Phonology PDF - Sultan MoulaySlimane University

Okay, here is the markdown version of the provided text. I have done my best to retain all the information, fix the table formats, mathematical formulas, and clarity. ```markdown # Phonology ### Sultan MoulaySlimane University ### Faculty of Arts & Humanities ### Department of English **Phonetics...

Okay, here is the markdown version of the provided text. I have done my best to retain all the information, fix the table formats, mathematical formulas, and clarity. ```markdown # Phonology ### Sultan MoulaySlimane University ### Faculty of Arts & Humanities ### Department of English **Phonetics & Phonology** **Semester 5** **Professor Zaid** Phonology is the study of how sounds are structured and organized in various languages. Understanding the sound organization of a language involves describing the components of its phonological system, the simplification processes that occur when sounds are combined in everyday speech, and the specific positional rules that govern sound combinations in that language. ## 1.1. The units of a phonological system are: a) **Features:** aspects or characteristics of a speech sound that arise from the way the sound is articulated or the way it sounds to the ear. 'Voicing' is a feature that varies according to whether or not the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation of a sound; the sound \[s] is voiceless, but the sound \[z] is voiced, for example. Other features include 'manner': a 'stop' involves blocking the airstream completely as for \[p], while a 'fricative' involves creating a narrow opening through which air escapes, as for \[f]. Suprasegmental features are characteristics that apply to syllables or words as a whole. One example is stress, commonly referred to as the emphasis placed on certain parts of a word. In the word "potato," the stress is on the second syllable, while in "promise," it is on the first. b) **Segments:** a segment is a speech sound such as \[m] or \[i]. Speech sounds are made by putting several features together. \[m], for example, is created by vibrating the vocal cords (feature: voiced), closing the mouth at the lips (feature: bilabial), and lowering the soft palate so that air can escape through the nose (feature: nasal). These three actions occur simultaneously. The result is a voiced bilabial nasal \[m]. Therefore, segments are constructed from features, which serve as the building blocks/fundamental components of segments. c) **Syllables:** a syllable is a rhythmic unit of speech. They exist to make the speech stream easier for the human to produce and to process. A syllable comprises one or more segments. It is a unit of sound in a word that typically consists of a vowel sound, often accompanied by consonants. Syllables are the building blocks of words and can be considered a single beat in spoken language. For example, the word "cat" has one syllable, while "banana" has three syllables. d) **Words:** words are made of syllables. ## 1.2. The patterns or rule systems of a phonological system include: ### 1.2.1. Phonological processes Phonological processes are changes that happen to sounds in speech to make them easier to say. These modifications often simplify the pronunciation of words. Here are a few examples: 1. **Assimilation:** A sound becomes more like a neighboring sound. * Example: In "input," the /n/ sound may be pronounced more like /m/ (as /impʊt/) when spoken quickly. 2. **Elision:** A sound is omitted to make pronunciation easier. * Example: In "next day," the /t/ in "next" might be dropped, leading to pronunciation like /nɛksdei/. 3. **Dissimilation:** Two similar sounds become less alike. * Example: In some dialects, "fifth" might be pronounced as "fift" to avoid repeating the /θ/ and /f/ sounds closely. 4. **Flapping:** A /t/ or /d/ between vowels becomes a quick /d/ sound. * Example: "butter" can be pronounced as /'bʌdər/ instead of /'bʌtər/ in American English. These processes help speakers articulate words more smoothly and naturally. ### 1.2.2. Phonotactics Also known as sequence constraints. These are restrictions on the number and type of segments that can combine to form syllables and words; they vary greatly from one language to another. In English, for example, a word may begin with up to three consonants, but no more than three. If a word does begin with three consonants, the first will always be [s], the second must be chosen from among the voiceless stops \[p t k] and the third from among the liquids \[l, r] or glides \[w, y]. Thus we get words such as 'squeeze' \[skwi:z] in English, but not words such as \[pstap]. ## II. Phonemes A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word. A phoneme is a distinctive or contrastive sound in a language. Different phonemes make contrasts in words. For example, in English, the words "bat" and "pat" differ only in the initial sound: /b/ and /p/. Here, /b/ and /p/ are phonemes because they create different meanings. Here we see how the phonemes of a language are determined, by means of what are called minimal pairs. ### Allophone An allophone or phone is a variation of a phoneme that does not change the meaning of a word. Allophones are context-dependent and can sound different based on their position in a word or the sounds around them. For example, the /t/ in "top" \[thap] is pronounced with a puff of air (aspirated), while in "stop" \[stap], it is unaspirated. Both are variations of the same phoneme /t/, so they are allophones. Phonemes and allophones are always language-specific. For example, in Korean, /s/ and /ʃ/ are allophones of the same phoneme. Koreans may pronounce the English "ship" as "sip," as they do not differentiate between these two sounds in their language. In Japanese [I] and [r] are allophones of the same phoneme, hence the difficulty many native Japanese speakers have with these two distinct sounds in English. ## II.1. Phonemic rules The allophones of phoneme are predictable and hence can be stated in terms of a phonemic rule. Phonemic rules specify the different environments in which the allophones of a given phoneme are found. The phonemic rules for allophonic variation can be formalized as follows: /x/ → \[y]/ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \[z]/ elsewhere The symbol between the slashes /x/ represents the phoneme, while the symbols in square brackets represent the allophones \[y] and \[z]. The arrow → means 'is realized as' or 'has the allophones'. Thus, this rule reads "the phoneme x has the allophones y and z." Furthermore, the slash / means 'in the environment'. Following the slash, the phonetic environment in which the allophone is found is stated. The environment of the last allophone is always stated as "elsewhere", meaning all other environments. The "elsewhere allophone" is the one with the widest distribution, the one found in the greatest variety of environments. Note that "elsewhere" includes all environments excluding the environments already listed above in the rule; thus you always read the rule from top to bottom. Environments are quite varied, and they are generally abbreviated in this way, e.g.: | Symbol | Definition | | :----- | :-------------------------------------- | | \# | word or syllable boundary | | \_ | position of the allophone | | \#- | word or syllable initial | | -\# | word or syllable final | | V₀-V₀ | between vowels | | \#-Vó | word or syllable initial before a stressed vowel | | C-\_ | following a consonant | | -C | preconsonantal | ### II.1.1. The voiceless stop /p/ has a number of variants: /p/ → \[pʰ]/ \#-Vó port, party, computer, apart \[p]/-Cstop-\# capped, opt, scepter, cap, rope, \[p]/elsewhere sport, spring, apron, proclaim, tipsy This rule says that: (1) the phoneme /p/ is realized as aspirated \[ph] syllable initially before a stressed vowel; (2) it is unreleased \[p] before another stop consonant or word finally; and (3) it is \[p] in all other environments. ### II.1.2. The voiceless stop /t/ has more variants than /p/: /t/ → \[tʰ]/ \#-Vó tongue, return, attend \[tⁿ]/ \_\_\_\_\_\[n, n] fitness, mitten \[tˡ]/ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\[l] atlas, butler \[ɾ]/Vó-\_\_V₀, Vó-\[r],Vó-\[1] city, matter bottle \[t̪]/ \_\_\_\_\_\_\[θ, ð] at that, eighth \[t̚]/ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_-Cstop' -\# footprint, hatpin, rat, root \[t]/elsewhere stop, try, twin, attract, matron This rule reads that the phoneme /t/ has as its allophones: (1) an aspirated \[tʰ] syllable initially before a stressed vowel; (2) a nasal-released \[tⁿ] before \[n] or syllabic \[n]; (3) a lateral-released \[tˡ] before \[1] (and for some speakers before \[1]); (4) a flap \[ɾ] between a stressed vowel and a vowel or syllabic liquid; (5) a dentalized \[t̪] before dental consonants; (6) an unreleased \[t̚] before a stop consonant or syllable or word finally; and (7) \[t] in all other contexts. Concerning the flap allophone \[ɾ], note that a stressed vowel must precede a flap. Therefore in the following sets of words, there is flapping in Column 1 but not in Column 2, where the stressed vowel follows rather than precedes the "t". In Column 2 the aspirated \[tʰ] allophone occurs since it is found syllable initially preceding a stressed vowel: | Column 1 | \[ɾ] | Column 2 | \[tʰ] | | :-------- | :---------- | :-------- | :----------- | | photograph | | photographer | | | fraternize | fraternal | | atom | | atomic | | ### II.1.3. The phoneme /n/ also has a number of predictable variants /n/ → \[ɱ]/ -Clabiodental infamous, information, confirm environment \[n̪]/ -Cdental month, ninth, in the \[ŋ]/ -Cyelar incongreoss, increase, ingrown \[n]/ Cobstruent-\# leaden, madden, kitten, listen \[n]/elsewhere noise, pound, tons, funny, pin This rule states that: (1) the phoneme /n/ is realized as the labiodental nasal \[ɱ] before labiodental consonants; (2) as dentalized \[n̪] before the dental consonants /θ/ and /ð/; (3) as velar \[ŋ] before velar consonants; (4) as syllabic \[n] word finally following obstruents; and (5) as \[n] in all other environments. **HINT:** The symbol \[ɱ] represents a labiodental nasal. Concentrate on the position of your upper lip and lower teeth when you articulate the above words. Also try to think up other examples of words in which labiodental nasals occur. ### Diacritics | Diacritic | Symbol | Diacritic | Symbol | Diacritic | Symbol | | :----------- | :----- | :------------ | :----- | :------------- | :----- | | devoicing | \[ L] | syllabic | \[ .] | fronting | \[+] | | aspiration | \[ʰ] | nasal release | \[" ] | retracting | \[-\] | | unreleased | \[ ˺] | lateral release | \[ˡ] | nasalization | \[˜] | | dentalization | \[̪] | length | \[:], \[ː] | velarization | \[ˠ] | | | | | | labialization | \[ʷ] | ### Exercise Specify the environments where these allophones occur following this allphonic rule formula: /x/ → \[y]/ different environments \[z]/ elsewhere /p/ \[ph]: port, party, computer, apart \[p˺]: capped, opt, cap, rope \[p]: sport, spring, apron, proclaim, tipsy /t/ \[th]: tongue, return, attend \[ɾ]: city, matter, bottle \[t̪]: footprint, rat, root \[t]: stop, try, twin, attract ## III. Phonological processes Words do not usually come by themselves, but are accompanied by many others! As words come together, they affect each other, usually to make the transition between one word and the next smoother. Phonological processes are processes of simplification in pronunciation (typical of most informal conversational speech) that refer to modification of sound structure, sound insertion or omission (elision) essentially for ease of articulation. a) **Assimilation:** A process of simplification consisting in the adjustment of sounds as result of the influence of neighbouring sounds. The adjustment makes the phoneme more similar to its environment. Take a simple example like Ten green bottles...the pronunciation often and green changes because of the contact each has with adjacent words. In this case, ten would probably be pronounced with its /n/ changing to /ŋ/ in anticipation of its contact with the /g/ of green; and green would probably be pronounced with its /n/ changing to /m/ in anticipation of its contact with the /b/ of bottles... The adjustment of the /n/ in ten to the velar articulation of the /g/ in green is a case of assimilation: the /n/ becomes velar /ŋ/ which shares an identical feature with the velar articulation of /g/. Similarly, the /n/ of green becomes bilabial /m/ in anticipation of the bilabial articulation of /b/ in bottles. Word-final /n/ regularly adjusts itself in English to the anticipated point of articulation of the consonant at the beginning of the next word. Think of common phrases with the prepositions on and in which are followed by words beginning with bilabial /p, b, m/ and you will notice that the /n/ easily adjusts itself to /m/ in anticipation. | on purpose | in person | | :--------- | :---------- | | on behalf | in between | In a parallel way, word-final /n/ easily adjusts to a velar /ŋ/ in anticipation of the consonants /k, g/: on call, on grass - in keeping - in case An identical case of assimilation occurs in the prefixes un- and -in: | unpleasant | /ʌm'plɛzənt/ | input | /'ɪmpʊt/ | | :--------- | :------------- | :-------- | :------- | | unbalanced | | inbuilt | | | unmade | | inmate | | | unkind | | incorrect | | | ungrateful | | ingratitude | | All these cases of /n/ assimilation involve adjustments from one phoneme, /n/, to another, /m, ŋ/. These are instances of phonemic assimilation. Assimilation of final /d/ in English is almost parallel to that of /n/, the /d/ becomes bilabial /b/ - retaining its voicing – before bilabial /p, b, m/, and becomes velar /g/ before velar /k, g/. Notice the process in | bad penny | /'bæb 'pɛni/ | red kite | /'rɛg 'kaɪt/ | | :---------- | :----------- | :------------ | :----------- | | good boy | | bad girl | | | red meat | | good gracious | | But final /d/ may also for some speakers become post-alveolar /dʒ/ before palatal /j/. Notice the process in | a bad year | /ə 'bædʒ 'jɪə/ | good use | /'gʊdʒ 'ju:s/ | | :--------- | :------------- | :-------- | :------------- | Assimilation of final /t/ in English used to be exactly parallel to assimilation of final /d/, producing /p/ and /k/ - retaining voicelessness - before bilabial /b, p, m/ and velar /k, g/. Thus hot potato would be /hpppəteɪtəʊ/ and white cross / waikkrps/. But a new tendency has developed and that is to articulate final /t/ as a glottal stop \[?]. This produces hot as \[hp?] and white as \[wait?], which eliminates any possibility of assimilation. Listen to the two possibilities in the following phrases: | hot \[?] potato | hot /p/ potato | white \[?] cross | white /k/ cross | | :--------------- | :------------- | :---------------- | :--------------- | | not \[?] bad | not / p/ bad | eight \[?] goals | eight /k/ goals | | right \[?] mess | right /p/ mess | | | Final /s/ and /z/ assimilate to post-alveolar /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in the face of post- alveolar /ʃ, tʃ, dʒ/ and palatal /j/, Consider phrases with this /ðɪs/ and these /ði:z/ | this shop | /ðɪʃ 'ʃɒp/ | these shops | /ði:ʒ 'ʃɒps/ | | :-------- | :---------- | :---------- | :---------- | | this chair | | these chairs | | | this job | | these jobs | | | this year | | these years | | These are the main cases of assimilation in English. Assimilation - phonemic or allophonic - is usually anticipatory: it anticipates either the adjustment in the place of articulation of final /n, d, t, s, z/ before certain consonants, or the devoicing of fricatives (and occasionally, plosives) before voiceless consonants. Assimilation is also occasionally coalescent: when two successive consonants affect each other as in cases like /d/ followed by /j/ as in did you? /'dıdʒ u/ b) **Elision** A second type of simplification involves not an adjustment to a sound, but its complete removal. This is known as elision; the missing sound is said to have been elided. Take the name Christmas as an example; it used to be a compound consisting of Christ and mass, but in the course of time, the /t/ of the first word has been elided, and nowadays nobody would normally pronounce the name with a /t/. Similarly, the word handkerchief used to be a compound consisting of hand and kerchief, but again in the course of time the /d/ of the first word has been elided. As it happens, elision mainly affects final /t, d/ if they are preceded by a consonant (see above). Consider the elision of final /d/. Notice what has happened to the /d/ in these other (formerly compound) words: handsome, sandwich, grandfather, grandchildren Notice too that as /d/ is elided in grandparents, the preceding /n/ is adjacent toa bilabial consonant and assimilates to /p/ by becoming /m/: Try and transcribe: | grandpa | | | :---------- | :------------------- | | grandmother | | | grandma | | keeping a 'double' /m/ for the assimilating /n/ and the /m/ of the second part of the compound. Transcribe, likewise: | handbag | /'hæmˌbæg/ | | :------ | :----------- | | windbag | | | windmill | | Transcribe | handset | /'hænˌsɛt/ | | :--------- | :----------- | | landscape | | | bandstand | | | friendship | | | bend them | | Elision, however, does not take place if the following consonant is /h/, such as in | hand held | /'hændˌ hɛld/ | | :-------- | :------------- | | grand house | | | wild horse | | | old hand | | and is optional if the approximants /r, w/ and /I/ follow | hand rail | | hand luggage | | | :---------- | :--------------- | :----------- | :------------------- | | Grand Rapids | | landlocked | | | old rope | | old lady | | | wild west | | wild lily | | If /j/ follows, assimilation to /dʒ/ usually takes place If /j/ follows, assimilation to /dʒ/ usually takes place | land use | /'lændʒ 'ju:s/ | | :------- | :------------- | | old year | | Thus, /d/ elision takes place if it is word-final, preceded by a consonant and fol- lowed immediately by a word beginning with a consonant (but with the above exceptions). It also takes place if a suffix follows which begins with the right kind of consonant. Thus /d/ is elided in friends, and may optionally be elided in friendly. What about these words? | friendship | | | :--------- | :-------- | | blindness | | | childless | | | worldly | | | handful | | | child's play | | Now, the elision of /t/. Just as /t/ has been elided in Christmas, and also in words like castle, listen, whistle, wrestle, soften, it is also elided in postman, facts, vastness. Some people, but not all, elide the /t/ in often: /'ɒftən, 'ɒfən/. Otherwise, it appears to parallel the case of /d/ elision, but the preceding consonant must be voiceless in the case of /t/ elision. Thus, /t/ is elided in | facts | /'fæks/ | but not in | faults | | :-------- | :------- | :------------- | :------------ | | instincts | /'ɪnstɪŋks/ | but not in | intents | | vastness | /'vansnəs/ | but not in | pleasantness | Transcribe | soft spot | /'sɒf 'spɒt/ | | :-------- | :--------------- | | lost cause | | | left foot | | | vast spaces | | | apt remarks | | | Act Three | | | just now | | | best thing | | c) **Epenthesis** It refers to the addition of a sound as another way of simplifying pronunciation. Consider the word young. Its final consonant is a voiced velar nasal /ŋ/. Now consider the derived form youngster. You will notice that the ending begins with /s/, a voiceless alveolar fricative. The /s/ articulation is different in every respect from the /ŋ/ articulation; /s/ is voiceless, /ŋ/ is voiced; /s/ is oral, /ŋ/ is nasal; /s/ is fricative, /ŋ/ requires complete closure; and /s/ is alveolar, /ŋ/ is velar. Thus, the transition to /s/ from /ŋ/ involves four changes: at the vocal folds, with the soft palate, with a different degree of closure with a different part of the tongue. The transition from /ŋ/ to /s/ is staggered, with the result that an extra - transitional – sound is produced. That 'transitional' sound has the voicelessness and 'orality' of /s/ but the tongue position of the /ŋ/, and is thus identical to the articulation of the English consonant /k/. This explains why many people, who do not synchronize all four changes, insert an additional, transitional, /k/: /"jʌŋkstə/ This process of adding, or inserting, an extra transitional sound is known as epenthesis. A parallel process of epenthesis happens in hamster, hamster. A parallel case of epenthesis happens in monster. Although /n/ and /s/ share an alveolar point of articulation, the tongue changes from a flat 'broad' contact to a grooved shape. As in the other transitions, the tongue movement may lag behind, leaving the flat 'broad' contact fractionally longer; this helps toproduce