Lecture 4: Hong Kong as a Place of Conflict (2024)

1 Lecture 4: Hong Kong as a place of conflict over hearts and minds IDENTITY POLITICS BEYOND LEFT AND RIGHT GEJC1020 Hong Kong Story Lecture outline 2 Part I – Identity: some basic concepts Part II – The highly permeable boundary before 1970s Part III – Shapi...

1 Lecture 4: Hong Kong as a place of conflict over hearts and minds IDENTITY POLITICS BEYOND LEFT AND RIGHT GEJC1020 Hong Kong Story Lecture outline 2 Part I – Identity: some basic concepts Part II – The highly permeable boundary before 1970s Part III – Shaping of HK identity 1.0 (late 1960s-1980s) Part IV – Boundary dissolving? Re-discovering the connection (1980s-1997)? Nation vs. market? Part V – Conclusion: Post-1997, boundary re-boot? Consolidation or fragmentation of identity?  3 Part I – Identity: some basic concepts Sources of identity 4 Identity  How we as individuals view or perceive ourselves as unique from others.  Perceived as ‘dynamic’ and ‘fluid’  Established and extracted in interaction.  Transmitted from generation to generation, from cultural group member to newcomer.  The web of identity: e.g. Malaysian (National) Chinese (Ethnic) Muslim (Cultural/Religion) Female (Gender) Student (Role in classroom) with parents as professionals (Class) Cultural identity. Handout for Intercultural Communication. University of Kent  5 - Complex and multi-layered interaction between identity and social structure. Individuals are surrounded by large social forces; they live their lives with limited options available to them when making decisions and choices. Cultural identity. Handout for Intercultural Communication. University of Kent  6  National identity – society of nation state  Imagined political communities (Anderson 1983).  Facilitated by printed press (now internet?)  Powerful emotive cultural forms in modern society.  Most often, geographically defined (territory).  Appear homogeneous (actual: heterogeneous).  May or may not overlap with ethnicity.  Often, leads to exclusionary acts and the racialization of ‘others’.  E.g. BREXIT and US immigration ban Anderson, B. 1983/2006. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso Books.  7  Race  Idea that people can be (biologically) classified into different ‘racial types’.  Frequently related to superiority / inferiority.  Associate with stereotypes – positive or negative.  No genetic evidence!  Ethnicity  People develop different forms of culture over time.  Form cultural identities and sense of belonging.  Ethnic group identity: shared - cultural traditions, religious beliefs, common language, territorial origin, lifestyles.  Cultural differences (no good or bad).  Formation of ‘local’ 8 identity in a ‘new’ society Ethnic groups: migrate and Ways of settle doing things: habits, Local institutions, concerns: new culture political movement and Acknowledgement: Dr.Lau S.L. organization  9 Part II – The relatively permeable boundary before 1970s SD: THE ‘DEPOLITICIZED’ REFUGEE IDENTITY (1950S- 1960S)? HD: LEFT-RIGHT POLITICS IN THE 1950S AND 1960S  Formation of ‘local’ 10 identity in a ‘new’ society Ethnic groups: migrate and settle Acknowledgement: Dr.Lau S.L. Phase 1 – before 1949 11 The unsettled society? Chung Ying Street Immigration / Emigration 12 history of Hong Kong  Phase 1 – Before 1949  Like Sha Tau Kok, limited to no border control  Hong Kong identity very weak or virtually ‘not’ existing.  Laborers: resistance to colonial state  return to China during the Canton–Hong Kong strike 1925-6.  Business people – connection to China was important.  Colonial state – no need to severe (cultural) tie, Chinese culture helped ‘ruling’.  Phase 2 – 1949-1974 influx of migrants  Mandatory possession of ID card  Sha Tau Kok shooting incident 1967  border closing Phase 2 – 1949-1974 influx of 13 migrants and refugees  Great Leap Forward (大躍進) 1958-1961  Great Chinese Famine (三年大饑荒) – 1959-1961 (15-45 million deaths)  Cultural Revolution (文化大革命) – 1966-1976  Yet: political reasons in ‘loose’ and ‘hard’ border control: Sino- British bargaining chips and others. Phase 2 – 1949-1974 influx 14 of migrants Old Hong Kong copes with refugees 1954 https://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=dAjyPLWDGzk Refugee Problem Nears Crisis (1959)* https://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=qY5wLZKglpM Hong Kong refugee problem 1960 https://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=nkk7fQUQ3Yg SD: The ‘depoliticized’ Refugee Identity (1950s- 1960s); refugee = politically apathetic 15 Colonial Bureaucrat Society minimally integrated Refugee society - Short-term time horizon - Don’t rock the boat (emphasis on social stability) - Emphasis on material values - Primacy of familiar interests  utilitarianistic recruitment of members of family and ‘vagueness’ of its boundary - Aloofness (冷漠) towards society and low social participation - Lack of ‘horizontal’ organization (community group) Lau Siu-kai. 1982. Society and Politics in Hong Kong. Hong Kong : CU Press.  Utilitarian familism in action (comics): Tony Wong Yuk-long’s Oriental Heroes (龍 16 虎門、小流氓) Oriental Heroes First published in 1970 under the title Little Rascals (小流氓) Stories about people living in squatter/public housing estates in Hong Kong fighting gangsters and criminals.  https://www.youtube.c http://ivan-ho.com/yuklong/70s/the70s.htm om/watch?v=Wq5gz50i O8w 17 Local  portrayed as 18 depoliticized and apolitical? 1. (in comic) Denationalized? - Rural to urban, but little mention of the nation in the comics. Mainly about local urban life and daily encounter. 2. (in comic) Apolitical? - Government was irrelevant to the young comic heroes  almost no presence of police in the comic. Dispute sort out ‘informally’. - Utilitarian recruitment: youth (immigrants, orphans) become sworn brothers to protect against other gangs (themselves becoming gangs).  19 HD? Tram strike 1949 http://trove.nla.gov.au/ newspaper/article/181 38689 HD: Left-Right Politics in 20 the 50s and 60s - Numerous politically charged industrial conflicts before the 50s: The mechanics’ strikes in 1947 Strikes in the public utilities industries Trams Union strike in 1949 Pro Kuomintang (KMT) - Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council (港九工團 聯合總會 1948) vs. Pro Communist Party of China (CCP) -Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (香港工會聯合會 1948) HD: Left-Right Politics in the 21 50s and 60s Refugee mentality was not apolitical, but some were political. Many refugees that came to Hong Kong were highly committed to politics, forming pro-KMT and pro-CCP communities. Identity initially oriented towards Chinese politics.  Cold War context: HK  Berlin of the East  HD: Left-Right Politics in 22 the 50s and 60s (Riots)  1956 Pro-Nationalists Riot  Pro-Nationalists attacked pro- Communist factions in Hong Kong during Double Ten Day, 10 October 1956.  59 were killed, and 500 more were injured. Estimated lost: US $1,000,000.  HD: Left-Right Politics in the 23 50s and 60s (Tiu Keng Leng) Image: upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Tiu_Keng_Leng_1995.jpg HD: Left-Right Politics in the 24 50s and 60s (Tiu Keng Leng)  Kuomintang refugees from Chinese Civil War initially resided near Kennedy Town, Western District of Hong Kong.  Around 3,000 persons. Tung Wah Group provided meals and basic charity function at Kennedy Town.  1950 June 18, a group of 80 people, mostly CCP supporters and students, danced in front of the refugee camp (秧歌舞事件), resulting in bloody confrontation.  On June 25, 26, the colonial government shipped all refugees to now Tiu Keng Leng area.  25 Image source: zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tiu_Keng_Leng.JPG HD: Left-Right Politics in the 26 50s and 60s (Tiu Keng Leng)  Colonial strategy: to do minimal.  Supplied only bricks and basic construction materials. Meals were provided until 1953. Self- sustaining thereafter.  No attempt of the government to ‘rule’ these refugees.  Waiting for repatriation to Taiwan or others. Majority were ex-soldiers.  Local KMT resorted to self-governance. Church intervened to provide schools and medical care.  Identified strongly with KMT-Chinese identity HD: Left-Right Politics in the 27 50s and 60s (1967 Leftists riots)  Date: May- December 1967  Death(s): 52  Injuries: 802  Arrested: 1936 persons  KMT relatively low profile (not the main target, rather, anti- colonial) Half-way summary 28 Aftermaths of 1967 riots?  Extension of Chinese politics - 1967 riots targeted ‘colonial rule’ but not ‘way of ruling’.  Refugees active in participation in Chinese politics, not (allowed to) involved in colonial governance.  Aftermath : local (majority) favored stability under colonial regime (successfully suppressed riots), change of tide  distance from politics in mainland China  Britain: measures to deal with ‘crisis of legitimacy’  Increased ‘welfare’ and ‘right’ for the locals.  Housing, ICAC, police reform, hospital, labor rights, jobs  Golden Era under Governor Murray MacLehose (but sociologists also argued reform occurred way before him).  29 Society turn inward and outward (world): initial rise of local identity. Note how Leung tried to distance himself from the street protest in the 1990 movie – mentality formed after 1967? (break 5mins)  30 Part III – Shaping of HK identity 1.0: (late 1960s - 1980s) SD: TOP DOWN BY THE COLONIAL STATE? (1970S) HD: REFLECTION OF LOCAL IDENTITY IN POPULAR CULTURE AND RISE OF LOCAL SOCIAL MOVEMENT  Formation of ‘local’ 31 identity in a ‘new’ society Ethnic groups: migrate and Ways of settle doing things: habits, institutions, new culture Acknowledgement: Dr.Lau S.L. Phase 3 ‘Touch Base’ for 32 illegal immigrants  ‘Touch Base’ ((抵壘政策) 1974-1980) and industrialization  Q: Why requiring them to reach urban area?  Selection process - young labor forces with local support from relative or friends. Reflect social policy? http://zh.wikipedia.org/ The 1970s - Emergence of 33 “populist local identity”  “Public opinion across the ideological spectrum would agree that from the 1960s on, a distinct Hong Kong ethos emerged.”  “It came with a generation of post-war baby boomers whose education and professional achievements had been tied to the territory at a time when China was turned inward, with Hong Kong projected to the world almost by default.”  “This coincided with the Hong Kong Government's decision to invest heavily in the territory's future after long-neglected social issues exploded in the riots of the late 1960s.” Helen F. Siu 1999 “Hong Kong: Cultural Kaleidoscope on a World Landscape” in Gary G. Hamilton (ed.) Cosmopolitan Capitalists: Hong Kong and the Chinese Diaspora at the End of the 20th Century, Seattle: University of Washington Press. Postwar baby-boomers (1961) 34 Age Group Hong Kong born/Total Total Under 6 96.11% 594278 6-7 95.24% 683296 8-9 84.06% 158441 10-11 73.37% 157064 12-13 64.88% 139610 14-15 56.54% 94201 16-17 44.00% 65746 18-19 41.41% 58914 20-24 34.75% 202741 25-34 21.72% 517117 35-44 15.76% 437991 45-54 13.53% 291118 55-64 12.92% 150631 65 or over 13.32% 87918 Total 47.70% 3129648 Sources: Hong Kong Report on the 1961 Census, Volume II  35 1966 Star Ferry Incidents  Kowloon Riots  triggered colonial concerns of the ‘local’ – who then had more concern of HK as ‘home’. SD: Hong Kong Identity - Top down 36 by the colonial state? (1970s) http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11072013 SD: HKID top down by the 37 colonial state? (1970s)  Government Intervention: Mobilization of locals. Note: under a new financial secretary. John James Cowperthwaite Charles Philip Haddon-Cave  Hong Kong Festival held in 1969, 1971, 1973  Hong Kong Arts Festival since 1973  Hong Kong International Film Festival since 1977 SD: HKID top down by the 38 colonial state? (1970s) E.g. Clean Hong Kong Campaign – via Mutual Aid Committee organized a civic awareness. TRUE, but not a complete image  HD: Reflection of local 39 Identity in popular culture From early hybridization of western culture and local Chinese culture  birth of Canton pop music The Tower by Sam Hui (Just like this 就此模樣, 1972/4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uVNmwzy8eVk Sam Hui Koon-kit, God of 40 (Cantonese) Song 1974  “No other singer has got to the heart of Hongkongers' love of their home city, and The Tower wraps listeners in a warm blanket of nostalgia. In the song, a man travelling the world yearns for the pleasures of home and says the things he sees - the Statue of Liberty, Mount Fuji and the Honolulu coastline - can't compare with the sparkling lights and fishing boats of Hong Kong.” (SCMP) http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/article/1271023/sounds-nothing-us HD: Reflection of local 41 Identity in popular culture  Film and TV dramas - increasing portrayal of ‘what Hong Kong people is / should be like’…  …by constructing a ‘racialized other’ in the 1980s.  Formation of ‘local’ 42 identity in a ‘new’ society Ethnic groups: migrate and Ways of settle doing things: habits, Local institutions, concerns: new culture political movement and Acknowledgement: Dr.Lau S.L. organization HD: Reflection of local Identity 43 in local social movement (1970s) Waves of protests and social actions marked local’s desire to participate in political affairs (again, not apolitical). Fading of old political discourse (left-right politics ) and emergence of new political agenda Student movements (1970s onward) consolidate HK identity: Campaign for Chinese as an Official Language Daoyutai Movement Anti-corruption demonstration Housing movements Further division among the educated elites between the China-Essence Faction (國粹派focus on Mainland development as China opened up) and the Social Faction (社會派 focus on Hong Kong). HD: Reflection of local Identity in local 44 social movement (example)  Example 「反貪污、捉葛柏」 (Fight Corruption, Catch Godber)  Peter Fitzroy Godber (1922-), former Chief Superintendent of the Royal Hong Kong Police Force.  Before retirement, had amassed HKD 4.3 million.  Fled to UK in 1973 when the police anti- corruption branch investigated his mysterious wealth.  Escape led to a public outrage over the integrity of the police. HD: Reflection of local 45 Identity in local social movement (example) Hong Kong Identity in the 46 1970s: a quick sketch  With an expanding economy  market mentality dominated identity formation.  Grassroot: hard working (Lion Rock Spirit in the series Below the Lion Rock 獅子山下, RTHK 1972 onward) + entrepreneurship  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=edrmgTqw5G 0  HK as a better prospects for attainment of an affluent life – HK identity = ‘pride’ (Public Housing = HKID)  Careful construction of identity : British concern - mass migration?  Consolidation of Chinese History as an independent compulsory subject (1974 onward) (Kan 2007)  47 Part IV – Boundary dissolving: Re-discovering the connection (1980s- 1997) SD: STRONG HK IDENTITY IN HEYDAY (1980S-1997)? HD: THE MALLEABLE / ‘MARKET DRIVEN’ ‘HK IDENTITY’? Phase 4 – 1980-1997 48 ‘Immediate repatriation’ for illegal immigrants  ‘Touch Base’ abolished on 24 October, 1980 with 3 days grace period.  All late comers (Chinese) repatriated immediately to mainland China.  Made it compulsory for HK residents to carry Identity Cards in public areas.  Governor Murray MacLehose visited Beijing on March 29, 1979 http://www.6thgurkhas.org/website/regiment-history/1977-1994 SD: 1980s-1997 - heyday of 49 HK identity?  HD: The malleable / ‘market 50 driven’ ‘HK identity’?  Actually, “rediscovery” of the mainland China  Economic reform in China in the 1980s-, more exchange and interaction   Pride of HK identity at the time (as a relatively more developed area in the 1980s)  1979: Governor Murray MacLehose visited China  Concern of Hong Kong’s political future  Did not trigger decolonization process, as in 1972, UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 2908 (by a vote of 99-5), which led to the two cities being removed from the UN list of non-self-governing territories.  Sino-British negotiations over future of HK HD: The malleable / ‘market 51 driven’ ‘HK identity’?  Eclipse of local identity  “Flexiblecitizenship”  shop your nationality, e.g. through emigration.  >1% of population emigrating from HK to overseas: The “Astronauts” phenomenon and HK cultural community in overseas.  Vs. sojourner in Pearl River Delta (PRD) – transforming ‘spatiality’ influenced how a pragmatic national identity emerged (Mathews, Ma and Lui 2008, chapter 6)  52 June Fourth Incident HD: The malleable / 53 ‘market driven’ ‘HK identity’?  By the 80s, rapid rise of citizenship and demand for political participation.  Embattled quest for democracy in Hong Kong.  The 1989 June Fourth Movement prompted a convergence of pro-democracy movements for Hong Kong AND mainland China.  A convergence of identities : reflected also in donations during the Eastern China flood of 1991 (華東水災).  Meanwhile, an unique ‘Hong Kongness’ cultural diaspora expanded in overseas in the 1990s with the emigration trend.  54 Wah Sing Ku (古華勝), played by Jet Li "In Hong Kong, you'd be dead!". https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=HQi4Rk9KT5A HD: The malleable / ‘market 55 driven’ local ‘HK identity’?  Hong Kong identity, though emerged from local context, was not infrequently connected to events happening in mainland China up until the 1990s.  Between 1970s and 1980s, the Hong Kong identity was shaped by a mirror image of mainland.  Antagonism remains, though, partly due to a fear of the capitalist society’s old way of life under threat (Mathews, Ma and Lui 2008, chapter 6)  How about towards 1997 Handover? HD: The malleable / ‘market 56 driven’ ‘HK identity’?  Conflict 1: Coexistence of pro-China sentiments and sceptics sentiments, as China politics were seen as the issues on both sides of the Shenzhen River.  Conflict 2: Some wished to take advantage of economic opportunities in China, despite a distancing of, if not antagonistic towards, its political aspects.  It was thus argued local HK identity is ‘malleable’ and ‘market driven’ – often depends on one’s social position (note, not education standard).  57 Part V – Conclusion: Boundary re-boot: Consolidation or fragmentation of identity? SD: HK IDENTITY TRIGGERED BY MAINLAND CHINA-HK TWO WAY INTEGRATION HD: INCREASING COMPLEXITY OF HK IDENTITY – POST-MATERIALIST VALUE, GLOBALIZATION VS. NATION STATE, AND LOCALISM SD: HK Identity solely triggered by58 mainland china-HK two way Integration? (e.g. parallel traders) http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/economy/article/1859572/parallel-traders- back-hong-kong-towns-mainland-chinese  Strengthening of local 59 identity Strengthened Local identity Ways of doing things: habits, Local institutions, concerns: Perceived new culture political threat by movement locals and organization Backdrop: Increasing distrust 60 towards local government  Economy: Asian Financial Crisis in 1997.  Large scale demonstration in 2003 over government policies.  Tung Chee-hwa (head of HKSAR) vs. Anson Chan (head of civil servant)  political and policy stalemate.  Soaring property prices, and people commonly attributed to “developers’ hegemony” (collusion between capitalists and bureaucrats). HD: increasing complexity of 61 local HK Identity - post- materialist value  As HK becomes post‐industrial society, Hong Kong’s ‘Core Value’ – increasingly becomes the source of identity construction after 1997.  Ordered and orderly society: rationalized and institutionalized  Rule of law : Independent and impartial judiciary  Efficient and relatively transparent civil service  Freedom of speech  Environmental protection  Open economy and fair opportunity HD: increasing complexity of 62 HK Identity - post-materialist value) E.g. Conservation of Queen's pier protest (2007) Along with other urban movements, can be seen as a one response to increasing financialization of the economy after 1990s neoliberalist globalization Indigenization HD: increasing complexity of HK63 Identity - post-materialist value E.g. Anti-Hong Kong Express Rail Link movement  HD: increasing complexity of HK Identity – 64 globalization further weakened identification with a nation state, yet, also strengthened re-tribalism or neo-tribalism (with weakened institutions, emerging networks-like social relationships) Protest at Sheung Shui Station against parallel- Image Source: CNN good traders at 15 Sep 2012 HD: increasing complexity of local 65 HK Identity – stalemate in the further development of democracy  Example: 2014 Umbrella Movement and related social unrest.  Result 1: younger generations increasingly distanced from political movement in mainland (local oriented).  Result 2: decentralized protests – less influenced by local traditional pan- democratic parties (these parties, while disagree in politics, still identify with Chinese nationality).  Result 3: a (global and local) turn towards embracing the populist discourse (left  right) HD: increasing complexity of HK 66 Identity – the increasingly radicalized local identity  ‘Identity’ is a continual process of social construction.  Local Hong Kong Identities – become highly fragmented and a self-sustaining source of social and political conflicts.  The Fugitive Offenders and Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Legislation Bill 2019 triggered massive protests.  Will groups conflict consolidate group identity?  Will social mobilization increasingly based on radical local identity?  Local Identity National Identity 67 ~1945 Colonial Local Identity Nationalist Chinese Identity ~1945 Ideological Chinese Identity ~1967 1970- Populist local Identity 1989 Democratic Chinese Identity / Conservative Chinese Identity 1989- 2003 Cultural HK Identity Conservative Chinese 2003 Identity / Pragmatic Chinese 2003 Radical Local Identity Identity / Liberalized Chinese Identity (migrants) Conclusion 68  Colonial myth of HK as “apolitical” society not a useful description of HK in the past or now.  The development of local identity matched with local and regional social and political changes. The complex interaction and relations between HK and mainland China formed the bases of identification and identity.  Post 1997: Nation vs. market oriented identity formation? But market cannot exist without nation (Karl Polanyi 1944)  Polanyi asked : what are the impact of the expansion of a ‘national’ market on a local society?  More recent events: consolidation or fragmentation of local Hong Kong identities?  Sociological imagination – history (generations, events), society (parent’s occupational / migration status) and biography influence one’s identity formation?