules stated this way are called linear rules. The rules are applied to a string of segments in a linear order, (everything is stated in a single line from beginning to end) and can only affect segments once.  Note that it is more informative to state rules using features than using segments. a Rules in features will show that not everything about the sound has changed, rules in segments sometimes suggest that everything has changed e.g. /z/ → [s] / [-voice]__ [-son, +cont, +voice] → [-voice] / [-voice] __ b Rules in features also show the similarity between the surface form and the environment e.g. [+syl] → [+nasal] / __[+nasal] ]σ.  In assimilation, the triggering segments and target are next to each other, in harmony, they are not, so there has to be a way of modifying the rule to reflect that.  Let’s come back to the data on Akan and Dagbani harmony and see how to state the rules.  In the first set of Dagbani data, we are dealing with a root-controlled [ATR] harmony, with only suffixes and clitics. In the rule, we don’t have to say that it is root-controlled, we only capture the directionality.  It always helps to begin by writing the rule as a statement. In that case the rule will go as follows: A: The [ATR] specification of the root vowel determines that of the following vowels. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 6 notes Page 1 of 5 December 10, 2024  This is actually two rules stated as one. It is the two rules in (b) and (c) below that are put together to get Rule (a) above B: Affix and clitic vowels surface as [+ATR] when the root vowel is [+ATR] C. Affix and clitic vowels surface as [-ATR] when the root vowel is [-ATR]  In stating the rules as features, we will also begin with two rules and merge them into one. Rule B above is the same as D below in features. Rule C is the same as Rule E in features D. [+syl] → [+ATR] / [+ATR] C0 ___ E. [+syl] → [-ATR] / [-ATR] C0 ___  The C0 between the trigger and the environment of the target (indicated by the dashed line) is there to capture the fact that unlike assimilation, in harmony, the trigger and target are not adjacent. The subscript indicates that there is no fixed number of consonants between the trigger and target. There can be one, two or more consonants. There may also be no consonant between them.  Notice that if we were dealing with consonant harmony, in which the trigger and targets were consonants, the right symbol to place between the trigger and target would have been V0.  Finally, just as it is possible to combine rules B and C into one to get A, it is possible to express rules D and E as one in features. To do so, we make use of alpha notation, in which “+” and “-” specifications of the feature are expressed using the alpha symbol and matched in different parts of the rule. This is shown in Rule F below. F. [+syllabic] → [αATR] / [αATR] C0 ___  What the rule is saying is that, when a vowel (a [+syllabic] segment) follows a [+ATR] segment (with the possibility of one or more consonants between them), the vowel will surface as [+ATR]; if it follows a [-ATR] segment, the vowel will surface as [-ATR].  Now let’s turn to the rules for the Twi harmony pattern.  There is only one point of difference between the Twi and the Dagbani pattern: [ATR] harmony in Twi is bidirectional, unlike Dagbani. This means that the trigger has some targets to its left and other targets to its right.  This means that unlike Dagbani, in Twi, we will need two rules: one for each direction of spread. The left-to-right direction of spread will be exactly the same as the Dagbani rule stated in F above, the right-to-left direction will is shown in G below. G. [+syllabic] → [αATR] / ___ C0 [αATR] Other types of rules  So far, we have been focused on rules of assimilation and harmony, where one segment is responsible for the change in the feature specifications of another segment that is either contiguous or at a long distance.  There are other (non-assimilatory) phonological processes which, when formalised as rules, require slightly different formalisations. The following are some of them. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 6 notes Page 2 of 5 December 10, 2024 a. Insertion/epenthesis: in insertion, we go from nothing in the UR to something in the surface representation. The symbol for nothing is “Ø”. Thus rules on insertion take the form Ø → [segment] / environment (where the segment can be a vowel or a consonant). b. Deletion: Deletion is the opposite of insertion. We begin with something in the UR and end up with nothing in the SR. Thus it takes the form /segment/ →Ø / environment. c. Rules triggered at unit boundaries. Sometimes certain rules are triggered at certain boundaries such as the syllable- or word-initial or final positions. Sometimes it may even be at the boundary of a phrase or clause. Some phonologists use the symbol “#” to mark word boundary. Others use “[” as a general symbol to mark the beginning of any unit and “]” to mark the end of a unit. In order to be specific about the relevant unit, the symbol or name of that unit is written as a subscript. Thus “word[” means the beginning of a word, “]word” means the end of a word. Refer to the rule on vowel nasalisation for an example of a syllable boundary. Deriving surface forms with rules  As already noted, the phonological analyses we are doing are part of an approach known as known as derivational phonology. What that means is that, we apply rules to underlying forms to derive the surface forms.  So we can apply vowel nasalisation and consonant devoicing rules to change /siŋz/ → [sĩŋz] and /blækz/ → [blæks]. When the rules are applied to /bɔɪz/, we get [bɔɪz] on the surface, which means the UR remains unaffected. This is illustrated below. Vowel nasalisation: [+syl] → [+nas] /__[+nas](C) ]σ Obstruent devoicing: [-son, +cont, +cor, +voice] → [-voice]/ [-voice] ___ UR /siŋ-z/ /blæk-z/ /bɔɪ-z/ Vowel nasalisation sĩŋz _____ _____ Obstruent devoicing _____ blæks _____ Surface forms [sĩŋz] [blæks] [bɔɪz]  Sometimes morphological rules may interact with phonological rules. In sĩŋ, the root vowel is nasalised. However, when the “-ing” suffix is added to get /siŋ-iŋ/, the /i/ in /siŋ/ will no more be in the same syllable as the /ŋ/, as the word is re-syllabified to get si.ŋiŋ. This means that in the suffixed form, the root vowel may not be nasalised.  However, whether we get [sĩŋiŋ] or [siŋĩŋ] depends on which of the processes takes place before the other. ◦ If nasalisation takes place before the suffixation of the progressive marker, we will get [sĩŋiŋ], as shown below. UR /siŋ/ Vowel nasalisation sĩŋ Progressive suffixation sĩŋ-iŋ Surface form [sĩŋ-iŋ] ◦ On the other hand, if suffixation precedes nasalisation, we get [siŋĩŋ]. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 6 notes Page 3 of 5 December 10, 2024  UR /siŋ/ Progressive suffixation si.ŋ-iŋ Vowel nasalisation si.ŋ-ĩŋ Surface form [si.ŋ-ĩŋ]  The actual attested surface form is [siŋ-ĩŋ]. The reason we get [siŋĩŋ] is because the progressive marker destroys the environment needed for the vowel to get nasalised. It separates the vowel and nasal in [siŋ] into different syllables.  Sometimes both rules are phonological rules. In French, vowel nasalisation and nasal deletion are two phonological processes that interact. Nasal deletion deletes a nasal sound when it comes after another nasal sound. ◦ vowel nasalisation: [+syl] → [+nas]/__[+nas](C)]σ (/bɔn/ → [bɔn ̃ ]) ◦ Nasal deletion: [+nas] → Ø / [+nasal] ___ (/bɔn ̃ / → [bɔ]̃  When these two rules are applied to the underlying form /bɔn/, we get the surface form [bɔ]̃. The order of application is as follows: UR /bɔn/ Vowel nasalisation bɔn ̃ Nasal deletion bɔ̃ Surface form [bɔ]̃  The fact that we arrived at the right surface form means the ordering was right. The opposite ordering of the rules would have produced the wrong surface form below. UR /bɔn/ Nasal deletion _____ Vowel nasalisation bɔn ̃ Surface form [bɔñ ]  Thus in deriving surface forms from URs, the order in the application of multiple rules that may be needed to derive the surface forms matters.  There are four such interactions, but we will look at only two. An important point to bear in mind is that, you must know the UR and surface form to determine how the two or more rules were applied. FEEDING  The application of one rule creates the environment for another rule to apply. For instance, assuming Rule A needs environment X to apply, which does not exist. Thus, the rule cannot apply. However, before Rule A applies, Rule B applies and creates environment X which enables Rule A to apply and have an effect. We would say that Rule B feeds Rule A.  Vowel nasalisation feeds nasal deletion in French. When vowel nasalisation does not apply, nasal deletion does not get the chance to apply because the environment needed does not exist. It is the application of vowel nasalisation that create the environment Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 6 notes Page 4 of 5 December 10, 2024  nasal deletion needs to apply. BLEEDING:  The application of one rule destroys an existing environment in which another rule would have applied. For that reason, the second rule will no more apply.  For instance, assuming RULE A needs to apply in environment X. Environment X is present in the UR. However, before Rule A applies, Rule B applies, removing that environment. Rule B bleeds Rule A.  We will illustrate this with two rules in English phonology: obstruent devoicing and [ə]- insertion, defined below.  Last week, we looked at obstruent devoicing, which results in the plural suffix /-z/ becoming [-s] after voiceless obstruents. The rule for it is stated in (1) below. 1. RULE A: Obstruent devoicing: [-son] → [-voice]/ [-voice] ___  Below is data on [ə]-insertion, which also takes place in the affixation of the plural suffix. dʒʌdʒ-əz judges mætʃ-əz matches bʊʃ- əz bushes noʊs-əz noses briz-əz breezes bɛntʃ-əz benches  You will notice from the data that when a noun ends in a sibilant consonant (s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ), the plural suffix, which should have been /-z/, is realised as [-əz]. In other words, the schwa is inserted. The distinctive feature for sibilant consonants is [+strident]. Thus, the rule in (2) below captures the insertion. 2. RULE B: [ə]-insertion: Ø → [ə]/ [+strident] ___ [+strident] (bʊʃ → bʊʃəz)  Now let us see how Rule B bleeds Rule A. First, we start by ordering A before B. UR /bʊʃz/ /blækz/ /skilz/ Obstruent devoicing bʊʃs blæks _____ [ə]-insertion bʊʃəs _____ _____ Surface forms [bʊʃəs] [blæks] [skilz]  Since [bʊʃəs] is not the right surface form, it means that the ordering is not right. The reverse ordering will give us the right surface form, as shown below. UR /bʊʃz/ /blækz/ /skilz/ [ə]-insertion bʊʃəz _____ _____ Obstruent devoicing ____ blæks _____ Surface forms [bʊʃəz] [blæks] [skilz]  While this ordering produces the right surface forms, it comes at a cost: [ə]-insertion denies obstruent devoicing the chance to apply, unlike the preceding ordering. Thus [ə]- insertion bleeds obstruent devoicing. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 6 notes Page 5 of 5 December 10, 2024 LNGS 401 Lecture notes 7 Jan 09 2025 Dr. Fusheini Hudu Tone and the problem with linear derivational theory  In the past few weeks, we have been looking at how linear phonological theory works in accounting for phonological processes of different kinds, including assimilation, harmony, deletion, etc.  An important aspect of phonology that has not been discussed is prosody, especially tone and tonal processes.  The attempt to use this theory to analyse tone and tonal processes revealed its weaknesses and birthed a new theory known as Autosegmental phonology.  Notice that in linear theory, distinctive features are units that are put together to form a sound, and the difference between one sound and another is attributed to the different composition of distinctive features the segments are composed of.  This raises the question of how tonal features could be captured using distinctive features. If a sound bears a high tone, how can it be distinguished from other sounds bearing low, mid, rising and falling tones?  One approach to the analysis of tones was to treat tone as a distinctive feature. Thus, in addition to the features [+syllabic, +back, +high, +round etc.] that come together the form the vowel [u], we add one or two distinctive features to show the specific tone that the vowel bears.  As part of the solution, two tone features were proposed to take care of both level and contour tones. These are [±High tone] and [±contour tone].  The following are the specifications of various tones for these two tonal features. o A high tone (H) = [+High tone, -contour] o A low tone (L) = [-High tone, -contour] o A rising tone (R) = [-High tone, +contour] o A falling tone (F) = [+High tone, +contour] Problems:  There are a number of immediate questions that this proposal cannot answer: o How about mid tones? o How about different levels of high tones (e.g. super high tones)? o How about more complex tones such as fall-rise and rise fall? Tonal contours as products of tonal assimilation  A much bigger challenge to the theory was posed by contour tones that result from tonal processes, especially tonal assimilations.  There are four such crosslinguistically common tonal rules producing surface contour tones which the theory must be able to account for. (a). H --> F/ __{L, R} (b). L --> R/ __ {H, F} (c). H --> R / {L, F}___ (d). L --> F/{H,R}___  With the proposed approach within linear phonology, Rule (a) and Rule (b) can be accounted for as follows: o Rule (a) = [+Hi, -contour] --> [+contour]/ __ [-H tone]. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 7 notes Page 1 of 4 January 09, 2025  o Rule (b) = [-H] --> [+contour] / __ [+H].  The problem is that, Rule (c) and Rule (d) cannot be accounted for. This is because in Rule (c), low and falling tones have no distinctive feature in common.  Similarly, the triggering tones in Rule (d) have no distinctive feature in common to trigger the same tonal process.  In fact, given the nature of linear derivational phonology, rules (c) and (d) are actually predicted not to exist, since it is not possible for two different units which lack any feature in common to trigger one phonological process.  In other words, the two tones that trigger the same phonological process in each of rules (c) and (d) do not form natural classes in their respective rules, and thus are not supposed to trigger the same tonal process.  Given that these rules are attested in many languages, we can only fault the theory for not being able to analyse naturally occurring phonological patterns.  It is these and other weaknesses of linear theory that gave rise to the quest for an alternative theory, culminating in the birth of Autosegmental Phonology. Autosegmental phonology, the main idea:  In Autosegmental Phonology, tone is assumed to be independent of segments.  Tone is associated with segments, as tone must be borne by segments. A toneme cannot be seen without the segment that bears it.  Thus, tone is like a baby that cannot be seen outside alone. It is always carried by an adult. However, the fact that the baby always needs to be carried and cannot be seen without another adult does not mean that the baby is not a separate human being.  The tone and the segment are linked via association lines. This means there are several possibilities in terms of association: o (a) one-to-one, (b) one-to-many, (c) many-to-one, (d) floating tone, (e) toneless TBU. These are illustrated below. a. T T b. T c. TT d. T e. VC0V VC0V V V  In instances of one-to-one and many-to-one associations, there can be two or more different level tones. (a) H L (b) LH (c) H L (d) LH papa (pápà) papa (pàpá) pa (pâ) pa (pǎ)  A contour tone is always the result of a many-to-one association of tone to TBUs, as examples (c) and (d) show. The contour tone is not special, it is merely a sequence of two different level tones associated with one TBU. Autosegmental phonology and contour tones.  When tonal rules take place, the resulting contour tones are due to re-association between tones and TBUs. Let's the take the two rules that linear theory could not analyse: Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 7 notes Page 2 of 4 January 09, 2025  H → R/{L, F}__ L → F/{H,R}___  Each rule states two environments under which contours are formed. In the above rule, high tone (H) becomes rising (R) after low (L) and also after a falling (F).  An important point is that, both L and F end with L. Thus, any tone that comes after L or F comes after a low tone. The two tones are the same as far as their relationship with following tones is concerned.  What that means is that, the high initial pitch in a falling tone has no effect on the eventual outcome. The two UR forms are shown below. L H (H tone following a low tone) H L H (H tone following a falling tone). V V V V  To express the lack of effect of the H tone in the triggering environment, we put it in parenthesis.  The assimilatory process is expressed as a dotted association line linking the TBU to the new tone it has acquired. In the surface form, the dotted line is changed to a solid line. These are shown below. UR Tone assimilation Surface form /(H) L H/ → (H) L H → (H) L H V V VV VV  Notice that in this example, the second vowel bears the tone that is the target of the tonal assimilation, the first bears the tone that triggers the assimilatory process.  Now let us look at the other rule that could not be analysed in linear segmental phonology: L → F/{H, R}__  This also gets a straightforward analysis because H and R both end in H. Thus, whether the trigger is H or R, the target is preceded by H. UR Tone assimilation Surface Form (L) H L → (L) H L → (L) H L V V V V V V Exercise: Do an Autosegmetnal Phonology analysis of the remaining two rules we studied last week. Summary:  It is evident that Autosegmental Phonology has proven to be a better theory at analysing tone, as it is able to provide an analysis of contour tones, something linear segmental phonology failed to analyse.  There are two more tonal properties we will look at in demonstrating the relative strength of Autosegmental Phonology over Linear theory. These are tonal stability/tone preservation and floating tone. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 7 notes Page 3 of 4 January 09, 2025 Tonal stability/tone preservation.  In tone languages, the deletion of a TBU does not necessarily result in the deletion of the tone it bears. When TBUs are deleted, the tone they bear usually remain, producing contour tones.  This is illustrated in the data on Yekhee, illustrated below. a. /ídzé élà → [ídzélà] ‘three axes’ b. /èké élà → [èkélà] ‘three rams’ c. /òké òkpá → [òkôkpá] ‘one ram’ d. /ówà ówà/ → [ówǒwà] ‘every house’  If the tone feature is part of the segment as assumed in linear derivational theory, it will not be possible for the tone to remain when the segment, along with all the features it bears, deletes.  In Autosegmental Phonology, this is not a problem, as the tones are not assumed to be part of the segments. The analysis too is a straightforward one. All what happens is that, the preserved tone re-links to another TBU.  Example with /òké òkpá → [òkôkpá] ‘one ram’ and /èké élà → [èkélà] ‘three rams’ UR V deletion and Tone Surface floating tone re-linking form L HL H → LH L H → LH L H → LHL H oke okpa ok okpa ok okpa okokpa  In /èké élà → [èkélà], the deletion of the TBU results in a sequence of two H tones. This is simplified to one H tone by the application of convention known as the twin sister convention. The twin sister convention says that there can be no adjacent identical tones on one vowel. UR V deletion and Tone Twin sister Surface floating tone re-linking convention form L H HL → L HHL → L HH L → L HL L HL eke ela ek ela ek ela ek ela ek ela  What forces the unlinked (floating) tone that results from the deletion of the vowel to re-link to another TBU?  It is the Welformedness Condition, which says that all TBUs must (eventually) bear some tone, and all tones must be borne by a TBU. Floating tone.  The final tonal pattern that supports Autosegmetnal Phonology is floating tone. A floating tone is one that at some point is not associated with any TBU. We shall discuss this in our next lecture, using data on Dialect of Ewe. Dr. F. Hudu. LNGS 401 Lecture 7 notes Page 4 of 4 January 09, 2025